Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy

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VOLUME XXXI

SECTION 1

DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., Lrp.
LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
1911-1915

A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF

CLARE ISLAND

IN THE COUNTY OF MAYO, [IRELAND

ANID) Qi" Weald AIDA OIBNIONE: IDSA MewlOre

SECTION 1

(COMPRISING PARTS 1 10 16)

INTRODUCTION. ARCHAEOLOGY. IRISH NAMES.
AGRICULTURE. CLIMATOLOGY. GEOLOGY.
iB OAVAINNS

DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., LTD.
LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
1911-1915

PrInTED AT THE

By Poxsonsy & GIBBS

CONTENTS

OF SECTION 1.

GeyeraL Inrropuction anp Narrative. By R. Ll. Praeger. Plates I-IX, . oe
History anp Arcuagotocy. By T. J. Westropp. Plates I-X, 2
Prace-Names anp Famity Names. By John Mac Neill, 3
Gartic Prant anp Anmmat Names. By N. Colgan, 4
Acricutture. By Prof. James Wilson, 5
Cumatotocy. By W.J. Lyons. Plates I-II, 6
Grotocy. By T. Hallissy. Plates I-VI, Coloured Map, 7
Tree-Growty. By A.C. Forbes. Plates I-II, 9
PHANEROGAMIA AND Preripopuyra. By R. Ll. Praeger. Plates I-VI, . 10
Muscr anp Hepaticar. By Rey. Canon Lett, . : ‘ 5 : 11-12
Funer. By Carleton Rea and Sir H. C, Hawley. Plate I, 13
Lronenes. By Miss Annie Lorrain Smith,

Atcgar—Maring. By A. D. Cotton. Plates I-XI, 15
Aucar—Fresu-water. By William West. Plates I-II, 16

Nore.—Part 8, which was to have dealt with the Peat deposits, will not be published.

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ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA TO SECTION 1.

2—HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY.

Page 2, line 6, add where they now appear, vol. xl, pp. 51, 101, 185;
vol xliv, pp. 67, 297, 317.

Page 6, line 11, for one read two exceptions.

Page 13, correct confusion between Ui Mhaille and Umail.

Page 17, line 20, for Mr. Lloyd read Professor Mac Neill.

Page 17, line 27, for month of the flat moor read mouth of the cave, and
correct name to Ooghgubanoomeen.

Page 18, several names should be revised from Professor Mac Neill’s list,
Part 3.

Page 20, add DuUNTRAGHA as alternative to Duntraneen. It is “ Doontraue”
on Bald’s map, 1815, which gives the other forts as Doonalla, Doon-
cloak, and Doon Ougheniska.

Page 31, line 32, add paintings and diapers in red and green still remain well
preserved in the sedilia of the Franciscan Church, Adare.

Page 57, for Rooduff read Roonduff.

Page 59, line 16, for Ferguson read Wilde.

T. J. WESTROPP.

4.—GAELIC PLANT AND ANIMAL NAMES.

Through the kindness of Professor John MacNeill I am enabled to
supplement here the confessedly incomplete lists of Gaelic Plant and
Animal Names given in Part 4 of this Survey by the results of inquiries
carried on by him in Clare Island subsequent to the date of my visits in 1909
and 1910. It will be seen that the additions here made refer chiefly to the
birds of the island. Almost all of these additional bird-names were supplied
by Patrick Toole, an Ivish-speaking islander aged seventy-one years, and in
their collection Professor MacNeill was assisted by the late Mr. R. J.. Ussher,
then engaged in working out the ornithology of the district. In publishing
this supplement I take the opportunity of embodying some material collected
by myself in September, 1911, at Louisburgh and in its neighbourhood, or
the mainland opposite to Clare Island, these additions being distinguished by
the initials N.C. Where no station is mentioned the name is to be taken as
current in Clare Island.

vlil Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Birp NAMES.

Caitlesé dub, Phalacrocorax carbo Linn., Cormorant.

Coiplin, Saxicola oenanthe (Linn.), Wheatear.

Caiplin ceann vub, Pratincola rubicola (Linn.), Stonechat.

C4n6g, Pufinus anglorwm (Temm.), Manx Shearwater.

Ceayic Fy10015, Lagopus scoticus (Latham), Grouse.

Colum, Columba livia, J. F. Gmel., Rock Dove.

Copp psnercos, Ardea cinerea Linn., Heron.

Chpeabop cooé, Scolopax rusticula Linn., Woodcock.

Cypopdn, Alea torda Linn., Razorbill.

Cyotoé, Numenius arquata {1 inn.), Curlew.

Cinttpesacdn, Fratercula arctica (Linn.), Puffin.

Opiedilin an espbuis, Regulus cristatus R. L. Koch, Gold-crested Wren.

Onur, : | Sturnus vulgaris Linn., Starling.

Oju10e65, | =

Foorle nop, Larus marinus Linn., Great Black-backed Gull.

Fooitesc,, Phalacrocoraz carbo (Linn.), Cormorant.

Fes06s, Charadrius pluvialis (Linn.), Plover.

Filbin, Vanellus vulgaris Bechst., Lapwing. Also round Louisburgh. In
the town of Louisburgh it occurs as a personal name over two shop
fronts. —N.C.

Fopecés, Uria troile (Linn.), Guillemot.

Fuipeos, Alauda arvensis Linn., Sky-Lark.

Sollin, Lmberiza miliaria Linn., Corn Bunting.

lols, Aguila chrysaétus (Linn.), Golden Eagle.

Lonoub, Turdus merula Linn., Blackbird.

Meanntsn, Anthus pratensis (Linn.), Meadow Pipit.

Muipéxo, Lagopus scoticus (latham), Grouse.

Noors, Gallinago coelestis (Frenzel), Snipe.

Pynscon oud, ) Corvus frugilegus Linn., Rook. The second name is suggested

Pp. Murpupce, | by the fact that the rooks usually come to Clare Island
from Murrisk on the coast of the opposite mainland.

Roilles¢, Haematopus ostralegus Linn., Oyster-catcher.

Rusdan,

R. salle,

Seaboc, Falco pereyrinus Tunstall, Peregrine Falcon.

Usspoun, Sula bassana (Linn.), Gannet.

Falco tinnunculus Linn., Kestrel.

Clare Island Survey—Section 1. 1x

PLrant NAMES.

Domne b6 blipedn, Primula vulgaris Huds., Primrose. At Roonah: N.C.

Days, Alnus glutinosa Gaertn., Alder. General round J.ouisburgh, where
the bark of the tree is mixed with Sipseao Luséa (Meadow Sweet) te
make a black dye: N.C.

Dioljia, Nasturtium officinale Br., Water Cress.

Duséatlan ban, Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum (Linn.) (Dog Daisy) and
Matricaria inodora Linn. (Sea Chamomile). Also applied to Artemisia
vulgaris. See Part 4.

Cappoisin, Chondrus crispus Linn., Carrageen, or Irish Moss.

Ceannabson, Hriophorum polystachion Linn., Cotton Sedge.

Coiseatl no mbon Side, The Banshee’s Distaff, Typha latifolia Linn., Reed
Mace. Round Louisburgh, where I was told the fruiting head was a
“grand strop for a razor.” The same name, transposed to Deon ye
coiseal, is applied to this plant in Co. Dublin: WC.

Cops cappdige, Vicia Cracca Linn., Wild Vetch.

Cpestnaé, Rhodymenia palmata Linn., Dillisk. Also at Roonith on the main-
land. This name is applied only to the young plant growing amongst
dwarf mussels (Oublicin), on rocks near low-water mark: N.C.

Cabos bés, Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum Linn., Dog Daisy.

Fourdp no meoarde, Dogs’ Fifes, Heracleum Sphondyliwm Vinn., Cow
Parsnip.

Feanbsn, Potentilla Anserina Linn., Silver Weed. Also used in parts of
Co. Dublin, but in West Iveland commonly applied to Ranunculus
repens: N.C.

Fotannan min, Soft Thistle, Sonchus oleraceus Linn., Sowthistle. Clare
Island and round Louisburgh. So called, as a Louisburgh man told me,
“because it’s a kind thistle”: N.C.

Sasdine, Gaudy Spear. Applied to the Yellow Iris, or Selliptyuns, when
in flower. The word 541ne was thus explained by Pat Toole: Ruv oy
bit oes feicedla, cd pe ino SAine.

Mucoi, Hips, or fruit, of the Wild Rose, Rosa canina. Commonly used
round Louisburgh. In East Ireland, in Dublin and Louth, it appears in
the form Johnny McGorey : 1V.C.

ERRATUM.
Part 4, p.15. For Téenasapantas read Té no ngappantai.

NavrwanieL CoiGan.

x Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

10.—PHANEROGAMIA AND PTERIDOPHYTA.

The observations of the ornithologists, carried out and published since the
date of this report, throw light on the question of bird migration into Clare
Island. They show that in hard weather large influxes of birds take place
(see Part 20, p. 3). The remarks on this point on pp. 85, 86 of my report
therefore need modification. Itis clear that the influence of birds in bringing
seeds into Clare Island is greater than I had assumed on the evidence
available at the time.

As regards the question of the dispersal of seeds by water (Part 10,
pp. 60-62), a body of detailed evidence regarding the power of floating in
water of seeds will be found in my paper “On the Buoyancy of the Seeds of
some Britannic Plants,” Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., N.S. xiv, No. 3 (1913).
Here are given the results of experiments on the floating power of the seeds
of some 800 species, undertaken as a continuation of the Clare Island study
of dispersal. The result confirms the estimate originally made by Darwin,
that about 10 per cent of a flora have seeds capable of floating.

R. Luoyp PRAEGER.
15.—MARINE ALGAE.
ERRATA.
p. 95 Myriactis stellata, Batt., should read Myriactis stellulata, Batt.
p. 124 Aerothrix mirabilis, Kylin, should read Aerothriz gracilis, Kylin
(as listed on p. 96), throughout the paragraph.
ADDENDA.

There are no additions or corrections to be made to the list of species
published, but two recent papers bearing on the Clare Island fiora may be
noted.

LEMOINE, P. ‘ Mélobésiées de Ouest de l’Irlande” (Nouv. Arch. Mus.
Hist. Nat. v, 1915, pp. 121-145). Here the authoress deals in further detail
with the Clare Island Melobesieae reported on by her in 1912 (see Part 15,
pp. 145-151), the anotomical structure of the more interesting species being
described at length and illustrated.

Corton, A. D. “The distribution of certain British Algae ” (Journ. Bot. lii.
1914, pp. 35-40). With the help of this note, which deals with the coast-line
of the West of England and Wales, a more accurate statement can be made
than was possible in 1912 with regard to the distribution in the British Isles
of the interesting algae Pilota plumosa, Callithamnion arbuscula, and Codium
mucronatum var. atlanticum. There is still no evidence that the last-named
occurs in England or Wales,

A, D. Corroy,

PROC. R. I. ACAD., VOL. XXXTI. RAR se ICAiE ale

BAT Bb Fe»

R. Welch, photo London Stereoscopic Co.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY—CROAGHMORE FROM THE NORTH-EAST.

Clare Island Survey.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND NARRATIVE.
By R. LLOYD PRAEGER. |

Prates I-IX.
Read June 22, 1914. Published Apriu 15, 1915.

ISLANDS and their animal and plant inhabitants have a special interest for
the naturalist. The study of their fauna and flora raises at once questions
of fundamental biological importance, especially with regard to the sources
from which their population has been derived, the means by which that
population reached its present habitat, and the effects of isolation upon
the flora and fauna in their island home. Thus it comes about that the
problem of insular populations has attracted the attention of the most
eminent biologists, many of whom have given close attention to this study—
for instance, Alphonse de Candolle, Edward Forbes, Charles Darwin, Alfred
Russel Wallace, Sir J. D. Hooker. Thus, also, we find that in recent years
many notable works on the flora and fauna of islands have been published,
narrating, in most cases, the results of special expeditions sent out for the
purpose of studying the animals and plants of selected insular areas, and
inquiring into their relationships and origin. Places so far apart as Christmas
Island; Anticosti,” Krakatau,? Funafuti,t the Faeroes,’ and the subantarctic
islands of New Zealand,° have been monographed thus in recent years.

Most of these islands are far removed from any other land, thus accentu-
ating the interest which centres round the question of the arrival of the
organisms which colonize them, and their subsequent behaviour. But even
in the case of islands which are separated by but a narrow barrier of sea
from adjoining areas, similar important problems arise. A study of the
dispersal of animals and plants across comparatively narrow stretches of
sea must undoubtedly throw much light on the problem of their passage

A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). London: British Museum, 1900.

Joseph Scumirr: Monographie de 1l’Ile Anticosti (Golfe Saint-Laurent). Paris, 1904.

A. Ernst: The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau. Cambridge, 1908.

he Atoll of Funafuti, Ellice Group. Sydney: Australian Museum, 1896-7.

Botany of the Faerdes, based upon Danish investigations. Copenhagen, &c., 1901-8.

6 C. Cuitton : ‘he Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand, vols. i-ii. Wellington, N. Z., 1909.

R.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. A 1

op Oo N

iL @ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

across wider barriers; and in islands which may have been joined with
adjoining areas in comparatively recent times, we may hope to find some
beginnings of that differentiation and specialization which are so remarkable
a feature of the natural history of oceanic islands. Besides, the close
examination of any island is sure to yield important contributions to the
biology of the larger region of which it forms a part; especially since, on
account of the limitation of area, an intensive study results which is often
specially productive among those more obscure and difficult groups which
are apt to be neglected when, on a larger area, a rich fauna and flora
prevail.

It was considerations such as these, as well as the interest attending
the exploration, a few years earlier, of the island of Lambay, off the coast
of county Dublin,! which led to the suggestion early in 1908 that an
organized natural history survey should be carried out on one of the islands
lying off the west coast of Ireland. Following on this, a meeting of Irish
naturalists, summoned by cireular sent to persons likely to be interested, was
held in the National Museum in Dublin, on April 13, 1908. At this meeting
Clare Island was selected as the scene of operations, and the following were
appointed a committee to carry owt the work:—Dr. R. F. Scharff (Chairman),
R. M. Barrington, N. Colgan, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, Rev. Canon Lett, and
R. Lloyd Praeger (Secretary). The selection of Clare Island was influenced
by its suitable size, position, and unusual elevation as compared with most
of the western islands ; it lay sufficiently far off the coast to raise interesting
problems as to the immigration of its fauna and flora, but not so far as to
introduce delay and expense to the working parties owing to precarious
communication with the mainland; also it was possible on Clare Island
to procure accommodation for working parties without outlay on building.
With the kind permission of the Congested Districts Board, a large shed
close to the harbour and little hotel was fitted up as a laboratory.

Owing to the British Association meeting in Dublin in the autumn of
1908, work on the island was not commenced until the following spring.
After the latter date, parties of workers, numbering from six to sixteen, were
sent down at about monthly intervals between April and September. In
addition, a large number of workers visited the island separately, and there
was no month of the year during which observations of some kind were not
carried out. It had been agreed to work the adjoining mainland and islands
so far as time and opportunity permitted, and also to include in the scope of

’ Contributions to the Natural History of Lambay, County Dublin. ‘Irish Naturalist,” xvi,
pp. 1-112, plates i-xxv, 1907.

Clare Island Survey—General Introduction and Narrative. 1 3

the survey the marine area surrounding Clare Island; this led to a frequent
wide dispersal of workers over the district stretching from Achill to Killary,
and from Clare Island to Castlebar. The limit of the district was extended
as far eastward as Castlebar, in order to bring in, for comparative purposes,
a piece of the limestone country of the Central Plain of Ireland. The chief
centres used for work on the mainland were Achill Sound, Westport, Belclare,
and Louisburgh. Achill Island was worked for many groups. Inishturk,
Caher Island, and Inishbofin were worked for Mollusca, Phanerogamia,
Archaeology, &c.; and some outlying rocks difficult to approach, such as The
Bills and Mweelaun, were also visited. In the marine area much shore-
collecting was carried out on Clare Island and round Clew Bay and Achill
Sound ; and dredging operations, otherwise carried on from open boats, were
much advanced by several visits of the Fisheries steamer “ Helga.”

It is worthy of mention that the authors of the whole series of reports
have themselves visited and worked in the district—a fact which adds
materially to the value of their remarks on the distributional and ecological
problems involved.

The best thanks of the Committee are due to various public bodies who
in practical ways assisted the researches both on the island and on the main-
land; they would like in this connexion to mention especially the Congested
Districts Board, the Fisheries Branch of the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction, and the Irish Lights Commissioners. By arranging
for a detailed examination of the island as regards both its solid and surface
geology, during the period of our survey, the Director of the Geological Survey
of Ireland supplied us with a mass of important evidence bearing on questions
related to local biology, and furnished the materials for the geological
description of the island which forms part of the present series. Thanks are
also due to the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and the Keeper of the
Botanical Collections in the British Museum, for facilitating visits by members
of their staffs who took part in our work; and to the Director of the National
Museum in Dublin for help in the way of apparatus and material. ‘To a
large number of private persons, also, the Committee’s thanks are due for
facilitating in one way or another the work of the last six years; and they
would also thank the numerous scientific men who, on their invitation, threw
themselves so energetically into the work of the Survey; the reports which
they have furnished are themselves the best proof of the success of their
efforts.

Generous grants of money made to the Committee at various times by the
Royal Irish Academy, the British Association (administered by a committee
consisting of Professor T. Johnson (Chairman), Professor G. A. J. Cole,

A2

1 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Dr. R. F. Scharff, A. G. Tansley, and R. Lloyd Praeger (Secretary)), the Royal
Society of London, and the Royal Dublin Society, helped materially to defray
the cost of the Survey, and, in the case of the Royal Society, the cost of
publication.

A brief account of the field-work is now given.

NARRATIVE OF THE FIELD-WORK.
1909.)

The field-work opened at Easter, when a party of seven, namely
Major Barrett-Hamilton (Mammals), J. Bayley Butler (Protozoa), A. D.
Cotton (Marine Algae), Arthur Skinner (Photography, &c.), A. W. Stelfox
(Mollusca), Isaac Swain (Geology), and R. Ll. Praeger (Phanerogams), spent
five to eight days upon the island. In the groups of Seaweeds and Terrestrial
Mollusks especially good progress was made not only on the island, but
subsequently on the mainland adjoining. H. Bassett and W. L. Hicks, both
of Liverpool University, members of a cave-exploring party who had been
working at Cong, joined the party before the week was out, and reinforced
the photographic detachment.

The May party was small, consisting of Nevin H. Foster (Birds),
Rey. Canon Lett (Mosses and Liverworts), R. Southern (Worms), and the
writer. In all the groups mentioned good lists and collections were made
on the island, and subsequently in the surrounding district, where Canon Lett
worked Achill and Curraun, and Mr. Foster the Louisburgh area; while the
welcome arrival of the Fisheries steamer “Helga” gave Mr. Southern an
opportunity of dredging in the local waters in company with G. P. Farran,
S. W. Kemp, and W. M. Tattersall, who were on board; the result being
considerable collections of marine animals. Great progress was made during
May with the Mosses and Liverworts, as Canon Lett was reinforced by
W. H. Pearson from Manchester and the Rev. C. H. Waddell from Co. Down,
and among them much exploration was carried out.

Early in June a party of ten went to the island, including J. N. Halbert
(Insects, &c.), W. F. de V. Kane (Lepidoptera, &c.), C. F. Rousselet (Rotifera),
D. J. Scourtield (Entomostraca), R. IF’. Scharff (Mollusca, Woodlice, &c.), and
R. Li. Praeger. As regards insects, the prevalence of cloud and wind during
the visit caused very little to be on the wing, Lepidoptera being especially
few; but good collections of beetles, &e., were made. On leaving the island
after a five days’ sojourn, the majority of the party worked the Achill Sound
district.

' Portion of a Report laid before the Royal Irish !.cademy, 8th November, 1909, and published in
the ‘‘ Irish Naturalist,’’ December, 1909.

Clare Island Survey—General Introduction and Narrative. 1 5

On June 19 Miss Knowles went west to collect Lichens and Flowering
Plants, and spent a fortnight in the Louisburgh and Westport districts, and
on the island.

Two parties were organized in July. The first one, crossing on July 8,
included D. R. Pack-Beresford, who worked the Spiders, first of the island,
and subsequently of the Mulranny neighbourhood; Prof. J. Wilson, who
studied the agricultural conditions of the island, past and present; and the
writer, who pushed on with a vegetation map. The second party, crossing
on July 16, included F. Balfour-Browne (Water-beetles), A. D. Cotton (Sea-
weeds), N. Colgan (Marine Mollusca), J. de W. Hinch (Glacial Geology),
A. W. Hill (Botany), W. F. de V. Kane (Lepidoptera), A. R. Nichols
(Polyzoa, &e.), and Miss J. Stephens (Sponges, &c.).

The marine fauna and flora received much attention during this trip ;
considerable collections were made, and some inshore dredging was carried
out by N. Colgan and R. Ll. Praeger. Messrs. Balfour-Browne, Kane, Cotton,
and Colgan subsequently carried out further work around Louisburgh and
Westport; and Miss Stephens, revisiting the district almost immediately
explored the shores of Achill, Belclare, and Louisburgh.

At the end of July we were fortunate in securing the assistance of ©
Dr. Eugene Penard, of Geneva, the well-known authority on the Rhizopoda.
He spent a week in the district, collecting on the island, and in the Louisburgh
and Achill neighbourhoods.

On August 20a strong party went to the island for a week’s work, chietly
at the flora. It included Sir H. C. Hawley (Fungi), J. Adams (Marine Algae),
Rev. Canon Lett (Mosses and Hepatics) ; also Dr. Otto Stapf of Kew and
Miss Saunders of Newnham College ; the late Dr. G. Fogertyand T. J. Westropp
(Archaeology), W. Rankin (Crustacea), and the writer. The “Helga” came
in on August 23, with G. P. Farran and 8S. W. Kemp on board, and, joined
by Messrs. Rankin, Adams, and Praeger, three days were devoted to dredging.
Messrs. Westropp and Fogerty were successful in their antiquarian work,
and their results form an interesting chapter of the Report. A preliminary
survey of the fungus flora was made, and dredging added some important
species to the list of Algae already made by A. D. Cotton. Sir Henry Hawley
subsequently worked the Westport district for Fungi.

Early in September the last expedition of the year was sent down. The
late G. W. Chaster, Edward Collier, A. W. Stelfox, R. Welch, and J. N. Milne
worked Achill Sound, Clare Island (especially), Louisburgh, Westport, and
thence to Castlebar. Land and fresh-water Mollusca particularly engaged
their attention, but many insects, &c., were also collected, and Mr. Welch
secured a fine series of photographs on the island. D. M‘Ardle, who went

1 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

down with them, spent ten days working the Mosses and Hepatics of the
island and of the Louisburgh district.

During the season the geology of the island engaged the attention of the
staff of the Geological Survey. J. R. Kilroe, R. Clark, and T. Hallissy were
all at work, and the revision of the “solid” map, as well as new drift and soil
maps, was pushed forward.

1910.

The first working party of 1910 took the field at Easter, which fell in the
last week of March. F. Balfour-Browne and A. W. Stelfox worked for Water-
beetles and Mollusca respectively in the Louisburgh, Westport, and Achill
districts, the latter subsequently proceeding to Belmullet. On the island
W. J. Lyons set up meteorological instruments, Prof. C. J. Patten studied
the Birds, and R. L]. Praeger completed his vegetation map. All returned in
about a week. On March 31 F. J. Lewis commenced his work on the peats
of the district, and spent ten days on the north side of Clew Bay, camping
out in very severe weather.

A special Clew Bay marine party took up their quarters at Belclare from
May 6 until May 12, and devoted a tempestuous and bitterly cold week to
shore-collecting and dredging. N. Colgan added considerably to his list of
Marine Mollusca; Miss Stephens collected Sponges; A. R. Nichols, Polyzoa ;
W. Rankin, Decapoda; and Miss M‘Nab and R. LI. Praeger rendered general
assistance. In addition to the groups mentioned, a good deal of collecting
was done in a number of other groups.

The Fresh-water Algae of the island were worked on May 14-22 by
the late William West, who also made valuable collections of Lichens and
Bryophytes.

On June 6, Rev. W. F. Johnson and Mrs. Johnson went west, and carried
out nearly four weeks’ insect-collecting in the Achill and Mulranny districts.
They were joined two days later by W.F. de V. Kane and T. Greer, who
did a week’s work at Lepidoptera at Achill Sound befure crossing to the
island.

Prof. Cole and T. Hallissy examined the geology, and especially the
glacial features, of the district between Westport and Achill, on June 14-15,
when, after a day’s work on the island, they visited the Louisburgh district.

On June 16 a large party crossed to the island, comprising A. D. Cotton
(Marine Algae), A. C. Forbes (Forestry), T. Greer and W. F. de V. Kane
(Lepidoptera), H. Wallis Kew (Pseudoscorpiones, &c.), Paul Kuckuck (Marine

1 Portion of a Report laid before the Royal Irish Academy, 17th February, 1911, and published
in the “ Irish Naturalist,’’ April, 1911.

Clare Island Survey—General Introduction and Narrative. 1 7

Algae), Pastor Carl Lindner and the late R. J. Ussher (Birds), W. J. Lyons
(Meteorology), R. Welch (Photography), and R. Ll. Praeger. Much collecting
and observing were done. Mr. Kane left on June 20 for a fortnight’s
collecting round Louisburgh and Belclare, and Mr. Ussher and Herr Lindner
on the same day sailed to Belclare to join N. H. Foster, who had arrived
there three days previously, in studying the breeding birds of the Clew Bay
islands and Belclare district. he majority of the rest of the party returned
from the island at the end of a week, A. D. Cotton remaining there until
June 24, when he proceeded to J.ouisburgh for a week’s work in company
with J. Adams, who had arrived there on the 22nd. Indeed, during June
our workers pervaded the whole district.

In July also much work was done, especially in the domain of entomology.
J. N. Halbert went to Louisburgh on July 1 for a fortnight’s insect-collect-
ing. He was joined on the 12th by Claude Morley, who worked there at
Hymenoptera until the 20th, when he crossed to the island in order to join
Percy EH. Grimshaw (Diptera), N. Colgan (Marine Mollusca), Miss Stephens
(Sponges), Miss Knowles (Lichens, &c.), Rev. Canon Lett (Mosses and
Hepatics), F. J. Lewis (Peat deposits), and R. Ll. Praeger. At the close of
a busy week the party broke up. P. E. Grimshaw collected at Achill,
Mulranny, and Westport for some days longer, and N. Colgan examined
the Mulranny shores. Miss Stephens and Miss Knowles worked southwards
into Connemara. During this month also Prof. C. J. Patten spent a fortnight
investigating the local birds.

On August 15, in very tempestuous weather, a small party took the
field:—T. J. Westropp (Archaeology), N. Colgan (Marine Mollusca), W. J.
Lyons (Meteorology), and R. Ll. Praeger. It was two days before they
succeeded in crossing to the island, but the time was not wasted. Achillbeg
and the coast east and west of it were explored, some interesting and hitherto
unknown cliff-forts and kitchen-middens being discovered. The Fisheries
steamer “Helga” arrived at the island on the 16th, with G. P. Farran,
L. EK. Smith, and R. Southern on board, and, joined by Colgan and Praeger,
several days’ dredging and trawling were accomplished, in spite of loss of
gear owing to rough weather.

Meanwhile W. A. Wattam arrived from Huddersfield on August 20, and
in a fortnight’s work made large collections of Lichens, with Achill Sound
and Dugort as headquarters. Rev. W. F. Johnson and Mrs. Johnson paid a
second visit to the district in September, collecting insects on the island for
a fortnight, and at Achill Sound for a week. Rev. Canon Lett also revisited
Achill Sound, and finished his collecting there. Prof. Patten revisited the
island from September 9 to 29, and studied the autumnal migration of birds,

18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

On October 2 a strong Cryptogamic party crossed to the island, com-
prising Sir H. C. Hawley (Fungi), A. D. Cotton {Marine Algae), Miss A.
Lorrain Smith (Lichens and Fungi), Miss Beatrice Taylor (Lichens), and
Miss Knowles (Lichens); the party also included Miss Stephens (Sponges)
and R. Ll. Praeger. Four to six days’ collecting was done on the island by
the various members, after which they scattered; and the Achill Sound,
Louisburgh, Belclare, Westport, and Castlebar districts all received
attention.

A late fungus foray was carried out during the third week in November
by Carleton Rea, accompanied for two days by R. LI. Praeger. Operations
were hampered at the beginning by snow lying on the ground, but this soon
passed away, and a good list of the later kinds was made, including no less
than thirty species new to the Irish flora.

The last visit of the season was made by Prof. Patten, who crossed to the
island on December 27 to spend a week in studying the winter avifauna.

19111

The third season’s field-work began early. A. D. Cotton went west on
February 13 to study the winter Alga flora at Louisburgh and Achill Sound.
He was followed on March 7 by G. H. Wailes and the late James Murray.
The latter spent a week in collecting Bdelloid Rotifera and Arctiscoida in
Achill, Clare Island, and the Louisburgh district. Mr. Wailes took up his
residence on Clare Island, and remained there till June 3 working at the
Rhizopoda, and collecting not only on Clare Island, but in Achill, at Roonah,
and on Caher Island, Inishturk, and Inishbofin, the result beimg one of the
most complete lists of Rhizopods ever formed for a single district. He was
joined for a few days in March by R. M. Barrington, who studied the Birds
of the island.

On April 13 J. S. Dunkerly and G. O. Sherrard went down for a week,
and, using Belclare as headquarters, collected Infusoria and Nematodes
respectively.

The first combined party of the season left Dublin for the island on
April 27. It included Sir H. C. Hawley (Fungi), A. D. Cotton and Dr. F.
Bérgesen of Copenhagen (Marine Algae), F. J. Lewis (Peat deposits), R. LI.
Praeger, and several others. While most of the party returned at the end
of a week, A. D. Cotton worked on at Louisburgh and Achill till May 15.

On May 29 Rey. W. F. Johnson and Mrs. Johnson went down, and spent
a month, mainly on the island, collecting insects. In connexion with the

1 Portion of a Report laid before the Royal Irish Academy, 13th November, 1911, and published
in the “‘ frish Naturalist,’ February, 1912,

Clare Island Survey— General Introduction and Nurrative. 1 9

geological survey of the area, Newell Arber spent several days in June
collecting Carboniferous fossils from the sandstones of the north-eastern part
of the island. During the same month C. J. Patten again visited Clare
Island in pursuance of his study of the Birds; and W. West paid a second
visit of ten days’ duration to complete his work on the fresh-water Algae.

A double party was arranged in July. On the 12th of that month Miss
Stephens (Sponges), J. de W. Hinch (Glacial fossils), R. Ll. Praeger, and
others went to the island. Advantage was taken of exceptionally calm weather
to land and collect on Mweelaun, an isolated rock lying two miles south of
Clare Island. This first party was followed five days later by a larger con-
tingent, including R.J. Ussher and Pastor Lindner (Birds), W. F. de V. Kane
(Lepidoptera), T. J. Westropp and the late Dr. G. Fogerty (Archaeology)
Professor G. H. Carpenter (Aptera), J. S. Dunkerly (Infusoria and Flagellata),
A. W. Stelfox (Land and Fresh-water Mollusca), G. O. Sherrard (Nematodes),
and Professor Gwynne Vaughan (Botany); several of these had previously
done some days’ work on Achill. The break-up of the party was gradual,
and while Kane, Dunkerly, Hinch, and Gwynne Vaughan subsequently
worked at Louisburgh or Achill, Westropp, Fogerty, Stelfox, and Praeger
sailed on to Caher Island, Inishturk, and Inishbofin (and Ussher and Lindner
to the latter two), for the purpose of completing their survey by studying
the insular areas adjoining the immediate scene of the main work ; results of
very considerable interest were obtained. In the meantime J. N. Halbert
was collecting insects at Louisburgh, where he was joined by P. H. Grimshaw
(Diptera), and a very good fortnight’s work was carried out in that area.

On August 11 E. Heron-Allen and Arthur Earland arrived at Mulranny
for the purpose of collecting Foraminifera. A.D. Cotton at the same time
paid his final visit for Marine Algae, working first at Achill Sound, and
subsequently on the island. The SS. “Helga,” with G. P. Farran and
R. Southern on board, came in, and dredging was carried on for some days.
After the departure of the steamer further work was done, and the search
for Foraminifera was extended as far south as the famous deposit of Dog’s
Bay near Roundstone.

The especially low spring tides of September were utilized by A. R.
Nichols (Polyzoa) and N. Colgan (Mollusca) for collecting at Louisburgh,
while Miss Stephens (Sponges) and Miss Knowles (Lichens) worked during
the same period with the “Helga” staff at Blacksod; but tempestuous
weather interfered to some extent with their researches.

During the same month D. hk. Pack-Beresford spent a week working at
the Spiders of the district lying between Clew Bay and Killary Harbour.

At the beginning of October Mr. and Mrs. Carleton Rea (Fungi), and

B.I,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. B 1

LO Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Miss Lister (Mycetozoa), went to Westport, where they were joined for two
days by R. Ll. Praeger, and vigorous exploration of the adjoining woods was
carried out for a period of ten days. Miss Stephens was at the same time
at work at fresh-water Sponges in the Newport area. Later, joined
by R. Ll. Praeger, dredging for Sponges, &., was carried out in lakes in the
Louisburgh and Westport areas; owing partly to stormy weather, and partly
to the nature of the lake-bottoms, which generally consisted either of
boulders or deep peat-mud, this work proved difficult and not productive of
much material. The last visit paid to the district during the year was on
November 11, when A. W. Stelfox and R. Ll. Praeger worked at Manulla,
investigating the lake-marls, and making sections of them in order to throw
light on the past history of the Fresh-water Mollusca of the district. This
formed the conclusion of the three years’ field-work.

Although only six years have now elapsed since the commencement of the
Survey work, the death of six of our workers has to be recorded, four of them
being authors of reports in the series which follows. Two of these perished,
one in the Arctic and one in the Antarctic, while engaged on the biological
studies to which their lives had been devoted. Major Gerald E. H. Barrett-
Hamilton died in South Georgia in January, 1914, while carrying out an
investigation, on behalf of the Government, of the whale fisheries of the
southern ocean, and Mr. James Murray was lost, along with the majority of
the scientific staff of the ill-fated Canadian Arctic expedition, after their ship
the “ Karluk” was crushed by the ice near Wrangel Island. We have also
to deplore the loss of Dr. G. W. Chaster of Southport, who assisted with the
Mollusea, &c.; Mr, R. J. Ussher of Cappagh, Co. Waterford, author of the
report on Birds; Mr. William West of Bradford, who reported on the Fresh-
water Algae ;and Dr. George Fogerty of Limerick, who assisted Mr. Westropp
in the archaeological report.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA.

Jn the series of reports which follow the various authors have included
as much descriptive matter relating to the nature of the area as they deemed
necessary in connexion with the particular group or subject with which they
deal. In this Introduction a brief general description of the area will
suffice.

Clare Island lies at about the middle of the great projecting buttress of
ancient rocks which forms west Galway and west Mayo, and which occupies
a position about half-way along the western coast of Ireland. This area is very
mountainous and varied, presenting a wide range of volcanic, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks (all of Palaeozoic age, save for small volcanic

Clare Island Survey— General Introduction and Narrative. 1 11

intrusions), a great variety of scenery, and an extremely broken coast-line
with deep bays, bold headlands, and many outlying islands.’ The highest
hill is Mweelrea (2688 feet), and summits of over 2000 feet are scattered widely
over the district, separated by great tracts of peat-bog and areas of cultivated
land. Heather is the prevailing formation over large areas, and the region
is singularly devoid of trees—the effect of exposure to the westerly winds
which sweep in from the Atlantic. The rivers of the area are small, on account
of the proximity of the watershed to the coast; lakelets, mostly occupying
rock-basins, are numerous.

From Castlebar to the sea at Westport a tongue of limestone occupies the
continuation of the trough which forms Clew Bay. Elsewhere slates, sand-
stones, quartzites, mica-schists, &c., occupy the ground. The district has been
heavily glaciated, and in places cliffs of drift up to 100 feet in height, facing
the sea, attest the former wide extension of thick Glacial deposits. The lime-
stone-filled depression which runs down westward to Clew Bay is choked
with drift-mounds of drumlin type. As these dip below the sea they produce
the archipelago which fills the head of Clew Bay, and further seaward they
continue as a series of shoals. This interesting topography is shown in detail
on Plate VI of Part 7. The seaward edge of this archipelago has been
denuded by wave-action under the influence of westerly gales, and the islets
show every gradation from perfect whale-backed drumlins, through truncated
drumlins facing the sea with high drift-cliffs subtended by great boulder
beaches, to submerged banks of great stones. Plate Il] of Part 7 and
Plate II of the present part show some stages in this process of decay.

As regards climate, thoroughly insular conditions prevail. The mean
temperature of the coldest month (January) is 42°8° F., and of the warmest
(August) 58:2° F. The mean annual rainfall is about 50 inches (much more
in certain places among the mountains), distributed over the unusually high
number of 266 rain-days. These figures refer to Blacksod, at the north end of
the district, where there is a meteorological station. .

Clare Island itself lies across the entrance to Clew Bay, with channels
each of a minimum width of about three miles separating it from the
mainland on the north and the north-east. There is no need to describe the
topography of the island, since that is dealt with from various aspects in
several of the reports. In the illustrations accompanying the present notes
the appearance of the island from several directions is shown, and these
photographs convey a good idea of its topography. Towards the eastern end

' A map of the district surrounding Clare Island is included in the present part, and others will ve
found in Part 64 (Plate I), and Part 67 (Plate I).

12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

is found most of the cultivated land, and here alone stunted trees, both native
and introduced, can grow. Plate I of Part 7 illustrates the general appear-
ance of the island viewed from the north-eastern shore. The western end is
exceedingly bare and storm-swept. A good idea of its appearance is given
by Plate VIII, which is a view looking south-west, showing the neighbouring
island of Inishturk in the background. Almost everywhere the coast is
cliff-bound, the cliffs varying in height from 50-100 feet in the east and
south (see Plate II of Part 7) to 1000 feet in the north-west (see Plate II of
Part 20). The dominating feature of the island is the high ridge of Croagh-
more (1520 feet) on the north-western shore. On the inland (southern) side
Croaghmore presents a steep, heathery slope, and on the seaward face plunges
down in a magnificent precipice into the Atlantic (see Plate I of the present
part; also Part 10, Plate I, and Part 23, Plate 1). This scarp is the home of a
very interesting alpine flora, and proved a productive collecting-ground in
several other groups, such as Land Mollusca. The islands of western Ireland
are all so closely grazed that it is often only on such ground as this that the
less aggressive members of the fauna and flora can find a sanctuary.

The adjoining islands of Inishturk and Inishbofin, which are included in
the present Survey so far as certain groups are concerned, have no such lofty
elevations as Clare Island, but in the general character of their surface they
are similar.

It is not necessary to enlarge here on the nature of the marine area, as this
is dealt with fully in Part 67. It may be stated that mud, sand, gravel,
stones, and rock are all well represented in the district, and that in the
deeper waters gravel and rock form the bottom over the greater part of the
region. For the purposes of the Survey a depth of 50 fathoms was taken as the
seaward limit of the area.

Proc. R. I. Acap., Vor. XXXI. PART 1, PLATE II.

Fic. 1.—Bonlder-clay scarp 90 feet high on sea-
ward face of Dorinish More, Clew Bay, with
boulder beach derived from the drift. Look-

ing south.
W. Rankine, photo.

Fic. 2.—Dorinish Beg from the boulder beach of Dorinish More, Clew Bay, showing
whale-backed island truncated by wave-action from the west. Looking south.
W. Rankine, shore.

Frc. 3.—Low water in Westport Bay. The ‘*Scotch Bonnet,” the last remnant of a denuded
islet. At high water the sea washes the base of the scarp. Typical whale-backed islands
in the background. Looking N.W.

W. Rankine, phofo.
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER: INTRODUCTION.

‘

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Proc. R. I. Acab., VoL. XXXI. PART 1, PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—Clare Island from Roonah. Kinnacorra on extreme right. Beetle Head on extreme left.
R. Welch, phofo.

Fic. 2.—Croaghpatrick from Clare Island harbour. Old Head is seen below and to the left of the

summit.
R. Welch, photo.

Fic. 3.—Clare Island harbour and bay from the north. The old castle on the left, the hotel in
the centre.

G, Fogerty, phozo.
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER: INTRODUCYION,

Taye

t

Proc. R. I. ACAD., VOL. XX XI, PART 1, PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—Budawanny, a stack of Upper Silurian slate about 80 feet high, at west end of island.
Achill (Croaghaun) is seen faintly behind. Looking N.W.
R. Welch, Phofo.

Fic. 2.—Clare Island lighthouse, on cliff 4oo feet high. Looking N.E. In the distance, Achill

Beg in centre, Achill Island on left, Curraun on right (over the lighthouse).
R. Welch, Phovo.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER: INTRODUCTION,

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Proc, R. I. ACAD., VoL. XXXI-

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CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER: INTRODUCTION.

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Clare Islund Survey.

2
HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY.
By T. J. WESTROPP, M.A.

PLATES I-X.

Read Novemper 13. Published Drcemrer 21, 1911.

CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
1. Introduction, . 0 0 5 : 1 5. Inishbofin, 0 9 0 0 OO)
2. Clare Island, . 0 : ; ele: 6. Inishark, : 72
3. Inishturk, 2 0 D 5 . 45 7. Spectral Islands, : 6 a oe
4. Caher Island, . ‘ 5 : o 6 & Note.—West Murrisk, . 3 5 8

1, INTRODUCTION.

WueEN the Clare Island Committee prepared for the survey of that area,
and the subject of Archaeology fell to my lot, the subject at first seemed
to me to be a field likely to yield but little result. The islands were
supposed to be well known and to have been examined by careful workers ;
the remains on Clare Island had been visited by several antiquaries, and
yet the results were scanty. Engaged on the rich fields of north Kerry,
north-west County Clare, and the Aran Isles, the task of recording the scanty
remains seemed a light one, but became very different in its aspect after
three visits. Despite every care, besides help from the observations of
Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Dr. George Fogerty, R.N., and others, I fear even
now that individual remains, though probably none of any size or importance,
may have escaped my search, especially in the network of low crags and
hollows in Inishbofin. Our survey did not extend to Inishark; but, for
completeness, I include what I can gather about that islet. It is hoped
that the present survey may at least preserve a careful account of the
ancient remains in these islands, Clare, Turk, Caher, and Bofin, so little
known and so inaccurately described by my predecessors. Coming, as it
does, before these places have been modernized by travelling facilities and
the consequent influx of visitors, it may have a record value outside its

present use. Besides the actual survey of the islands, I made a careful
R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. A 2

22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

examination of the Mayo coasts from Ballina to the Mullet and of Achill
Island and Achillbeg to try by a wider study of the local archaeology to
throw light on the remains here described.

It seemed, at first, well to give these coast results here im extenso; but,
as I hope to publish them fully in the Jowrnal of the Royal Society of
Antiquaries of Ireland, to which I have already given my survey of north
Mayo, and as I have described the chief cliff forts fully in these Proceed-
ings last year, 1910, I will not further lengthen an already full section
of the Survey.

Rude Stone Monuments.

The present survey has had rarely to record any remains more primitive
in character than the forts and huts. The coast of Mayo (especially near
Ballycastle, Duncarton, and Binghamstown) presents examples of circles
and alignments of low stones, rounded and weathered out of all shape,
evidently of the remotest antiquity, some perhaps even Neolithic. Dolmens
are scarce; an interesting type (spectacle-like in plan), with two small circles
or ovals, and a large cist between, occurs on Slievemore in Achill, and another
(a long somewhat oval enclosure with a smaller one at each end) lies between
Ballycastle and Dunfeeny. Mr. Bald, when designing the road through
Glencastle, would not divert it even for a few feet to spare a fine dolmen in
that valley. One of the stones of another monument there—the reputed
grave of the giant Domnall dual buidh—was destroyed about 1839. The
monuments on the sandhills of the Mullet I reserve for the succeeding
section. Small circles of standing stones occur near Porteen (5 feet across)
and Glengad, on Broadhaven (17 feet across). The spectacle-dolmen on
Slievemore had two ancient tracks leading to it at right angles, now called
“ Cladh Lochlannach ” or Danes’ Ditch. At the end of the western, 380 feet
away from the eastern, is a curious monument called a “cromlech-tumulus” or
chambered mound, but really a multiple clochan or hut. The “ Pagan
cemetery,” 500 feet from the cathair near the border of the Bal of Dookinelly,
seems to have consisted of two oblong chambers lying north-east and south-
east, kerbed by large blocks, now unfortunately in course of removal and
nearly all gone; but the sockets (from which they were raised, after so many
ages) preserve the plan. The north-western cell is about 6 feet wide, and
about 23 feet 6 inches long. It has two compartments—the northern 5 feet
6 inches, the southern 12 feet 9 inches, divided by a row of three thin slabs
which hardly rise over the sward. The eastern cell is 6 feet inside and

1 For a list of antiquities in West Murrisk, see note at the end.
? They appear to be old tracks in the hollows of which richer soil settled and brighter herbage
sprang up. Many occur on these islands without the name being attached to them,

Clare Island Survey— History and Archueology. 23

8 feet wide outside and undivided, 25 feet long; 3 feet eastward is a trace
of another line of slabs. The northern end described by Col. Wood-Martin
in “ Rude Stone Monuments of Iveland,” has nearly vanished, and the whole
must shortly disappear, as there is no enlightened public opinion. to prevent
the destruction of these important monuments for the mere profit of road-
contractors and builders of labourers’ cottages. Up the great mountain, and
so better preserved because less accessible, not far below the “spectacle-
dolmen” and the “tumulus cromlech,” in Keel East, I find, in Doogort West, a
wrecked but noble dolmen, its standing slabs, 9 feet 5 inches by 6 feet,
and 7 feet 4 inches, by 4 feet 6 inches, usually about a foot thick. ‘The
fragment of its broken cover is 7 feet 4 inches by 7 feet 10 inches, but
perhaps only half remains; the rest of this huge slab was used for an old
cottage near its site. Down the slope, beside the ancient bohereen or
laneway, and near the west border of Keel, is a very large chambered cairn
called (like the Doogort dolmen) the “Giant’s Grave” with several chambers,
divided by great set slabs, one 6 feet 6 inches long, 6 inches thick, and nearly
5 feet over the debris. Another block, a roof-lintel, is 10 feet 4 inches, by
3 feet, by 10 inches—so far from my notes.

Colonel Wood-Martin! describes, before its partial demolition, “Clochan na
stooka,” “ Pagan Cemetery,” an elaborate monument lying a little east of north.
It had a circle at its northern end 8 feet across; then parallel rows 10 feet
apart for 52 feet; then a square enclosure 26 feet 6 inches by 25 feet 6 inches.
From the south-west corner a long, slightly curved row of blocks extended; a
corresponding row from the south-east corner was destroyed in human
memory. <A grave, “Tonalorcha,” had a circle 80 feet across; but only parts
to the north-west and south-west remained, with a long row of slabs running
southward for 80 feet. About a quarter of a mile westward was a dilapidated
cist ; its south-west angle remained, and nine scattered slabs. Another monu-
ment had four small cups like the “ Elf Mills” in Swedish dolmens or the basins
in the slabs of the dolmens of Ballyganner Hill, Cappaghkenny, and Newgrove
in Co. Clare, and the Clochtogle near Lisbellaw in Fermanagh ; the Achill cups
diminish from left to right like at the Clochtogle. There are also a Labba,
or bed, adjoining the last, and a cairn, 25 feet by 17 feet, with a ruined cist
embedded. Down the hill near the road was a defaced tumulus or cairn
96 feet across, in which a series of cists formed a cross, the shorter (north and
south) arms of which ended in rings, 10 feet and 21 feet across. It is called
“Giant’s Grave”; the circles have disappeared. On Clew Bay to the west

1 « Rude Stone Monuments,’’ chapter yiii, p. 238: Extra Volume, 1888, of the Roy. Hist. and
Archaeol. Assoc. (Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ir.) Journal for same period, vol. xviii, pp. 367-378.

A 2

24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of Murrisk, I noted a remnant of an alignment of blocks, 4 to 5 feet high,
running east and west: only a few remain. At a marshy point between
Murrisk Abbey and Westport is a very remarkable monument. I¢ consists of
an alignment of stones (now separated from the rest by a little creek), leading
eastward to a large slight ring oval in plan. In the enclosure stand six stones
in a line, W.S.W. and E.N.E., about 20 feet long; they are about 3 feet high
and long, the fourth being 4 feet long; there is a fallen stone to the east,
making seven in all. The enclosure is 4 to 5 feet thick, and rarely 3 feet
high, with a shallow fosse and ten large blocks to the south. ‘The whole site
is barely higher than the high water ; and I noticed to the west, at lowest tide,
the long line of a seaweed-grown causeway cut through by a deep channel.
I incline to the conclusion (but prefer not to assert) that the land has sunk
since the erection of the monument, which, from its worn condition, seems to
be of vast antiquity. The question depends much on scientific considerations ;
whether a presumable temple of perhaps the Stone Age in Ireland is so early
as to have been nearly submerged by the undoubted subsidence of the coast.
If so, the wonderful inroads of the sea on the evidently far later cliff-forts
sink down to almost modern events. I therefore give no decision, but state
the facts as to the Gortbraud monument.

Middens and Sand-hill Monuments.

Near Kilgalligan, on the east of Broad Haven, a fine cairn, 13 feet high,
50 feet on base, and a number of well-preserved hut-circles, small cairns, and
middens of shells remain. They had been uncovered by the wind about
seventy years ago; but the sand and vegetation hid them till a few years
since. In them Dr. G. Fogerty found a polished stone implement of which
Miss Knowles most kindly made a sketch. The great sandhills near Bing-
hamstown! abound in middens and monuments. Chief of these is the Lacht
air lorruis, the tomb of the slaughter of Erris. It was hidden in a sandhill
till a great storm blew away nearly 20 feet of sand in one night, and disclosed
thecairn. Near it lay Lug na fulla, the hollow of blood. It rests on the rock,
and is about 12 feet high and 35 feet across. On the west is a platform girt by
a fosse and outer ring about 111 feet by 60 feet over all. A small cist or
circle is on the platform with traces of a second. Another larger cist lies
to the north about 63 feet from the cairn; the ground was found to be strewn
with thousands of human bones all around when the sand was first removed,

* For accounts of the Binghamstown group see Rey. Caesar Otway, “‘ Erris and Tyrawley,” 184],
Pp- 89-95; W. Chambers Borlase, ‘‘ Dolmens of Ireland,”’ p- 111; Ordnance Survey Letters,
Co. Mayo (4s. R. I. Acad., 14 = 18), pp- 209, 214.

* The name seems to have existed before the tombs and bones were disclosed.

are Island Survey—Mistory and Archaeology. 25

Farther to the north-west is the Lacht ree Moonni (leacht righ Mumhain) or
tomb of the king of Munster. It also was under a sandhill till nearly 1840 ;
a number of cists (containing scorched bones, steatite beads, and rings) lay
not far away near Kilmore graveyard. The Trunk na callighe, in Carn town-
land, is a square enclosure and cist of upright blocks. A smaller cairn les
in Emlybeg North—a dolmen, 14 feet long, in a circle of stones, 36 yards
across. Near Cross, at Bealdorcha, another earthen mound, under the
sand, contained a cist and a skeleton. Some said the body had been buried
standing upright (like King Laoghaire in the fifth century, and King Eoghan
Bel in the sixth); others that it was seated on a stone chair, or cist; its face
(all agree) was turned towards the Lacht air Iorruis. This enumeration
sufficiently shows the importance of the sandhill settlements of Co. Mayo.

Unfortunately none of equal importance occur south of the Mullet.
Middens and hut-sites, hearths and burned stones exist in the sandhills at
either end of Achill Sound. Those at the southern end, in the townland of
Gubnahardin, on the mainland, when examined by Messrs. Praeger, Lyons,
and myself, proved of interest, and are worthy of more methodical examination.
At the northern site, opposite Gubnahardin Fort and the coastguard station of
Achill Sound, the chief part is about 40 feet long, with charcoal (showing
wood fibre and burned twigs) hearths, and blackened stones. The shells
are (as so usually) Ostrea, Pecten varius, Buccinum, Littorina (littorea,
obtusata, and rudis), Anomia ephippium, Venus lincta, Nassa reticulata,
Trochus (umbilicatus and lineatus), Solen siliqua and Carduus; the vast
majority are Littorina. The whole heap seems to be 150 feet across.

Farther to the south-east is a lesser one. A third, still farther eastward,
has a well-marked layer of black mould and burned slabs and pebbles; it
is in two layers with 6 feet of sand between, containing shells, vertebrae
and spines of fish; a quartzite hammer was also found here. Then a
layer of oysters, green clay, black mould, and charcoal, with a layer of peri-
winkles on top of it. The upper stratum was directly under the sward.
Mr. Praeger found here a large, finely polished bead of blue limestone. The
shells were mainly limpets, with only a few periwinkles. Hearth-slabs and
pebbles, blackened by fire, abound. On the shore of Keel West, just above
highwater-mark, Colonel Wood-Martin found three shell-middens. They
also yielded, like those I examined, a hammer stone and steatite beads, also a
half-made spindle-whorl, and a later green-glass bead—all of which passed to
the collection of Canon Grainger. No metal was found, but bones of -deer,
swine, and rayfish occurred among the layers of oysters, mussels, limpets,
and cockles.

As may be seen, | found no similar settlement till we reached Inishbofin.

2 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The midden at Clare Island seems late, and yielded nothing of interest. It
almost seems as if the early settlers, circle-makers, dolmen- and cairn-builders
and sandhill-dwellers did not venture across the fierce currents and waves
round Clare Island, Turk, and Caher, to those islands; certainly save for
pillars in the first two, I found nothing resembling an early monument. ‘he
bronze weapon found in Clare Island, like all isolated finds, proves little or
nothing, and was certainly imported, whether in early or late times.

Forts.

The forts in the islands specially studied in this Survey are of considerable
interest. The six duns in Clare Island are, with one exception, of the walled-
rock type, such as we find at Danes’ Island in Waterford, Darby’s Island in
Kerry, and Illaunadoon in Co, Clare. The type recurs in the great wrecked
example at Dunnahineena in Bofin. The other two are of the more usual
form. Dunnagappul has two curved fosses and stone-faced mounds, and
Dun-Ooghbeg had a straight, dry-stone wall. In Turk, Dun Ballyheer had a
nearly straight wall along a low rock, forming a revetment. Finest of the
true headland forts is Dunmore in Bofin—a massive, curved rampart of dry
stone. Of Ring Forts, a thin-walled cathaix, Caherpatrick, is found in
Caher Island, and two strong Duns at Portadoon in Turk. Two examples
of the multiple-celled clochdn occur in the same townland of Ballyheer; also
simpler early hut-circles, usually about 40 feet across.

It is hard to believe that the platform forts are of very great age, unless
perhaps Doon-Ooghaniska and Dunnahineena. The rocks are often very
friable; and yet it is evident that the whole of the old extent is still covered
by (or rather included within) the ambit of the fort. Dunnaglas, however,
is earlier than the cutting-away of the great clay bank which once joined
Achillbeg to the larger island at the west end of Bealaglas Sound.

As to the general features, I found no steps, upright joints, chambers
or passages in the wall in any fort south of the Mullet. Dunmore in Bofin
had a well-built gateway, 6 feet 3 inches wide, and nearly 10 feet deep. The
east Dun of Portadoon, in Turk, had also a gateway of coursed masonry
aslant through its wall, sloping down a crag like that of the central ring of
Dun Aengusa in Aran, while the western Dun, in Ballyheer, had a more
massive one, its left jamb of a single stone 7 feet 4 inches long. I found no
long lintels save at the Cathair of Slievemore in Achill, but doubtless all
such gateways were once covered by long stones. The walls, save in the east
Dun of Turk, are of a single section with two faces. That Dun has two
sections, the outer 4 feet 3 inches, the inner (possibly a terrace) 3 feet.
Dunmore has a foundation course of very massive blocks, set as stretchers,

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 24) A

over which, partly resting on the filling of the centre, was a course of long
small-ended headers, a fine example of strong bonding. ‘The thicknesses of
the wall are:—Doon-Ooghaniska, 6 feet to 9 feet; Dunnagappul, 10 feet to
13 feet; Dun-Ooghbeg, 12 feet; Porteen, 9 feet; Cathair of Bal-Dookinelly,
16 feet; Dun-Kilmore, 18 feet to 19 feet; Dunnaglas, 6 feet to 7 feet; the
Dun-Portadoon, 6 feet to 9 feet; Dun-Ballyheer, 6 feet to 7 feet; Dun-
Ooghmore, 6 feet; Caherpatrick, 4 feet ; and Dunmore-Bofin, 10 feet to 15 feet.
The widths of the gateways are:—Dun-Kilmore, 6 feet; Dun-Portadoon,
3 feet 8 inches; Dun-Ballyheer, 3 feet 4 inches; Dunmore-Bofin, 6 feet
3 inches.

The ring-fort becomes very rare in north-west Mayo after we leave the
Ballycastle valley at Dunfeeny. The cliff-forts are abundant. Taking them
in order, they are found at the fortified headlands of Downpatrick and
Dunbriste (the last now broken away from the land, as its name implies).
Their walls are of most beautiful masonry, but quite different from the usual
types. Port-Conaghra has a long, straight fosse, once stone-faced, with a dry
stone wall on top, now nearly all rebuilt. Cashlaunicrobin, near Glenlosseragh,
has the typical crescent fosse and mounds of earth protecting the neck (now
fallen), which led to a fine conical rock, with huts on its platform now called
Goat Island. Horse Island, at Bealdearg, is now only joined to the land by
the collapsed neck, beyond which the last remains of its dry-stone wall totter
on the edge of the falling bank. Dunmara, now an inaccessible shore rock,
before huge cliffs, seems once to have been walled, as heaps of stone are visible.
Dunminulla, owing to a vast land-slide at the neck, and the fall of the edges
of its lofty platform, now only exhibits two landward trenches, one cut in the
rock, and a mound, capped by a dry-stone wall.

The once important Manor-Castle of Dookeeghan (Dumhach ui Caochain)
was a fenced platform, on whose narrow neck (now half fallen) a gatehouse
was built in the fifteenth century, outside which are faint traces of the
crescent-mound, and ditch of the Dun. Duncarton, while better preserved,
is of similar design. In the Mullet I have described Dunfiachra, Dunnamo,
and Porth. Dunfiachra is a natural platform, its narrow neck fenced by a
deep fosse, with a rampart on either side. Dunnamo is a huge dry-stone
rampart (with the later features of cells at its gateway, like Dunbeg near
Ventry). The wall rests on the earthwork of an earlier cliff-fort. Outside are
the faint remains of an abattis, found elsewhere only at Dun Aengusa and
Dubh Cathair in Aran, Ballykinvarga, Co. Clare, and a few forts in other
countries—Cademuir and Dreva in Scotland, the demolished Castel Coz in

1 Proc. R.I.A., vol. xxix, (c), p. 11. See also Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, yol. iii,
part 2, pp. 231, 237, 241,

28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

France, two hill-forts in Switzerland, and a ring-wall in Mohne Island in the
Baltic. Inside are a few huts, round, with square annexes, and a large ring-
wall. Porth is a huge dry-stone wall, overthrown in early times, and com-
pleted by an earthwork. It has a group of huts and souterrains. In the
Mullet is a small entrenched headland, and the great walled platforms of Dun-
aneanir and Dunadearg. Inland, but not far from Belmullet, is the scarped
rock and oval ring-fort of Dundonnell (90 feet by 40 feet) rich in folk-lore.
Achill has injured Cathairs in the Sandhills and in the Bal of Dookinelly on
Slievemore, an entrenched drift-headland at Porteen, and two rocks so nearly
denuded of earth that the best evidence of their character lies in their names,
Dunnagappul and Dunmore. Possibly the two groups of “Doonty” rocks
were of this character. The name Gubadoon marks another cliff-fort on
Dooega Head, near the southern rock of that name.

At Achillbeg are three more cliff-forts. One is already described in our
Proceedings. The great fort of Dun-Kilmore has a fosse, a stone-faced rampart,
and an inner ring-fort of similar design, enclosing an early cemetery, altars,
and a basin-stone. Within the fort are two subsidiary headlands, the Din
and the Dangan, each entrenched. The two neighbouring forts must be
described here, if briefly, for they are closely connected with our main
subject.

DUNNAGLAS, ACHILL (Ordnance Survey Map,! No. 65).—Off the shore of
Carrowgarve, at the eastern end of the Blind Sound, or Bealachglass, is a
fragment of a headland called Doonagloss (Dun na glas) and “the Din.” It is
remembered that a “tower” stood on the rock some fifty to sixty years ago.
Crossing at low water by a painful and slippery stretch of boulders, and climbing
the steep though grassy side, we find a structure closely similar to the Doon
of Inishturk. A well-built dry-stone wall of slabs thickly covered with grey
lichen carefully conforms to the minutest features of the natural edge,? about
50 feet above the base. The rampart is usually about 6 feet high and 7 feet
thick, of good, rather open-jointed work, and along the north-west segment,
where it is best preserved, has the rare feature (in Co. Mayo) of a terrace
inside 5 feet 6 inches high and 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet wide. The wall at
that point rises 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches higher, and is over 10 feet thick in
all. The garth is 74 feet long, east and west, and is still 50 feet wide, for
about half has fallen away. In the middle were two large huts, the “ Tower,”
16 feet 6 inches, inside, with a wall of earth and stones, 7 feet 6 inches to

1 The references are to the maps of six inches to the mile.

* This unnecessary accuracy is well seen at the walled rocks of Dunaneanir in the Mullet and the
Cashlaun Gar, Co. Clare.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology 29

9 feet thick. It recalls the hermit’s “tower” of sods and stones, with walls
11 feet thick, broken by King Dathi with such fatal results to himself, when
the lightning slew him in Gaul at the beginning of the fifth century. The
second hut adjoins the west of the Tower, and is 15 feet inside, and its wall
6 feet thick. The conjoined huts are 50 feet east and west by 30 feet north
and south. Half of the annexe has fallen. To the west of the fort, outside
the rampart, and evidently defending the approach, we find a glacis, 14 feet
to 15 feet long, sloping steeply to a fosse, now barely 4 feet deep and 9 feet
wide. A portion of the outer ring, 4 feet thick, remains. The whole must
soon be washed away like the Dugort duns, as great waves run up its low
rocks at all times of storm.

DUNACURROGH, ACHILLBEG.—It lies on a headland in a cove near the last.
It is called Doonagurroge on the new maps, but locally Dunacurrogh. Outside
its fosse, 54 feet to the east, is a double hut, with walls 6 feet to 7 feet thick,
and two circular cells, the eastern 15 feet, the western 12 feet inside. The
fort had an outer ring, now embodied in a fence, a fosse 4 feet deep and
12 feet wide with a gangway 6 feet wide, at 18 feet from the south cliff and
12 feet from the north. Another fosse, nearly filled by its bank, lies 21 feet
westward. It was probably 9 feet wide. At 54 feet westward from the last
we reach the level platform, defended by an unusual dry-stone wall, projecting
with an angle to flank the entrance, and so presumably late. It is 6 feet
thick, with a slab entrance 6 feet wide; thence a low bank of earth and stones
fences the platform, 27 feet wide at the gate, 39 feet in the middle, and
48 feet long east and west.

Bat or DOOKINELLY.—The only ring-fort in Achill calling for notice is the
Cathair of Slievemore. In 1888, when the plan published by Col. Wood-
Martin was made, its wall was 4 feet to 5 feet high. Now nearly all
the stonework has been removed. So recently has this been done that the
edges of the soil against the wall are still bare, sharp, and upright, the fort
being a now well-marked oval shallow ditch, 15 feet to 15 feet 9 inches wide,
and 18 inches deep, from which the very foundations are removed. It enclosed
a space 39 feet north and south to 45 feet east and west. A gate-lintel, 6 feet
6 inches long, 28 inches wide, and 10 inches thick, lies to the east. There
were two old semicircular enclosures beside the gate (formerly traceable) to
the south in 1888. It has been destroyed for road material, though stones
are over-abundant.

The Dun of Oileach in the Mullet has vanished. It is supposed to have
been on the circular hillock of Elly, south from Binghamstown, on Blacksod
Bay, still called An Cathair; locally, “ Anaar.” There are some small ring-
forts between the Bay and Dundonnell—perhaps half a dozen—calling for

R.I.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. B 2

2 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

no remark. So also I need only mention the occurrence of forts between
Murrisk and Westport. A fort at the latter town is named Cahernamart.

The remaining forts I shall describe as on the various islands. The most
remarkable are Dun-Ooghaniska on Clare Island, the Duns at Portadoon in
Turk, and Dunmore (Dunkeen) and Dunnahineena in Bofin. Owing to the.
light soil, the removal of the stonework, and the ceaseless inroads of the sea,
it is wonderful that so much of interest remains to be recorded. Doubtless
numerous forts have vanished altogether, even in the last three centuries,
from these powerful causes of destruction.

Later Burtpincs.—On Achill Sound is the neat, small peel tower of the
O’Mailles.! It is a typical specimen, and probably dates from between 1460
and 1480, with small window-slits, one with a characteristic ogee-head. The
under-story is vaulted, and was so filled with carts and turf-ricks on my
visits that I could not get up to the other stories. The tower is neatly
battlemented, and has often been illustrated. It forms, with its beautiful
surroundings, the broad Sound, the purple hills, and the golden and brown
seaweed of its rocky base, a most picturesque object. Kildawnet Church
has a simple (and perhaps ancient) oblong sht in its west gable; but the rest
was repaired and used for a chapel, so little of its older features is traceable.
The south door is lintelled, with a small square recess to either side. The
two side-windows are oblong and modern; so is the light of the east window.
Over the latter is a relieving arch of thin slabs. There are three plain old
ambries—two in the east wall, and one at the east corner of the north wall.
I found no old tombstones.

On the other islands are the early church, cashel, and monuments at
Caher; the clochans or religious cells on Inishark; the thirteenth-century
abbey, with fifteenth-century repairs, and the curious holy wells on Clare
Island. St. Columba’s Church has been levelled on Turk. St. Colman’s
Abbey is to all appearance a very late building, but it has an evidently early
basin or font. St. Leo’s Church, on Inishark, has been altogether modernized ;
but a neat window-slt is preserved.

Of the castles south from Achill, that on Clare Island, attributed to Grania
Uaille, is evidently of her period, in the latter half of Queen Elizabeth’s
reign; while “Bosco’s Castle” (or “Cromwell’s Barracks”), guarding the
harbour of Bofin, evidently dates from 1656. The other castle of “Guarhim”
has left no trace, nor has any description been preserved.

1The Lords of Umallia recorded in the Annals are—1123, Tadhg Ua Mhaille drowned ;
1177, Domnall ; 1219, Dubhdara; 1362, Owen; 1401, Domnall; 1415, Aedh; 1421, Maelsechlainn
(tanist) ; 1427, Aedh (tanist) ; 1560, Tuathal, ‘ pilot of a fleet.’

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 11

2. CLARE ISLAND (Plates I-VI).

Clare Island, or more properly “ Cliara,” forms part of Kilgeever Parish
and Murrisk Barony in the County of Mayo. It was one of the most con-
spicuous islands of that beautiful coast, and to all appearance was a suitable
and even desirable place for an early settlement. Sheltered to the north by
its huge mountain, and abounding in creeks, with a sandy beach, abundant
water supply, and, at one time, thick forests, it certainly seemed more likely
to have attracted early settlers than the unsheltered Mullet or the bare
rocks of Aran; but such was not the case. Inishbofin and the Mullet and its
surroundings have sandhill settlements and monuments; Achill abounds in
megalithic structures; but so far as I am aware none are found on Clare
Island; one Bronze Age spear-head alone attests the presence of man at that
period, while nothing, so far, seems to have reached us from the Stone
Age. Inishbofin, with its huge cliff-forts, has numerous huts; Inishturk its
fine ring-walls; others occur in Achill, but none in Clare Island. The
Islands of Torry, Inismurray, Ardoilean, the three Aran Isles, the
Magharees, even the great stack of Skellig, were the resort of monks and the
scene of piratical attack ; nothing similar is recorded of Clare Island. From
the historian’s standpoint the record of the island is nearly a blank. This is
not altogether wonderful when we consider what impenetrable tracts of bogs,
mountain, and oak forests lay between it and the ancient kingdoms of inland
Mayo. The natural barriers continued in Connemara, and, if the learned
monks of the Aras ever recorded anything about the far distant Isles of Mod,
Cliara, and Achill, the destructive Norse raids must have swept it away.

The ancient buildings are equally disappointing; no great ring-fort, like
Inismurray Cashel, or Dun Aengusa, is found in the group with which we
now deal. There were several large cliff-forts: Dun-Kilmore in Achillbeg,
Dunnahineena,and Dunkeen, or Dunmore,in Inishbofin ; some small but strong
ring-walls in Achill; an alleged site at a hillock in Clare Island, and the
Doon of Inishturk. The predominant remains are of fortified rock platforms
like Dane’s Island in Waterford on a smaller scale ;? these are not very usual
on the Irish coast compared to the entrenched or walled headland. Up the
west coast I recall only Darby’s Island and Ballingarry in Kerry and
Illaunadoon in Co. Clare ;? but here we have Dunallia, Duntraneen, Duncloak,

1 The remains of a very extensive forest of large trees lie not far from Oogbeg. ‘‘ Derry”’ also
occurs more than once in the place-names Derraghyemon, Derraghgarriff (Garbh), and Derreen at the
back of Knocknaveen.

* Described in Journal Roy. Soc. Ant. Ir., xxxvii, pp. 252-4.

2 Thid., xl, p. 17, p. 117, and xxxviii, p. 42.

B2

2 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and Doon-Ooghaniska in Clare Island, Dungrania and Dunnahineena in
Bofin, and Duneenapisha in Inishark. Of the more ordinary type are
Dunmore on Inishbofin, Dunnagappul in Clare Island, Dunacurrogh and
Dunnaglass in Achill; Dun Kilmore stands apart, one of the exceptional cliff-
forts of Ireland, and indeed of Europe.

So with medieval buildings; nothing like those on Inismurray, Inisglora,
Inishkea, or Ardoilean, is to be found; none of the existing churches is of
great age, the bulk are of the late fifteenth century, or even later. The beehive
hut is found in Achill, at Dunnaglass, in a fort ; how far the foundation of the
rude and primitive cell at Toberfelabreed in Clare Island is old I am unable
to say. No early crosses or inscribed stones of early age occur in the group
of islands save on Caher Island, and with one exception of Templepatrick
church and one of a religious house on Cliara, the only remains are the rather
late and most disappointing “Abbey” of St. Colman on Jnishbofin, the
restored church of St. Leo on Inishark, and a graveyard on Inishturk.

Hisrory oF THE IsLanps.—The history of the whole district down to the
twelfth century is nearly a blank. Of places round Clew Bay we only hear
that in 848 a lake in Umaile in Connacht suddenly “1an off into the sea,” and
that in 1115 a thunderbolt fell on Cruachan Aigle on the night of the festival
of Patrick, and destroyed thirty of the fasting people. The Chronicon
Scotorum adds that Ua Longain, Erenagh of Ardpatrick, was then struck by
lightning. After the Norman Invasion “Achill” seems again to take the
lead, but the records only begin in the thirteenth century (1235), and it
remains a very grave uncertainty whether the Eccuil, or Acuill, is not the
district on both sides of Clew Bay called by these names, and the apparently
kindred Aigle or Oigle, which gave its name to Cruachan Oigle.? This was
apparently a place near the foot of Croaghpatrick rather than that great
natural pyramid the dwelling-place of Corgen, who slew the Dagda’s divine
younger son. It is possible that, as in Erris, so here a Damnonian race
prevailed ;° of it (or classed under the very vague name of “ Firbolg”)
a strong tribe called Uathmor or Umoir existed. A Munster bard,
Muircheartach Mac Liac, before 1016, represents them as a weak group of

1 Described supra, vol. xxix, pp. 29-33, with a plan, sections, and view, plate vi.

* Cruach Aigle is rendered ‘‘ Mons Aquilae ’’ by Colgan, but O’Donoyan will not bind himself to
the similar translation of ‘‘ Achill,’’ and certainly the place-name for ‘ eagle’’ in Clare Island and
farther north in the County is Illar. Renilra on the seventeenth-century maps, 1620-1683,
Glenuilra in Tirawly, &c. (Compare O. S. Letters, vol ii, on Croagh Patrick, and vol. i, on Achill.)

3 [have condensed our present slight knowledge of the races above in yol. xxix, p. 12; for
present-day ethnology and notes on the folk-lore see Dr. Charles R. Browne’s paper, supra, vol v,
ser. iii, p. 40. This, the works of Maxwell, Caesar Otway, Knight, and the Handbooks ii & vi of
the Royal Soc. Antiq. Ir. almost exhaust the bibliography of these coasts.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 15

families living in nine raths and soon exterminated by the Tara warriors ; but
there is much reason for holding the contrary view, for the Clann Uathmor
was no mean opponent of the Nemedians, and appears in many early
records of Co. Mayo.

Haying recently discussed the Munster legend preserved in the Dind
Seanchus and the poem on it by Mac Liac, it is enough to give, after passing
over the settlements identified as at Galway Bay, those probably intended as
dwelling farther north. “They fixed Mod at Moidluin ... Cing obtained the
district of Oigle. At Laidlinni (Laiglinde), I do assert, were Bairnech and
Barannbel” (or Bairnech, or Bairnde Batanbel),! and even of these Ivgas
(Eeerish of Caherdooneerish) on Ceann Boirne (Black Head) is placed between
and not far from Mod’s alleged settlement. Petty marks in 1683 a “ Moyluin”
in Burren near Turlough and its huge hill fort. Were there an Oigle on
Galway Bay, it should be preferred as the place meant by Mae Liac.
O'Donovan considers the Islands of Mod as in Clew Bay, but he wavers as to
Modh’s settlement, even suggesting that it lay as far north as Dunnamo,
“Dun modh.” When, however, we find a Tragh Murbhaigh near Killala, a
Tawinlough on Clare Island, Cathair Tamun at Castlehill, and a place-name
Dael? in North Connacht,*> we more than suspect the original settlements
of the Clann Uathmor (Murbech, Taman, and Dael) to have been there, and
not as located by Mac Liac in Co. Clare, Galway, and Aran. We may
accordingly pass from this unsatisfactory legend.

In more historic times the islands were joined to the district in which the
Ui Mhailles* held sway, which, on that account, was called Umail (Ooail),
whence in Tudor times the name “the Owles.’” This from an ignorant con-
fusion with ubhall (pomum) led to some overlearned writer giving to its chief
the unexpected title of “Omaley de pomo.” The last trace of the name is
found in Burrishoole or Burgheis umhaill, Ui Mhaille’sburgage. Umail covered
the barony of Murrisk, and seems to have included Achill and certainly Chiara,
Bofin, Inishturk, Shark, and Caher. Bofin and Shark were formerly part ot
hlar Connacht, but were won by the O’Mailles about 1370.6 Nothing seems

1 Onomasticon Goedelicum, p. 474, but Loch Laiglinne, named after a son of Partholan, was in
Ua mac Uais Breagh, i.e. in Moygoish, Westmeath (Keating, book i, sect. v1, Ir. Text ed., p. 164).

2 Daol. O.S. Letters, vol i, p. 97.

3 For full text see MacLiac’s poem in Ossianic Society, vol. v, p. 287, the prose text in the
Dind Seanchus (ed. Whitley Stokes) in Revue Celtique, vol. xv, 1894, pp. 478-480; also Journal
Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ir., yol xxvi, p. 142.

+ They claimed descent from the High King Eochaidh Muighmheadhain through his son Conall
Orison. Local legend derived them from the ‘‘ god’? Crom-dubh.

° See Customs, ‘Tribes, and Genealogies of Hy Fiachrach, J. O’Donoyan, Iv. Archaeol. Soc.,
1844, p. 499.

® Roderick O'Flaherty, ‘‘ hIar Connaught,” p. 116.

2 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

recorded of Inishark, while there is much doubt and confusion as to whether
some supposed mention of Inishbofin refers to the island here noted or to
another of this not unusual name.

The Umail were warlike and fond of the sea. Seaan Mor Ui Dubhagain
(O’Dugan), who died in 1372, thus describes them :—

“Oh Clann Maille of the sea-sent treasure,
Every land is against thee in this
Ye inhabit the two Umhalls—”
“ A good man never there was
Of the Ui Mhaille, but a mariner.
The prophets of the weather are ye,
A tribe of affection and brotherly love.”*

Giolla Iosa Mae Firbis in 1417 sings of them as “ The Clann Mailli, valiant
the branch.” The State papers of the following century describe them as

By

“ Omaylle, strong in galleys and seamen” in 1576,? and the galley in their
arms with the motto, “Terra marique potens,” on the walls of Cliara Abbey,
shows that the family boasted of its sea-power. The Abbey was a Carmelite
cell dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, and in later days attached to the great
Cistercian House of Knockmoy or “ De Colle Victoriae.” It was (it is said)
built by the O’Mailles, in 1224, according to Ware. A little later, in 1235,
the Four Masters and the Annalist of Loch Cé tell how Felim (son of Cathal
Crovdearg) O’Conor resolved upon taking with him to O’Donnell all the cows
belonging to those who would take his advice in Conmaicnemara, and Conmaicne
Cuile with the son of Manus, and Conor Roe, the son of Murtagh Muimhneach,
and leaving the whole country desolate to the English... The English then
sent from Dun Mugdord a numerous army against the son of Roderick which
plundered Ecuill and carried great spoils to Drumimni. Dombhnall and
Muircheartach sons of Muredach Ui Maille were slain by Domhnall son of
Magnus son of Muircheartach Ua Chonchobhair (O’Conor) in Cliara, where
they were buried—probably in the newly built monastery.’ Later in the same
century in 1273 Domnall Ivrus, son of Manus, who was son of Murtagh
Muimhneach O’Conor, was expelled from Umallia and Irros.* This com-
prises all the history at present known earlier than the reign of Elizabeth.

1 The Topographical Poems of John O’Dubhugain and Giolla na naemh O’Huidhrin (ed.
O’Donoyan, 1862), p. 65, “Hy Fiachrach,” p. 181; also Hardiman’s ed. of ‘‘ hlar Connaught,”
p. 301.

2 Cal. State Papers Ir.; also ‘‘hIar Connaught,”’ p. 301.

3 Mr. Hubert T. Knox has collected the scattered notices in his History of Mayo, pp. 86-94, and
306. I procured but little material in the Public Record Offices; the Inquisition merely names the
place, giving no details of the building or its lands.

4 Annals Four Masters.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2) L5)

The church was entirely restored about 1480, the ceiling painted, an elaborate
tomb made in the north wall, and new windows inserted in the chancel. The
cell probably shared the fate of Knockmoy, which was dissolved in 1542,
Hugh O'Kelly, the last Abbot, made excellent terms with the Crown ; he was
to furnish the King with sixty horse, a battle of galloglasses, and sixty kerne,
whenever the Lord Deputy came to Connacht, and twelve horse and twenty-
four kerne for service outside the province, May 24th, 1542. Among the
Elizabethan Inquisitions relating to the Abbey we find more than once mention
of “the Island of Cleary,’ containing a quarter of land and tithes worth
13s. 4d. per annum, besides reprises. The second Exchequer Inquisition of
Co. Mayo, June 3rd, 1585, before Thomas Dillon, Chief Justice, 1585, states
that “the Island of Cleré contains a quarter of land and divers appurtenances
of the Abbey of Knockmoy, and is worth per annum, besides reprises,
13s. 4d.” No further details are given, and it is probable that the O’Mailles
protected the monks, and kept the building in repair. Later monastic writers
have little to tell. Downing mentions “Cliera, about 2 leagues from the main-
land, a small Abbey of St. Bernard; Dermitius Caladus O’Maly and Morte
O’Conor were there buried.” One of the Carew mss. gives a list in March,
1574, of the islands as—“ Inysturke, Inyshourke (Shark), Cliera, and Aukilles,
held by O’Male—Abbeys—Clyera possessed by friars, or rebels, so as her
Majesty has no commodity by the same.”

In September, 1588, one of the ships of the Armada was wrecked on the
coast of Cliara, with 400 men on board; seventy are said to have been slain or
drowned, and the rest were taken off by another ship, but Cliara is devoid of
all definite traditions of the wreck. Sir G. Fenton’s final list of the Spanish
losses in September, 1588, names the following wrecks :—In Tirawley, one ship,
400 men; in Clare Island, one ship, 300 men; in Fynglasse, O’Malley’s country,
one ship, 400 men; in Erris, two ships, none lost, because the men were taken
into other vessels, but the vessels and ordnance remain. ‘This seems to
contradict the first account, nor does a third help us to a definite conclusion
by telling how the Clare Island wreck was of a ship of Don Pedro de Mendoza,
who refused to surrender, upon which Dovdara O’Malley (the father of Grania)
slew him and 100 men.2 Nothing so definite as the fearful accounts of the havoc
in Sligo, or the story of the escape of the Zuniga, or of the two wrecks on the
coast of Clare, is preserved. The connexion of the famous sea queen, Grania
Uaile, with Cliara, is more a matter of tradition than of history, and Burrishoole

1 Cal. State Papers, vol. i, p. 473 ; see the Fiants of Queen Elizabeth (they usually give mere
names, or allude to Cliara Abbey), notably Fiant 4844 of 1586.

* Cal, of State Papers, Ireland and Spanish ; also Knox, History of Mayo, pp. 220, 223,

2 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

claimed to be her burial-place against the stories and slab of Cliara. Perrott’s
composition with the Mayo gentry in 1586 gives us a list of the family and their
lands without mentioning Grania. Molaghlyne O’Mayle of Belclare was chief
of the name. Teige Roe O’Mayle of Cahairnemart (Westport), gent.; Ouan
O’Mayle of the same, Dermot McArte of Clare, gent. (whether Cliara or
Claremorris is doubtful). In the Barronie of Burreshowle there are Ackeall
and other parcels belonging, it is said, to the Earl of Ormond. The Stowe
MS.,! a curious document relating to the mauguration of O’Conor, is another
proof of Omaille’s maritime skill. “The command of the fleet to O’Flahertie
and Omali whenever he (O’Conor) goes on sea, or on the high sea.” Of the
local legend of Grania Uaile and the folk-lore I shall have more to say in
connexion with the well of Toberfelabreed, and at the close of this paper.’ Very
little can be gathered about Cliara till late in the last century. Bishop
Pococke did not visit it in 1752. Beranger,? in July, 1779, “ascended Cro
Pat(vick),” and saw “the high Island of Clara,” but he did not visit it; it was too
remote for even the most enterprising travellers of that century. Rey. Caesar
Otway, however, though evidently able to give very little time to it, landed
about 1838, and inspected the Abbey; he chiefly noted the reputed skull of
Grania Uaile. The Ordnance Survey Letters of the same period are also unsatis-
factory. Dr. Charles Browne was limited by the scope of his paper in 1897 from
describing the ruins. In 1895 the Royal Society of Antiquaries visited the
ruins, and a brief note in its Proceedings‘ tells of the “indications of fresco
painting, but nothing can be distinguished of the design”; both visits of the
Society (the last in 1904) were very hurried. In the Society’s hand-book
(No. vi, p. 37) a shghtly fuller account and two illustrations of the church
and monument are given. So that the Academy is now publishing the first
detailed description of the abbey, castle, and forts.

The island consists of two high grounds, between which (so far as I am
aware) no antiquities remain, save a green mound, a reputed fort-site, near
which a bronze lance was found.’ The lighthouse is at the north-east corner,
the castle nearly at the south-east, and the rocks of Canshindilla (Kinatevdilla
on map) at the west. The northern coast is so lofty and steep that it is not
surprising that no fortified rocks or headlands are found; such may have
once existed, but if so, they have long since been worn away. On the east
shore the fortitied rock of Dunallia, near it a similar rock isolated at half-

1 Codex 111, f. 28.

* The Ordnance Survey Letters (mss. R. I. Acad. 14 £ 18), Co. Mayo I, p. 476, give us only the
baldest statements about Clare Island, not even explaining its name.

* Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ir., vol. xi consec. (1870), p. 151, and yol. xiv (1876), p. 151.

4 [bid., xxv, p. 243. °T owe this information to Mr. W. J. Lyons.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. Ql

tide, but with no apparent artificial defences, is called Duntraneen. Beside
the road from the lighthouse is a small unshaped pillar. There are traces
that possibly represent a walled headland at Ooghbeg. Southward are the
curious well, hut, and altar, the last two in a dry-stone cashel of irregular
plan. There are middens, which as yet have yielded no implements, at the
north end of the strand, near the harbour. On the southern horn of the same
bay is the castle. Going westward along the south shore very slight traces
corroborate the name of Duncloak as a fortress. The abbey, with its cross-
scribed pillar and well, is in the best position between the shore and the
southern ridge; to the east is a graveyard believed to be Christian, but
without monuments. Beyond the abbey, to the south-west, is the much-
levelled but most interesting of the shore-forts, at Ooghnagappul, called
Dunnagappul. Still further westward is the bold, fortified rock of Doon,
at Ooghaniska. The only other ancient monument is on the shoulder above
Budawanna, an irregular loop of small set stones, the age and purpose
alike doubtful. The old marks of cultivation are very curious on the hill-
sides with curved and even § drills. (Plate VI.)

Names which give us at times hints on the physical features, plants, and
animals, abound on the island. Mr. Lloyd studies them in a separate section,
but I may be allowed to note their general bearing. First and most marked is
the unusually rich nomenclature of the creeks and caves—Oogh, Oomeen, and
Ooan—-some merely referring to colour, like the two Ooghduffs, or shape, like
Ooghlahan (broad), Oomeemgarve (rough), Ooghkinkeel (narrow head), Ooghbeg
(little); others from natural or artificial features Ooghantur (of the tower) at
the castle in Glen; Ooghanloghan (of the little pool); Ooghanwaud (of the
boat) ; Ooghgubamonemeen (of the month of the flat moor); Ooghnamara
(of the sea); Ooghaniska (of the water); Ooghganny (of the sand). Others
refer to plants, animals, and persons, such as Ooghcappul or Ooghnagappul (of
the horse) ; Ooghnacallyduff (of the cormorant); Ooghnamaddy (of the dog) ;
Oomeenamuckmara (of the porpoise); Ooghnageeragh (of the sheep); Oogh-
catharina, Ooghmacnamara, and Ooghmoylanduff. Some thirty such names
remain, and show that the life of the people was so much concerned with the
shore that every rock and hollow needed a name, unlike the north coast at
the mountains, where the vast cliffs discouraged all acquaintance with the
shore, save at certain creeks. It is interesting that such oogh-names are
absent from Achill, but are represented in Bofin, Shark, and Turk: thence
they are decidedly rare. Some racial or social fact must account for this.

In other place-names we find the following animals:—The bull, Tonalta-
tarriff and Porttarriff; the horse, Ooghacappul and Cushacappul; the goat,
Capnagower ; the porpoise as above; the eagle, Benilra; the cormorant at

R.I.A. PROC,, VOL. XXXI, C 2

2 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Carricknambriol, and possibly at Ooghnacallyduff and the Calliaghcrom rocks’ ;
the crab at Carricknapartaun; and the beetle at Kinatevdilla.? Of plants little
trace is found ; Oomeenadrishoge, the vague Lacknacranny, and, perhaps, Ivora- —
brickhill, and an unexpected occurrence of oak-names, Derreen, in the central
valley, Derrygravebeg, or Derrygorobeg, and Derraghyemon,’ are the principal.
Of superstitions and legends I only recall Loughanaphuca, evidently an abode
of that mischievous demon goat or horse. Roderick O’Flaherty’s interesting
list of the animals of West Connacht in 1684 probably applies (at least in the
winged and swimming creatures and shell-fish) to Cliara. Seafish—cod, ling,
hawk-fish, coalefish, turbet, plaise, hadog, whiting, gurnard, macrells, herrings,
and pilchard. Shell-fish —Oysters, scollops, cockles, muscles, rasures, lobsters,
crabs, and shromps; also great whales, gramps, porcupisses, and thunies.
Birds—The black eagle, ganet, clakes, soland geese, barnacles (“ engendered
out of timber”); some call them puffins, wild geese, swans .. ., Cornish
choughs, with red legs and bills, and cormorants.‘

I may add the following names, for the most part not found on the
Ordnance Survey maps :—Aillmore, Barnabaun, Bundorragh, Ballyloughmore,
Ballyhear, Bellavaun, Belloohybeg, Carrownisky,Corrydavit, Cloonlaun, Cloonty,
Corrymally, Corryaghny, Cross, Capnagower, Derrygravebeg, or Derrygorobeg,
Devlin, Fenuine or Feenone, Glen, Glencullen, Garranty, Gurteen, Kille,
Killadoon, Kinnadooley, Lettereavagh, Lecarrow, Roonkeel, Roonagh or
Koonagh, Straike, Sallylough, Toreenmore, Teevenabina, Tawnymorane, and
Tawinlough or Tawneyenlough. I have failed to get any really old version of
the place-names. Wyld’s Map of Iveland, just preceding the Survey of 1838,
gives Ben Ulra, Ooghanachollu, Ooghaduff, Port Lea, Ardell, Carrignapurtaan,
Kannacurra, Kanahouha, Portrucka, Doon Cloak, Gubanoureen, Port Alagaan,
Ough Kapul, Killglen, Moahmore, Ton Cabrickill, Doon, Oogh Gayna, Laak-
wg, Kan na Shindilla, Buda Wanny, Glashillaun, and Knockmore.

Barly Remains.

I was told of a supposed dolmen, but found no trace of the “ Giant’s
Grave” at the place indicated. Not far away, however, in a similar position,
was a row of large blocks wonderfully like such a monument, but they proved

‘ On the Munster coast ‘“‘ Calliagh”’ nearly always means cormorant, but the “hags’’ or bog
stems are so called in Mayo, and snag-like rocks may be named from them.

* Canshindilla ; there is also a Shindilla islet near Murrisk in Clew Bay.

$ Oak-names are very common on the mainland under Croaghpatrick. The Annals of Clonmacnois
give an interesting note (p. 15, ed. Rey. Denis Murphy, R.S8.A.I.). ‘‘ Many Loughs and Rivers
oroke out in their (Clann Nevye’s) time. Many playnes were made by cutting down the woodes.”’
There were floods from want of trees, and the Clan erected many raths.

* A chorographical description of hIar Connaught, Roderick O’Flaherty, 1683, p. 12.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 19

to be a natural formation. At the head of the long valley in which
Loughanaphuea lies, I found a cist-like group of flat stones, none more than
3 feet high or long, but they formed no definite chamber. It lies near the
junction of the two chief brooks, which flow down the slope through a network
of former channels, choked with hill debris, to the beautiful creeks, islets, and
natural pillars, under the colossus of Budawanna.

At a turn of the road to the lighthouse, not far from where it is joined by
the bohereen through the Maum valley, from the abbey, near the southern
border of Ballytoohymore, stands a low, rude pillar-stone. It is probably
buried for some feet by the raising of the ground by tillage and banking up
behind the fence. It is a fairly regular block of grey conglomerate, coated
with moss and lichen, and fairly smooth. It measures from 3 feet to 4 feet
1 inch high, and 36 inches by 31 inches thick, standing at the west fence of
the road at a slightly rising ground. I searched in vain for any set stones in
the curious series of deep valleys between the lighthouse and Croaghmore, and
on the central valley and the southern slopes of Knocknaveen.

Though not sure of its age, I had best note here the circle of moderate-sized
stones set in the sward 300 feet inland from the cliff-edge, where the long
spur runs down to the curious rock-pillar of Budawanna. It measures 25 feet to
27 feet across, being slightly irregular, with more conspicuous blocks, sugges-
tive of ‘‘ pointers” set to the north and the south-west. Without excavation
it is impossible to assert its age or character, whether a hut-site or a burial-
circle. Down the slope to the south, and eastward from the creek at
Budawanna, in a little round hollow, are evident remains of a hut of a primitive
design, whatever be its actual age. The western and a small portion of
the eastern segment, formed of fairly large blocks set in the ground so as to
form a smooth, curved face inside, still remain; it was divided into two by a
partition-wall, evidently an afterthought, and measures 19 feet to 21 feet
across north and south, and 16 feet 6 inches east and west. Very usual
dimensions.

Lastly, an apparently natural hillock near the old green road, behind
Knocknaveen, is reputed to be a fort, and near it a bronze spear-head was
found by Mr. MacCabe and Mr. MacGreal, and sent to the National Museum.
When found it was sticking prominently out of the sward.

Clif Forts. (Plate III.)

There are no forts marked as such by either the old or recent Ordnance
Survey. The appearance of suitable headlands and rocks, coupled with the
occurrence of the name Dun, encouraged me to expect promontory forts, nor

C2

2 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

was I disappointed, as the remains of what were probably six forts were found.
In Cliara, as in Mayo generally, the rock-platform type is well represented,
but two examples of the stone-walled headland, and one of the normal
entrenched earthwork, occur. It is, of course, to be expected that others
remained till the sea cut them away. Probably, save in a sheltered position,
all the oldest forts have long since been so destroyed. Even of those that
remain in Co. Mayo, the evidence of sea-cutting in the later ages is every-
where—the stupendous cutting-away of Dun Briste and its buildings from
the fortified promontory of Downpatrick Head, the cutting-away of the
island and hut at Cashlaunicrobin, of much of the garth and even half
the late peel tower at Dookeeghan, of most of Dunminulla, and I think of
the neck of Horse Island if (as is apparently certain) the latter was fortified.
Even in history we read of the breaking of the neck of Duross peninsula by
the sea in 1394 as recorded by Mac Firbis. I have so recently discussed this
question of erosion and the general question of promontory forts that I need
do no more than refer to the previous papers.

To the south-east of the lighthouse a natural depression and a bold
ridge behind it suggest a site, but no trace remains; probably a landslip in
very early times broke away the upper part and left no space behind
the otherwise most suitable natural fosse.

DUNALLIA and DUNTRANEEN.—(Ordnance Survey Map, 6 inches to the
mile, No. 75). In Ballytoohymore the map shows two islets off the coast
called “ Doonallia” and.“ Doontraneen.” I expected that they were the
remains of promontories the necks of which had been cut through by the
sea, and was not a little surprised to find their true nature. For the first
and northern is really a peninsula, and the other is accessible when the tide
goes out.

The names mean either Cliff fort, or O’Malley’s fort, and fort of the
withered grass stems.

Dunallia resembles on a very much smaller scale such cliff forts as
Danes’ Island, in Co. Waterford, Ilaunadoon in Co. Clare? Darby’s Island
near Kilconly in Co. Kerry, and Dunaneanir in the Mullet, all very fine
examples. I have never seen any shore forts exhibiting such great
ramparts as the fortified rocks inland to which they are akin, such as
Cashlaun Gar, in Co. Clare. Such forts usually are only very slightly
fenced as a protection against falling over. Dunallia is no exception.
The narrow neck and gangway are reached down a watercourse and a

1 Ancient Forts of Ireland, section 120. Journal Roy. Soc. Antigq. Ir., xxxvii, p. 239, xxxviil,
p. 28, xl, pp. 6, 99,179. Trans. R. I. Acad., xxix, pp. 11, 221, 265.
? Where the last traces of the fence (extant in 1875) have recently fallen away.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 6) D)|

dangerously steep slope, which brought one to an equally steep and difficult
ascent exposed to missiles from above. The ascent was in itself nearly
sufficient protection to the inhabitants, and the slight bank of earth and
stones round the landward edge made it a very effective stronghold out
of range of ordinary missiles, so that close approach and, still more, any
blockade was practically impossible. Sheep can reach the platform, which
is fairly spacious, with a very slight slope seaward and cut into by a cleft
to the south-east. The bank is rarely more than 5 feet high, and little more
than a foot at present on the inside. It runs round the landward side, and at
same distance from the “corner” the northern bank has been evidently
destroyed by a landslip so long ago that the slope is now green and apparently
little damage has been done for many years or even generations. The fall
half destroyed two circular huts; they were evidently of earth and perhaps
wood on a stone foundation like the fence. This “soling” is well seen where
the bank has crumbled recently at the north-west corner and along past the
eastern hut. The latter shows a low mound over 3 feet above the stone
“soling,’ but much filled up; the rich green of its saucer-lke enclosure
contrasts with the browner grass and bracken of the rest of the garth. The
hut is about 12 feet across with walls as usual 5 feet thick. Over 60 feet to
the west is a larger hut; its wall is over 5 feet thick, and it is 15 feet wide
inside. It resembles the northern station on the brink of the chasm south
of Dunbriste on Downpatrick Head in the same county, having a shallow
trench just inside the wall and a flat central mound. It lies about 18 feet
back from the western fence. The natural gangway was improved by the fort-
makers: a large mass of grey rock, which had fallen to its resting-place from
the landward cliff, saved much labour; they raised two steep mounds of earth
with much stone worked in, and possibly a stone facing to either side of it, to a
height of nearly 12 feet, and so made a fairly level path 2 to 3 feet wide; it
and the little gully leading to it were deeply overgrown with Meadow-sweet.
The water supply is unusually good and convenient ; two runnels unite and fall
down the landward cliff close beside the causeway, whence water could always
have been procured under cover of the night. Another beautiful fall dashes
down in a curtain of spray not far to the north.

_Duntraneen lies at no great distance from Dunallia; its platform can
be overlooked from the opposite high cliff. Mr. Praeger swam out to it
and climbed up to the summit, but found no works upon it; a portion about
30 feet wide is not too steep for residence, but much consists of a roof-like
ridge on top. It is quite evident from the appearance that at no distant date
the drift on both rocks remained to a much greater extent. At Duntraneen
the bulk of the cap fell off to either side, doubtless carrying with it the sight

BD 22 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

fences and the hut-sites ifsuch existed. The process has only just commenced
at Dun-Ooghaniska, where it has made some progress since 1909 owing to the
following very wet summer. At Dunnaglas it has destroyed about half the
fort, and at the nearly bare rocks of Dunmore and Dunnagappul near Doogort
the forts have vanished, and only their name clings to the rocks. In some
cases the destruction is very intermittent; vegetation grows again on the
bare surface and preserves it for some, even for many, years ; then from some
cause the plants are destroyed, and the bare bank again commences to crumble
till the grass again establishes itself. So far as I have examined the cliff-
forts of western Connaught and Munster, this is the most usual process of
destruction. It shows how many dozens or hundreds of entrenched head-
lands may have perished in the thousand years since the Norse wars, even
where the rock bases survive. The two Duns and the adjoining cliffs enclose
a series of beautiful picturesque little creeks looking out to Achill and the
hills near Mulranny.

OoGHBEG (O.S. 75).—On a low headland, a mass of drift rapidly falling
away on every side, I found the remains of a massive wall. It is at present
66 feet long, but both ends are wasting. At 45 feet from the present
west end, is a long set slab suggestive of the jamb of a gateway. The wall,
instead of having been built on the surface, was made in a foundation trench
over 3 feet deep; it was 12 feet thick, of very large blocks, and save for the
foundations, is nearly removed. It is very slightly convex to the land and
lies roughly east and west. Its masonry and massive character mark it as
ancient. The bank at it is 15 feet to 25 feet high, but it may be remembered
that the great fortification of the headland at Porth or Portanalbanach in
the Mullet abuts on even lower shores. The garth was once tilled, so no
traces of inner buildings remain.

There are no marks of any early entrenchment or wall on the headland
at Grania Uaile’s castle.

DuncLoak (O. S. 85).—This natural fortification lies westward from
the castle and bears considerable resemblance to the curious promontory
fort of Dunmore or Horse Island, near Loop Head, Co. Clare, and to the
Horse Island near Belderg on the north coast of Mayo. It is joined to the
mainland, however, by a broad grassy neck, 27 feet wide, with steep slopes
at either end, and low precipices on each side, the western at a curving
ereek with two fine high natural arches; the eastern at a crescent of
shingle beyond which are abrupt cliffs sheeted with masses of Osmunda
wherever a stream descends their faces. Like Dunallia, and the Clare Horse
Island it was only very slightly fenced by a mound of earth and large stones
at the summit of the neck, and eastward along the face, but probably it was

Clare Island Survey-—History and Archaeology. 2 23

once better defended by a dry-stone wall, which, like those at Spinkadoon in
the Mullet, Minard in Kerry, Doonaunroe in Co. Clare, and others, wag
removed, leaving little trace. Part of it has been destroyed long since by a
landfall, now grassed over. I found no trace of hut foundations on the platform,

DunnacapruL (O. 8. 85).—To the south-west of the Abbey are the
remains of what was probably once the strongest artificial fortification
on the island. All (save Ooghbeg) of the other duns owe their strength to
their natural features, and this is eminently the case with the next we must
describe, at Ooghaniska. It is strange that the Dun of Ooghnagappul should
have been overlooked; it is conspicuous from the road, graveyard, and the
Abbey roof, from which its character is unmistakable. It says little for the
archaeological qualifications of those who made the great maps of our Ordnance
Survey that so many forts, even such complex or well-preserved ones as Dun
Kilmore and Port Conaghra in this county, and Dunruadh, Doon Castle,
and Brumore in Kerry, have been omitted from the maps.

The fosse is cut across a deep mass of drift, about 50 feet thick, on low
rocks protected to the north and west by the narrow creek of Ooghcappul
or Ooghnagappul. The grassy slopes along the creek are intact, but the
storms and weather rather than the sea are eating away the side to the south-
east. The works consist of a nearly straight ditch 13 feet wide, and 75 feet
long; there is no trace of an outer mound. Inside the fosse is a rampart
reduced to only four and a half or 6 feet high, and 10 feet thick; behind it
was a platform or banquette such as we find in the Kerry forts of Doonbinnia
and Ferriter’s Castle on Doon Head; it is 6 feet wide. Inside this to the west
is a curved fosse slightly convex to the landward side as usual. It is
59 feet long, 6 feet wide in the middle, and 9 feet wide at the ends, and
is nearly 10 feet deep at the latter points. The inner defence is levelled; it
was evidently a stone wall, nearly 50 feet long and 9 feet thick; many large
foundation blocks remained firmly set in the sward. The north end of the
works are very neatly rounded, curving into the face of the slope, as we see
in some of the uninjured Kerry forts. The garth is at present 90 feet long
and about 60 feet wide; the gangway and entrances were not central, being
about 20 feet from the northern edge; the platform was surrounded by the
usual fence of no great thickness, which is now nearly levelled. It is evident
that on Cliara dry-stone walls and very slight earthworks were the rule.
Inside there is a trace of a small circular mound, while outside, to the east, at
the edge of the north slope, is an equally faint trace of a ring, 30 feet north
and south by about 24 feet, probably for a hut near which a levelled fence
(crossed by the modern one) runs aslant across the headland from 6 feet to
70 feet from the fosse. (Plate ITI.)

2 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

We examined the rest of the coast carefully, but only found one other
fort at Doon, and that of considerable interest from the skilful adaptation
of natural features. It lies just to the west of the curious outcrop of rock,
the upturned edges of which have been channelled into great furrow-like
hollows. It ends in a formidable precipice at a little stream gully.

Doon-OOGHANISKA (O. 5. 84).—From the edge of this channelled rock
we look across a deep narrow creek to a high headland, with a surrounding
mound, and two hut sites, justifying the name “Doon” attached to it. It
lies between two creeks, each with a waterfall at the end, which probably
helped to cut back the rock. From this circumstance one is called Ooghaniska,
which I adopt to qualify the fort-name. Between these the headland runs
southward, falling to a low grassy neck. The clay bank has been cut down
in stages 3 feet to 5 feet high, to a slope 21 feet wide, and then we find
another terrace 6 feet wide and 3 feet high, rising from a partly formed
fosse 9 feet wide. This runs E. N. E. and W.S. W. The next platform,
3 feet to 4 feet high, is mainly natural, and rises into a sharp peak,
8 feet higher. Behind this another fosse, running nearly east and west,
now somewhat filled, and only 3 feet deep, has been cut between the
rocks, and is 9 feet wide. Thence a tower of rock, partly girt by a thin
wall, rises with a narrow and dangerous path (a mere goat-track, but
cut in the rock) beside it on the west. This leads up to the platform.
The level summit is fenced on all sides by a wall of earth and- stones,
9 feet thick next the land, but 5 feet to 6 feet elsewhere, and rarely over
5 feet high. The entrance was evidently at the head of the path. Fifty-
seven feet southward from it, or 65 feet from the outer face, is a straight
traverse, exactly 57 feet long, across the garth. At this point, if we include
the walls, the fort is 71 feet wide. Touching the middle traverse in the inner
ward is the foundation of an oval house, 21 feet north and south, and 18 feet
to 21 feet east and west; the walls 3 feet to 4 feet thick, of stones and earth.
At 15 feet south from the last stood another house, 20 feet north and south
by 30 feet east and west, the sides nearly straight, but the corners boldly
rounded. The central line meets the rampart at 36 feet south from the hut.
There are three terraces, or rather ledges, each a foot high, across the southern
end of the platform, about 12 feet apart; the last is 36 feet distant from the
end of the garth, which is slightly rounded, and 33 feet across, east and west,
at 9 feet from the end. Below a steep slope of clay, about 15 feet high in
parts, the bare rock juts out to the precipice and rugged reefs at the southern
end of the headland. The east rampart curves round the north-east rock, from
the entrance; it then curves slightly outward, and then inward, following the
edge. At this second curve the face has fallen away for nearly 25 feet along

Clare Lsiand Survey—Eistory and Archaeology. 2 25

the base, showing the stone foundations of the wall, as we see across the
creek. The bank is usually a couple of feet high. The whole platform, north
and south, is about 210 feet long, sloping at the end. The general arrange-
ment strongly recalls the similar Mayo forts of Dookeeghan and Duncartan,
though its site is far bolder and more defensive by nature. (Plate IIT.)

Ecclesiastical Antiquities. (Plates II-VI.)

As I have already noted, no early church site is known to exist, but it is
not impossible that the Abbey usurped one, for a portion of one wall is of a
more primitive character than the rest of the building, and there is an early-
looking bullaun, or basin-stone, in the graveyard. The cross at its south-
west corner, scribed plainly on a great pillar, might well belong to an older
church than the late Abbey.

Itis better for us to deal first with the two wells Toberfelamurry (Tobar
féile Mhuiré), at the abbey, and Toberfelabreed, on the eastern shore, for
they, especially the latter, are extremely primitive. It is a very curious
circumstance that neither is dedicated directly to its patroness but to her
feast, the names being “The Well of Mary’s Feast” and “The Well of
Brigid’s Feast”; also that the observances of the latter fall on August 15th,
like those of the other, and not on the real day of St. Brigid.

It has been suggested that both wells were once dedicated to the Virgin,
and that the names only showed the feast-days on which rites were observed
at each ; but this is not believed locally.

TOBERFELABREED (O. S. 85).—This is not only the more honoured of the
two on the island, but the only one whose repute spreads from Galway and
Sligo to America. This is strange from the more exalted patronage of its
rival, but it is human. “The god that answers by fire,” and the patroness
that answers by cures, must override all rivals. Toberfelabreed lies in a bushy
hollow, near the extraordinary beach—a natural weir of boulders, two lines
meeting in an angle at the point called from it Kinnacurra, “head of the
weir,” and enclosing a triangle of swamp.

The observances on August 15th (Lady-Day in Harvest) take the form
of “rounds,” the worshippers walking seven times sunward (7.e. with the right
hand next the wall), round and just outside the cashel or enclosure. After
this they go on their bare knees seven times round the labba and altar, inside
it, emerging by a gap in the north wall, and finishing by prayers at the well.
Emigrants from Clare Island, even in America, vow to “do a station” at
this place, and even if they cannot afford to return get a friend to do it for
them.

R.L.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. D 2

2 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The well is accredited with many miracles of healing, even in
recent years, and to anyone acquainted with the cures arising from devout
people performing religious rites at places of healing repute, the tales are
credible. We were told how one delicate boy, too feeble to walk without
help, was brought by his mother to the place. She put him into the saint’s
“Jabba,” where he fell asleep, while she did the usual rounds, and when she
awoke him he was able to walk home with her. This I heard from two
people, with but slight variants, so record it here as a local belief. Later
than this was another cure, but more explicable by natural causes. An
Trish-American, whose health had broken down in the strenuous life of the
Republic, returned invalided to Ballinrobe. Some time afterwards, hearing
so much of the fame of the well on Clare Island, he went thither,
stayed for a week, drinking of the well and performing the regular rounds.
Finding, after his return home, that his health had permanently improved, he
determined on another visit later on, which done, he entirely recovered his
health and strength. No one can question that the strong faith in the power
of the well has played a beneficent part, and wrought not a few cures in many
weak and nervous persons.

Toberfelabreed is traditionally connected with the famous Grania Uaile.
When she was a girl, she rescued a young man from a shipwreck, and
he fell deeply in love with his preserver. They were married by the priest
of the station, at the altar near the well, and lived very happily for some
years. But evil impended. A feud arose between the O’Mailles of Cliara
and the Mac Mahons of Ballycroy. The latter surprised the former at
a deer-hunt on Achill, and Grania’s husband fell in an ambuscade. ‘he
young widow made a solemn vow of vengeance, and bided her time. Hearing
from an Erris man that the Mac Mahons were under a curse for killing a
young man at Achill, and were going on pilgrimage to Caher Island, she
manned all her galleys, and anchored behind the latter. She waited until
the Mac Mahons had landed, and then cut off their retreat, slew many and
captured her husband’s slayer, whom she brought to Cliara and hanged with
several of his confederates. Not yet were the victim’s m«anes appeased, so
she sailed to Ballycroy, surprised Doona Castle, put its occupants to the
sword, and made it her chief residence.

The remains, though evidently rebuilt, even in recent times, are very
primitive and interesting. They consist of a dry-stone cashel, irregularly
quadrilateral, with rounded corners. The interior is 48 feet across the

1 Collected by Dr. C. R. Browne, Proc, R. I. Acad., vol. y, ser. iii, p. 67. It is probably the
foundation of Maxwell’s novel ‘‘ The Dark Lady of Doona.’”? For other legends of Grania see
Caesar Otway’s ‘“‘ Tour in Connaught,’’ pp. 287-294.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 27

eastern side, and 46 feet up the west. The gateway is 25 feet from the south-
east corner, 5 feet wide, and 20 feet from the south-west angle. The north
side is short, under 30 feet long. All the wall to the west and south has
been much rebuilt; but the foundations and set-slabs are zm sitw, and the
northern and eastern parts are mainly ancient. It is usually 5 feet thick, and
4 feet high. The old parts are much overgrown with bushes. In the north-
east corner, 2 feet to 4 feet from the wall, is the Labbabreed (Leaba Brighdhe),
or St. Brigid’s bed. It is a small stone structure, rudely built, like a beehive
house, about 4 feet across the west base course and 9 feet in diameter. The
walls are 18 feet to 20 feet thick, and the outline irregular, evidently rebuilt, but
not so recently as the cashel. The interior is about 5 feet across. It has lines
of set blocks, probably its original foundations, 3 feet south of the present
face. The interior is sunken, like a shallow well. About 6 feet to the south
is the altar, a shapeless heap of uninscribed slabs. On it lie large rounded
pebbles from the beach, and a couple of “anchor stones,” large blocks, with a
groove round them for a rope, doubtless votive from some fishing-boat saved
from destruction. The cashel was recently repaired by a neighbouring farmer,
who put large white shingle stones on the gate piers. The eastern part of
the south wall does not cover the old foundation. (Plate III.)

The well lies about 20 feet from the north-east corner of the cashel, in a
marsh. It is a fairly regular structure, roofed with long lintels. It is oblong
inside, 3 feet 8 inches long by 1 foot 6 inches wide, and full to the brim.
Local tradition says that it harbours a holy fish, a mysterious trout, only to
be seen by the most devout visitors. These fish in wells are a venerable
custom in Irish history. In the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick the saint “left
two salmon in the well, alive, and they will abide there for ever. . . . Angels
will abide with them.”! There were also two salmon in the venerated well
at the O’Briens’ royal fort of Kincora, Co. Clare, which were cooked and
eaten in insult by Aedh O’Conor, King of Connacht, in 1062, when he also
filled up the well, and destroyed the fort. In modern days we find two
venerated trout in the well of Tober Kieran, near Kells, in Meath;? others-in
the “ Pigeon Hole,” near Cong, and Tober Tullaghan, in Co, Sligo. These
latter have been taken and cooked, and even eaten, without injury, as they
always reappear in their well. In Co. Kerry a salmon and an eel are said to
occupy Tober Monachan, near Dingle, in Co. Kerry; and, not to multiply
further examples of this belief, I will only refer to the holy trout in the well
near Louisburgh, in this county (Mayo), which was taken, put on a gridiron,

1 Tripartite Life (ed. Whitley Stokes), p. 112.

2 Annals of Tighernach, Annals of Ulster, &e.

3 Roy. Soc. Ant. Ir., xv consec. (1875) pp. 366, 367.
D2

2 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and partly broiled, till it jumped hack to the well, and still showed the
mark of the bars, in 1839.1

A little south of the well, at the northern end of the bay, on which are
the castle and harbour, are traces of an extensive kitchen-midden. It has so
far yielded little but shells. It is opposite the laneway, near the ruined
house where the low cliffs begin. We found shells of oyster, limpet, and
periwinkle; more rarely, teeth and broken bones, with charcoal and blackened
stones. It lies about 6 inches under the sward, and is 1 to 2 feet thick,
running along the clay bank, where a good section is exposed.

The bay and rocks near it are the scene of another legend which once had
a bad effect in giving idlers an excuse for pessimism and apathy in any
attempt to improve the island. Once on a time the shore ran out to a great
rock in the strand, and on its edge stood a weavers cottage. One day a man,
who had alone escaped from a wreck, landed at the rock. The weaver seized,
not his beam, but a heavy stick, and ran out to ask the stranger who he was ;
the waif, unable to speak Ivish, gave no intelligible reply, so the suspicious
and angry weaver struck him with all his strength on the forehead, killing
him on the spot. Now, the murdered man was brother to the Pope and
the Emperor of Rome, and by some unknown means the news reached them.
The Pontiff laid a most severe curse, not only on the murderer, but on the
whole island for all time.’ d

TOBERFELAMURRY (0.8. 85).—The Well of Mary’s Feast lies in a marshy
field behind the Abbey, to the north, and is in a state of great neglect. It
possibly shared the dedication of the Abbey, which was Carinelite, and then
Cistercian, and so naturally dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. Despite its
marshy site and the two very wet years on which I visited it, there was no
water init. It is covered by a shapeless heap of slabs; at 15 feet to the east
is an equally shapeless and rude altar only a couple of feet high. On the
last are three dedicatory slabs. The first has a cross of the Maltese type
with expanded arms, and the words “I.H.S. Pray to | God and the B.V.M,”
with the date 1701. It is most curious to find this in English rather than
Latin—or even Irish, though inscriptions in the native tongue are rare. The
next is almost illegible, being filled up and coated with rough white lichen.
It reads, so far as I can decipher, “ Pray to God this day | and to the
Bless | ed Virgin Mary | 4.D. 47 9,” and, “in 1790 D. M. Philip...” A name

1 Caesar Otway, ‘Tour in Connaught,” p. 280. TI have collected stories of cures in an article on
the Clare Holy Wells in Folk-lore, xxii, p. 208 (part 2). Holy fish are not unknown in the
Mediterranean countries, ¢.g., near Tripoli and in Turkey; also in India, Persia, and China.

2 Told by E. O’Malley to Dr. C. R. Browne. Proc. R. I. Acad., yol. v, ser. iii, p. 66. The
interesting folk-lore of Cliara is given there, pp. 63 to 70.

Clare Island Survey — History and Archaeology. 2 29

follows resembling “ Acciputer,” which seems improbable. Neither can I
interpret the apparent A.D. 479. The third slab is very curious; it has an
oblong slit worn rather than cut through the yellow sandstone near the top,
then a Latin cross and the letters I.H.S. and B.V. (Plate V.)

The altar stands near a levelled enclosure 15 feet from the well; this
measures 40 feet north and south by 56 feet cast and west, the walls being
3 feet 6 inches thick, and levelled to the ground. There is a trace of an old
ditch at 27 feet distant from the well.

Cliara “ Abbey” (O.S., 85). (Plates II-VI.)

The most interesting ancient structure on the island is the little
Monastery ; despite its simple architecture, it enables us, in a way rarely done
by our greater and more ornate monasteries, to realize the appearance of Irish
churches before the reign of Henry VIII. Very rarely do we see stucco-
work or designs in colour elsewhere; but at Cliara we get abundant material
for a general idea of the colouring, and a hint at the way stucco-work was
employed to adorn plain stone-work. The illustrations of these designs may,
I hope, prove of value to architectural students, as none of them has been
published hitherto. They were traced and copied in colours on five days,
three of which were spent in tracing them from a platform of barrels and
planks—a weary, painful task. I also devoted time to checking them on
subsequent visits, and Dr. George Fogerty photographed several, though (for
obvious reasons) photography gives a poor and often an imperfect and
inaccurate result, through the curve of the roof and the discoloration of the
stucco.

The “ Abbey” consists of a nave 36 feet 6 inches long, and 18 feet 9
inches wide, a chancel 19 feet long inside, and 13 feet 2 inches wide, over
which is a room reached by narrow staircases up the side walls. Beside
this, in line with the eastern face, a northern wing of two stories projects
with a staircase in its western wall. The north doorways of the church show
that another building ran along the north wall of the nave, but I could not
trace its foundations. Save in the north wing and part of the nave, I saw
little that could be even provisionally assigned to a period before 1450, and
much seems nearly halfa century later. It must be borne in mind that there
was a great outburst of church and castle building and restoration during the
very obscure fifteenth century, especially all through the provinces of Munster
and Connaught. Hundreds of peel towers, many monasteries and churches
date entirely from that period, and the vast majority of the older buildings
exhibit insertions of the same date.

The nave calls for but little description. It has a slightly moulded pointed

2 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

door in the west end; the south wall has a defaced window near the east
end, and a mark of another break or opening of no definite shape now built up
at 12 feet 6 inches from the west end, where probably there was once another
window, or else the nave must have been very dark. In the north wall is
another plain pointed door; its inner face was enriched by mouldings in
plaster. £ can only recall the plaster mouldings over the beautiful stone-
work in the chancel of St. Patrick’s Cathedral among Ivish examples. High
up the wall near it (though now accessible owing to the raising of the soil for
several feet) a small stoup with uncouth animals, one on each side and two in
front, has been reset by the modern restorers. Another very defaced doorway
lies close to the west of the last. The two may have opened from a building
outside and to the north of the nave. The top of the walls has a water table,
the joints covered by long, narrow stones and projecting flags to throw off
the water. There was a thin battlement, now nearly all gone. In the
south-east corner is an opening, now closed, and so forming a recess; this
led from the lower landing of the south stairs, most probably to a wooden
pulpit in the south-east corner of the nave.

The chancel was entered by a large pointed arch of four plain recesses,
the stone-work roughly dressed and once smooth plastered, and very probably
painted; the sockets for a rood-beam or screen remain in the sides. Just within
the chancel is the closed slit of a small ope or “squint” from a curious little
cell in the north wall hereafter described. Beside it is the O’Mailles’ later
monument, a well-cut undated slab and frame of black stone with a greenish
sheen like bronze. It is attributed to Grania Uaile, but the general
appearance suggests a later date; indeed the foliage (rather than mantling) is
very similar to that in dated monuments from 1660 to 1720, and it probably
belongs to the latter half of the seventeenth century. The crest is a rearing
stallion, with, however, a mule’s tail, on a wreath above a helmet and a curious
barred ornament. The shield is of strangely irregular design, a wild boar
trippant in the middle between three bows bent with arrows pointed at him,
while a galley appears at the bottom dexter corner. The mantling ends in
large tassels, and below all in large, raised letters is the name, OMAILLE;
above this, between the tassels, in smaller raised capitals, are the words
of the appropriate motto “TERRA MARIQ’ POTENS,” the “NS”
termination running up the side and not conspicuous. (Plate IT.)

To the north, close beside the tablet, is a fine and fairly perfect late per-
pendicular screen and recess; it possibly fulfilled the double debt of the
founder’s tomb and the “ Easter Sepulchre,” and was evidently used for the
latter, as the crucifixion appears scribed and with traces of painting at the
back of the recess. The interior of the chancel must be now at least + feet

Olare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 31

above its old level, as the slab of the recess is covered. In other parts the
fillmg is even 5 feet deep, and in the nave usually 3 and 4 feet. The
tracery rests on a segmental arch, with bold cuspings, and is enclosed in an
ogee frame with side pillars ending in three finials, the innermost being set
askew, evidently to show with better effect to persons at the archway of the
chancel. A defaced door leads into a vaulted sacristy, also filled for 4
to 5 feet. The east end is recessed, with a small east window which has two
trefoil-headed lights, with trefoils in the outer spandrels, under a bold
angular frame outside; they had iron frames for the glass held by four little
tongues into each jamb, one at the top and one in the sill; some of the iron
plugs remain. The opes are 4 feet 2 inches high up the sides, or 4 feet 9
inches in all, and are 8 inches wide. The altar has at each outer corner an
attached octagonal shaft, and is covered with slabs neatly moulded at the
edge, one with a slot for a pillar or candlestick ; the whole is nearly buried.
To the south was a small tabernacle with half of a cinquefoil head in the left
jamb of a deep window recess, the light of which is single, but in other
respects, save its lack of a hood, is closely similar to the lights of the east
window. West from it is a rude, plain, pointed recess, or sedile. Its arch was
turned over a wicker centre; a small carving of a human face projects near it.
Between it and the chancel arch a door leads to the south stairs and was the
way (I believe) to the pulpit. The stair is lit by a defaced window at the
foot, and runs straight up the wall eastward with nineteen steps; the
passage is only 22 inches wide. A number of very old-looking iron nails
have been driven into the south wall of the chancel.

THE PaIintincs.—The age of the paintings remaining in Ivish abbeys has
never been examined on scientific lines, and in a paper intended to give facts
and avoid mere conjecture, I shall avoid dogmatism as far as I am able.
There were traces of colouring— deep crimson and light blue—when I first saw
the chapter house of Mellifont Abbey, county Louth, in 1880, usually in the
deep-cut capitals. Dim figures of saints in red and green were once visible
at Adare, and traces, I believe, remained so late as 1878. More elaborate
paintings in red, yellow, and brown, showing the Trinity, saints, and angels,
with foliage and other ornament, were found in the closed recesses in the south
aisle of St. Audoen’s Church, Dublin.2 Red leaf-work and other ornament
remained on the pillars of St.Canice’s Cathedral, Kilkenny. A notable specimen
of design, in black outline, was found in Knockmoy Abbey, of which Cliara was

1 Otway gives a good illustration in his ‘Tour in Connaught,’”’ p. 300, and the R.S.A.I.
Handbook, No. VI, p. 38, illustrates the interior.

2 They have long since perished from soot and the weather, having been left open most inexcusably.
TI have made coloured drawings of them, and Mr. T. F. Geoghegan has an excellent photograph. An
illustration of them was published in the Report of the Board of Public Works.

2 32 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Acadeuny.

a cell. This still remains on the north wall of the chancel, and displays the
once favourite legend of the three dead and three living kings, and the equally
favourite design in later medieval hagiology, the martyrdom of St. Sebastian.
There is also a design of the removal of our Lord’s body from the cross. All
of these were dated in the thirteenth century, and explained as representa-
tions of several kings of Connacht and of the execution of Dermot
Mac Murrough’s son, with other rather wild conclusions, by Petrie and the
older antiquaries. There is no evidence that the alleged colours on the designs
were anything save weather-stains.! In Quin Franciscan Abbey, County
Clare, an elaborate design in raised stucco with I.H.S., the Sacred Heart, the
Crucifixion, with St. John and the holy women, remains over an earlier tomb
It was rudely sketched by Thomas Dineley in 1680, and I have made a
measured drawing which I hope may be published soon ; but no trace of colour
remains in the stucco. None of these designs is in fresco, though the
term is constantly applied to them, and I think all, except the last, are
earlier than the Reformation.

The design in Clare Island differs from all those previously described.
The arch of the vaulted ceiling was first turned over wicker centering. The
rough face was covered by a good undercoat, on which was painted an
ornamental design in deep, rich crimson, later than the “Easter Sepulchre,”
as it appears on the edges of the stonework there; the joints were also painted
with it, and an illegible inscription appears on the side of the south window
recess. The whole was then covered with a later coat of soft, coarse plaster,
roughened, and a finer and harder layer spread over it ‘to carry the painting ;
the bands of the imitation groining and rough sketches of the designs in
the sections were graved (the first carefully, the others rudely) with a sharp
instrument. Unfortunately the soft under-coat has proved its ruin; it swelled,
broke the harder layer, and got overgrown with a dark-green alga, which is
destroying all before it. Of the older work I have been able to recover very
little definite. On the soffit of the doorway to the south stair are red bands
to either side, with a saltier between, and red lines for imposts to either side.
There were, as I must note lower down, inscriptions in the recess of the south
window of the chancel, and evidently the head of the credence table arch, or
shrine, was relieved by red bands on a thin coat of plaster, following the lines
of the arch and cusps. The Easter Sepulchre had a broad band round its

1 Beranger in 1779 examined them with Bigari, a professional fresco-painter, and found that the
designs were bare, black outlines with no trace of colour. The green was found not only on the
clothes but on the faces of the figures. (Roy. Hist. and Arch. Assoc., now R.S.A.I., vol. i,
ser. iv (xi consec.), 1870, p. 241.) The catalogue, R. I. Acad., p. 350, states that they were
coloured in green and yellow, but the account was derived from the copy made by MacManus for
the first Dublin Exhibition. Some of the figures are illustrated (Irish Penny Journal, i, p. 227, and
K.S.A.1, vol. xxxiv, p, 242, and xxxy, p. 419.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 33

arch, and finials and thin lines at each point. At this place the fact of the
plaster of the painted ceiling and its corbels overlaying the red painted stucco
is very well seen. The Board of Public Works has done everything to preserve
the ceiling, but in vain; the damage had too long set up from water soaking
through the floor above for anything now to be effective. The colours used
are a fine and rich scarlet in the older painting; an orange red, a chocolate
brown, a rich golden yellow, and a dark slate blue, the last for the ribs and
corbels. There was a fifth colour which alone has faded out; it is, where
most evident, a faint grey, and was probably purple or light blue. I will call
it “blue ” for brevity, making no assertion thereby. The Rev. E. A. Lavelle,
curate on the island, informs me that he has been told that even in 1862,
when the new chapel was commenced, the paintings were in good preservation.
Unfortunately no one sketched them so far as is known. The present
attempt has come nearly too late. (Plates IV-VI.)

The east wall was decorated with yellow sprays and bands on a “blue”
ground. The shallow arch over the altar recess had two thin bands of yellow
on the outer edge, and a broader one next the vault and sides. From the
bands spikes or leaves projected inwards, with here and there a trefoil or fleur-
de-lys in the central space. Between this and the outer bands were V-like
ornaments, like chevrons. Round the arch and sides of the splay were bands
with curved ornaments or leaves between, and all the flat surfaces facing
westward were relieved by tree-like ornaments, branching out into spirals,
-curves, and pear-like fruit, perhaps a reminiscence of the flowers, “ knops,”
and branches in Solomon’s Temple. Only slight traces of the plaster remain
inside the splays; it seems to be scribed all over with angular patterns,
impost, and other broad bands, and rows of shield-shaped beading.

The roof is far more complex. We may examine it from the west
numbering the spaces between the ribs eastward, first along the north side,
and then along the south, as we might examine it in the building. The
framework consists of five ribs, one up the west edge, three in the centre of
the vault, and one on the east edge. In each of the four bays so made are
two ribs crossing at the crown of the vault ; they run into long, thin wedges,
where they join the main ribs, the last being parallel, or at least of fairly
even width. Where the joined groining ribs reach the spring of the vault is
a corbel painted on the wall. The corbels along the north have—1, three
leaves; 2, a volute; the 3rd is defaced. On the south the middle one
ends in an equilateral triangle, the others are defaced. The framework is
deeply scribed, very carefully, to the square, into about eleven oblongs to
each main rib, painted dark blue grey, and looks like inset tiles.

The designs so framed are very heterogeneous, for so far as one can see

R.1.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI, E 2

2 34 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

there is no reason for any one group occurring in one place more than
another. The north groups D and E have the slight connexion that the
monsters are spitting fire at each other, the flames crossing the rib, while
F and G in the south may imply that the greyhound is pursuing the
animal in the next compartment. As a rule, the drawing is crude but
spirited ; the horseman and greyhound are full of life. Some of the cattle
and goats are clearly in motion, and the stag, worried by the wolf, though
motionless, is well drawn. The only other connected group is F north,
the herdsman and his cattle and goats. The one unmistakably religious
subject on the ceiling is the angel with the scales ; but the wolf may symbolize
Satan, the stag (“desirmg the waterbrooks”’) the fervent believer, and the
cock the need of vigilance, such symbolic designs being widespread. It may be
too wild a guess that the conies (the “ feeble folk that make their nest in the
rock ”) may typify weak but faithful believers, as they do in late medieval
treatises on animals (bestiaries). The two birds in K and L (south) are
possibly the symbolic pelican and phoenix.

Along the crown of the arch at the summit of the interspaces were plaques
or bosses of encircled crosses. The first has an outer ring of yellow, a thick
one of red, and a cross of red segments, all marked on the soft plaster with a
compass ; a lighter cross has been painted over it as an afterthought. There
are yellow patches in each segment of the stronger cross. The second (B) is
nearly destroyed; it has two brown circles, with a ring of short red bars and
a loop inside ; the third (C) has red circles and a strong cross; one arm is leaf-
shaped ; all the others have perished with the plaster, much of which has
fallen away.

As for the figures in the interspaces—North—A, three animals, one a
yellow fox or dog, and two rabbits, one red and one yellow; B,a large scribed
figure of an angel holding the scales of judgment; the face and nimbus are
yellow, the hair, edges of the wings, and bar of the scales, faded red, the rest
is only scribed ; C, covered with yellow branches and fruit on a “ blue ” ground ;
D, a long scribed serpent divided into squares of red and “blue”; from its
open jaws spout flames, thin lines of red and yellow across the roof-rib at a
second monster? in E. This has a wolf’s head, lion’s body, and eagle’s claws,
with perhaps a trace of wings; it is red, and over it in the narrow angle is a
trace of a red figure. Below all is a very curious design, apparently a Chinese
dragon in brown, with a wing and three red tails. It is, however, only when
we examine it carefully that its whole interest is apparent. The artist scribed

1 Rabbits were introduced only very recently into Clare Island.

* One recalls the old tale where the men of Connacht see two beasts, each as big as a mound or
peak fighting so furiously that fiery swords darted out of their jaws and reached to the sky. (Voyage
of Bran, yol. ii, p. 60, from Egerton ms., 1782,)

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 35

a wolf’ at full gallop, with a hound swinging from its throat; afterwards he
(or the painter if two were at work) retained the wolf’s head, turned its body
into a wing, and painted the dog so as to form the body, adding tails and paws
as required. F has a cowherd in aclose-fitting yellow cap and tunic, with red
borders and long wand over his shoulder, and a red staff, ending in a triangle,
under his arm. Below is his herd of cows and goats, the latter with waving
horns; below them a strange red-beaked head, nearly gone. G has a large red
horse, nearly covered by yellow and “blue” trappings and reins. A man stands
before it; he has red hose, and a “blue” tunic, with fringe and belt; below is
a spirited sketch of a red man on a yellow, rearing horse, prancing westward.
The bay has some trace of a yellow animal, and a red man with a conical cap
and aquiline nose. The other north bays, K, L, M, N, are destroyed, save parts
of the ribs, by green growth.

The south side, A, a large, yellow stag, with red antlers and “ mane,” with a
red wolf hanging from the stag’s throat by teeth and claws, its hind legs
kicking up. B is defaced; C has a large red cock, cleverly drawn by a few
scratches, and floreated yellow and red sprays; D has a man in red and
yellow tunic, tight hose, the left yellow, the right and the sleeves red, and
red knee-caps. The tunic forms a kilt, and is held in by a waist-sash,
ending in streamers and a red bow. He is stooping and holding a long
pole. Below is a red, oval figure, with a fan-like projection. In E are
faint red animals overhead, and a red man leaning over a yellow object,
F has several more animals, then a large red hound at full speed, very well
painted. Below is a harper in long yellow robes, holding a characteristic
Irish harp, with six red strings and a red frame relieved by a yellow line. G
has two yellow dogs, and a very natural prowling red wolf. In H is a yellow
tree, with pear-like fruits, and in K a red hound, a yellow animal, and a faint
trace of some red figure, which when carefully examined in good western light
reveals itself as a bird with a hooked-beak, crest, a curved tail like a cock, and
yellow legs.* L has a large yellow conventional bird, outlined in red. It has
curved neck, serrated wings, and triangular tail, with a curved red object and
some red lines below. It is very probably a pelican, a favourite symbol of
Christ. Here the designs end, as M and N are bare of plaster, the wet caught
by the east gable overhead having run through the vault, and rotted all at
that end, especially in the south-east corner.

Hardly a trace remains of any design on the side walls. The older
painting, however, shows nearly everywhere if a flake has fallen from the

1 The last wolf was killed in Connacht about 1700.
* First recognized by Dr. G. Fogerty, R.N.
K2

2 36 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

later plaster; but no pattern is discernible, save at the inscription now illegible
at the south window, over the little tabernacle, and, as I noted, in the painting
and scribing of the crucifixion in the “Easter Sepulchre.”

OvercrorT.—Ascending the south stair we reach the room over the
chancel, a rather unusual feature in late buildings, though found in the early
oratories of Friar’s Island and St. Flannan’s, Killaloe, St. Kevin’s Chureh at
Glendalough, St. Columcille’s House at Kells, Meath, and the later ones of
St. Doulough’s, near Dublin, and St. Mochta’s, Ardee. Later ages thought it
irreverent to put any residential room above the altar. The heights of this
part are as follows :—13 feet to the upper floor, 21 feet 10 inches to the water —
table, and about 25 feet to the top of the gable above the ground in the church,
and 5 feet 6 inches more in each case above the outer level. The upper room
is well preserved, and measures 153 feet wide and 19 feet 9 inches long east
and west; the walls are 3 feet thick, crowned with slab gutters, and the windows
do not seem to have been glazed, but may have had inserted wooden frames
with glass, and certainly had shutters turning in sockets. The eastern one
has a wide splay and an ogee-headed light commanding a beautiful distant
view of Croaghpatrick. The south wall has the lintelled doorway to the stairs,
and a deep window with broken light looking to Inishturk and Caher Island,
and the cliff fort of Dunnagappul. In the west wall are an ambry, a window
with a small light and large splay looking into the nave, and near the north-
western corner a doorway which evidently gave access by a ladder to the
gutters of the nave. The north wall has a very small door to the sacristy
stairs and an oblong window. There is no fireplace here or elsewhere in the
building, showing how little outer fashions reached this remote island.

Norta Winc.—A passage only 20 inches wide with eight steep steps leads
from the overcroft to the vaulted floor of the wpper room of the north wing.
The room is greatly defaced; the west wall has a recess next the church, and
the east a recess and sill of a window.

The stairs in the west wall are all removed, but the ground has been
raised so much that the broken summit is easily reached. The vault is so flat
and so badly built that the greater part has fallen away, some very recently ;
despite the new concrete cover, the roots of the vegetation have pierced the
arching everywhere. There are two windows to the east, but built up, and,
strange to say, not visible outside. The north part is levelled. The downput
of a small garderobe appears at the head of the stair; the latter was lighted
by an unglazed slit, and had two pointed doors nearly buried. Creeping
through these we find the cell at the squint in the north wall of the chancel.
It is about 6 feet long and 3 feet wide with a small ope to the north, which
with the ope into the church makes it cruciform. It may have been used by

Clare Island Survey—History and A rchaeology. Oy Bier

a penitent or an anchorite; it is barely large enough for a man to lie in, and
is too small for an aelusus such as occupied the little cells at St. Doulough’s
and elsewhere.

Monuments.—Outside the chancel to the south is a slab with a small
shallow basin from which three cuts radiate irregularly. In the west wall of
the enclosure beyond the modern Roman Catholic church is a fine pillar-stone
11 feet high and 18 inches by 9 inches thick ; the south face is engraved with
the outline of a long Latin cross neatly cut. Besides the O’Maille tomb there
are no monuments of any great age, though we read of the burials of Donall,
Murchad, and Dermot O’Mhaille in the thirteenth century. Whether the
famous Grania was really buried here and not (as tradition on the mainland
says) at Burrishoole Abbey, we have no decisive evidence. Probability rather
favours her burial at the last or Doonagh.’ “A skull with golden earrings
in its ears !” was long shown at Cliara Abbey as hers, and Caesar Otway in his
somewhat unreliable “Tour in Connaught ” (1859) tells a wonderful story of
how, shortly after his visit to the island, “a speculative Scotsman” sailed
round the coast clearing every churchyard of its stacks of bones to make into
manure; among the rest Grania’s skull and its earrings disappeared. Even
Otway allows the rest of the tale, how one tooth and earring were found in a
boiled turnip in Ayrshire later on, to be “rather apocryphal,” and he inclines
to believe that the skull, with its earrings (which still continued to be shown),
was the former one, if not the genuine relic.”

None of the inscribed tombstones date before the last century. In the
chancel are those of Bridget (Bratch), wife of Edmond O’Malley, died
1802, aged 48 years; and Thomas O'Malley, 1807, aged 34, put up by his
brother Michael. In the graveyard are still later tombs—Thady Malley, died
1826, aged 84, put up by his sons, John, Anthony, and Michael; John O'Malley,
died 1828, aged 48; another John, died 1842, aged 51: also, of other families,
Walter Barrett, died 1837, aged 19, by Peter Barrett, and Edmond Toole, died
1837, aged 21, by his father, Charles ; all the others were later than 1870.

Grama Uaile’s Castle (0. S. 85).

The latest of the ancient buildings on Cliara is the peel tower beside the
little harbour at the south-east corner of the island.’ It derives its interest
rather from its reputed builder, “the Dark Lady of Doona,” Grania Uaile,

1 Her only recorded residence is at Carrickogolhy or Rockfleet near Burrishoole, but her father
Doharra O’ Mhaille is said to have held Cliara in 1588.

2 Loc. cit., p. 301.

3 The illustrations in Caesar Otway’s ‘‘'Tour in Connaught” (about 1838), p. 298, and the
Journal of the Roy. Soc. Ant. Ir., xxv, pp. 244-5, are very poor, and the natural features too low.

2 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

than from its own beauty or interest. It is devoid of architectural features,
and is lamentably defaced and modernized. The situation is rather
picturesque on a low rocky headland with a fine outlook commanding all the
coast across and to either side of Clew Bay. The builders deliberately
avoided the higher ground which could have extended their outlook past
Caher Island and Inishturk to Bofin. The summit of the tower is not lofty
enough to make up for the lowness of the site. Otherwise the situation is
good, being fenced to the east by a pretty little cove, a perfect bathing-place,
and on the other side by the crescent bay with its fine strand so suitable for
beaching ancient ships. The castle rock is getting cut away by the sea to
one side, and evidently was not fortified in early times.

The castle is of low square outline irregularly oblong, with bartizans, or
rather turret chambers, projecting from the face of the angles to the north-east
and the south-west on the level of the second floor. The faces measure out-
side—to the north, 35 feet ; to the south, 33 feet ; to the east, 26 feet 6 inches;
to the west, 27 feet 6 inches, and have a batter for 9 feet up. he whole
has been rough-cast, I presume when it was repaired for the coastguards by
Sir S. O’Mailley in the earlier half of the last century. ‘The battlements were
then removed, and the chimneys and fireplaces added. The tower is evidently
of the late sixteenth century, possibly (as tradition says) made by Grania; the
masonry is poor and the mortar soft and sandy ; the bartizans alone are vaulted.
The defaced east door admits one into a passage 14 feet long and 2 feet 6 inches
wide leading to the staircase; another broken door opens into the basement
room. The latter has deep window recesses to the north and south; the
lights are built up with loose stones; there was a shot-hole to the west
commanding the landward approach, but it was closed by one of the fire-
places. The outer passage turns westward, and has ambries; a small one to
the south and a large one under the stair; as there are only the traces of
three broken stone steps, the lower ones were probably wooden for 6 feet up
with perhaps a hiding-place underneath as in some English houses. Above
these are a stone flight running westward up the wall, three steps to the next
floor, sixteen more to the top one; they do not continue to the battlements.
The ceiling of their passage forms inverted steps.

The second story, first floor, is as plain as the basement; it has a deep
recess at the north window from which a narrow passage runs westward
in the middle of the wall; this was once lit by a small west light, now closed ;
the north light is similar. It had not apparently got a garderobe, but there
is a closed recess where it meets the west wall, and a passage perhaps ran
into the part altered by the fireplaces and flues. In the north-east corner is a
door to the bartizan; it is made of the only well-cut stonework visible in the

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 39

tower. The little room is about 7 feet square with a beehive-like, corbelled
roof ; it has aslit to the east, and rests on two double corbels to each side. The
spaces between are, however, closed by solid slabs, and if it were ever open to
protect the angle, it has been closed at least for a long time. The correspond-
ing bartizan to the south-west is closely similar; its slit faces westward. The
east window is large and oblong, with flag lintels and a small oblong light; beside
it to the west is a high-arched recess probably for a cupboard or even a
bedhead. The stair leads up through this window. The east window has
a large arched recess which was flagged above the entrance, and possibly had
opes to command the latter, but the flags are now broken. In the west wall
is a similar recessed oblong light ; a passage runs to the south-west bartizan ; it
is a couple of feet higher than the floor. Possibly a corresponding passage
ran northward to the recess described above. The late flues cut into the west
window recess, and run up the walls; the lintels are of wood, and the whole
with the chimneys evidently quite modern.

The top room, besides a modern fireplace to the east, and a slight recess
to the west, is remarkable only for its side passages roofed with slabs. The
northern ran into the east corner; most of its roof has been destroyed; it has
a north window and an eastern recess or ambry. On the same level is a
square north window in a deep recess. The south passage also runs to
the east, having a light in that end and one to the south. As I noted, the
staircase runs into the recess of the more western north window. The barti-
zans are now weather-slated, with two lozenges neatly executed on each face.
The slating adds to the unpicturesque appearance of the peel tower, save
from the strand, where with the pier, boats, and the distant Croaghpatrick it
makes a pretty picture. A wall, now levelled, ran from the south-west
angle of the tower southward to the creek. The headland extends only for
155 feet to the east. Over the ridge to the south, we find a picturesque
cove and some lofty caves or natural arches. (Plate III.)

Legend and History of Grania Uaile.

The legend of Grania Uaile is so instructive a side-light on the truth
and error preserved by tradition after three centuries, that I think there is
justification for studying it here. An old man named Henelly, of Ballintubber,
wrote down the legend for the Ordnance Survey, 1838. Grania Uaile was
called “nagcearbhach ” because she kept a troop of professional gamblers and
dicers among her attendants. She married John Burke of Glen Ilan
(Gleann fhaolain) in Islandady Parish, and by him had a son, Tibbot na long.
She was a pirate and plunderer, and the day of Tibbot’s birth, her galley on
board of which he was born was attacked by a Turkish privateer. The crew

2 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

lost heart, and sent to her for help. She cursed them, tied a blanket about
her, and came up jumping and dancing with a “ blunder-bush ” in each hand.
The Turks crowded to look at her, and when the officers were in a group, she
fired, shot them all, captured their ship, and hanged all the crew at Carrick
a howly. She was very proud of her warriors, and preferred a ship full of
them to one full of gold. She besieged O'Loughlin of Burren, Co. Clare, but
a cannon shot tore up the ground at her feet, and the clan mustered and put
her to flight. She reduced much of Connacht by the aid of the Burkes, who
elected her son to be Mac William Iochtair; and after all her raids, she died
a natural death. Her favourite imprecation is said to have been “ May you
be twelve times worse this day twelve months,” which the legend says she
used to her own crew during the fight with the corsair and to O’Loughlin’s
gunner, adding to the latter, “ It’s well you haven’t knocked me down.” A long
legend is told of her attempts to seize tribute from the Mac Awleys or
Stauntons, from whom she captured Kinturk, but she was repelled from
Luppertaun Castle.

In 1839, the following legendary history of Grania Uaile was told to
Caesar Otway. She was the daughter of Breamhaun Crone O’ Maille,? chief
of the district round Clew Bay, “the Uisles of O’Mealy” ; he died leaving a
daughter Grania and an infant son. Grania soon persuaded the clan to
accept her rule, which she strengthened by a marriage with O’Flaherty.
She built Hen’s Castle, or “ Cashlaun na Kirka”; thither she carried off the
son of the Earl of Howth, to revenge the latter’s want of hospitality, and
she encouraged her husband, “The Cock,” in his constant wars with the
Joyces, till she got the nickname of “The Hen,”
its name At last the Joyces made a causeway and took the “Hen’s
Castle.”* Some say they killed its inmates, but all agree that Grania escaped,
and on her first husband’s death married Mac William Highter (Sir Richard

whence her castle got

an Tarainn Burke). They married “for a year certain,” then either could
divorce the other. Grania waited till she had got her supporters into all
her husband’s castles; then she went to Carrigahowly near Newport, and
waited his arrival. Mac William came up to the castle, and Grania looked

1 See Ordnance Survey Letters, Co. Mayo, vol. i, pp. 1-9, and vol. ii, pp. 249-264. The last
(the original letter) gives a long legend of the death of her son Tibbot, but it is irrelevant to Cliara.

* Really ‘‘ Doodara,’’ the 0’ Mailly of Murrisk.

5 Of course there is a divergent legend to account for the name.

4 Otway’s ‘‘ Tour in Connaught ”’ (1839), pp. 229-245.

5 Grania herself states (Cal. State Papers Ireland, 1593, No. 62) ‘‘ husbands now and then divorce
their wives on precontracts, and eyen put their wives away without any lawful proceedings, and
bring in others ”’; but the State Papers seem to show that her relations with Richard an Iarainn Bourke
were more lasting than legend implies,

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 41

out with the words, “I dismiss you”: so her second marriage ended.' She
sided with Bingham? and the English against her husband’s forces, and in
gratitude for her efficient help Queen Elizabeth asked her to the English
Court, where Grania met her as a sister queen.* She refused to be created a
countess, but accepted an earldom for her little son “Toby of the Ship*” ;
some say if was on her return from England that she visited Howth, and
carried off young St. Laurence.® Her favourite castle was that of Chiara’;
there she kept her fleetest galleys; their cables passed through the window
and were tied to her bed-post. She ruled manfully to the day of her death,
and was laid in the holy ground of Cliara Abbey, the most able chief of her
clan. She, the closest ally of the English,” even against the native chiefs, got
idealized into a patriotic Amazon, and the song of “Grania Uaile”’ is still
preserved and is based on this delusion. I have given the Cliara legend of
her earlier marriage at Toberfelabreed.

In history’ she appears as “Grainne ni Mhaille,” or “Grainne na
gcearbach,” of the gamblers. By the latter title she is described in a
panegyric on Shane O’Doherty about 1598.° She was a daughter of Doodarra
O'Malley, some time chieftain of Upper Owle O'Malley (Murrisk) ; her mother
was Margaret ny Malley, a daughter of Conogher O’Malley, of the same
county and family’? Grania was wife first of Donnell O’Flaherty, chief
of Ballinahinch, and secondly of Ricard an Jarainn Bourke, chief of Carra and
Burrishoole. The latter succeeded Sir John Bourke as MacWilliam Lighter,
and died in 1583. She first appears in history as driving away the fleet sent
to besiege Carrigahowly in 1574; two years later she visited Sir Henry
Sidney, who calls her “a most famous feminine sea captain called Granny

1 A similar legend is told of Maureen Rhue O’ Brien of Lemeneagh, Co. Clare, 1640.

? Not Bingham but Sidney (Carew mss. 1583, No. 501), and later on Malbie, this time against her
husband.

3 The visit: was later, and as a humble petitioner.

4 Theobald, ancestor be the Earls of Mayo; he married Meadhbh, sister of O’Conor, Sligo, inal was
only created Earl in 1628, thirty-five years after his mother’s visit to London.

5 Duald Mae Firbis in his ‘‘ Great Book of Genealogies”’ says that Richard O’ Cuairsci (Mac William
Kighter, 1469-1479) ‘‘ took the Lord of Beann Edair, and brought him to Tirawley.”

6 This is not borne out. by the State Papers, in which Rockfleet or Carrigahowly was her
residence.

7 Sir R. Bingham, however, calls her ‘‘ Grany Maly, a notable traitress and nurse to all rebellions
in Connaught for forty years,’’ Cal. State Papers Ireland, 1593, No. 18.

8 See Mr. Hubert ‘I. Knox in Journal Galway Archaeol. and Hist. Soc., vol. iv, p. 65. He has
brought together much material. Much has been published in the Calendars of Carew mss. and
Trish State Papers. As Mr. Knox says: ‘The English records alone show what she was; she is
mentioned by no Irish annalist.”’

9 “Graine na gcearbhach he plundered.’’ O’Doherty plundered Umhall in 1598. He was
father of Sir Caher O’Doherty. O'Donovan knew of no other contemporary record of Grania Uaile
(O. 8S. Letters, vol ii, p. 249). Hardiman’s Elizabethan Map No. 1 records ‘‘ 0 Male Grani.’”

10 Her replies: to the queries on her petition, Cal. State Papers [reland, July, 1593, No. 62.

R. J, A. PROG., VOL. XXXT. Fr 2

2 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Imally.” She offered him the service of three galleys and 200 men. Her
husband was with her, but was evidently kept in the background! In 1577
she had the ill-fortune to be captured by Gerald, Earl of Desmond, who
finally handed her over to Drury, the Lord Justice. “Granie ny Maille, a
woman of the province of Connaught, governing a country of the O’Flahertys,
famous for her stoutness of courage and person, and for sundry exploits done
by her by sea.” She was imprisoned for a year and a half in the earl’s
castle and at Limerick, and Drury brought her to Dublin? In 1580
“ Richard Inerian ” rebelled, and “Grany ” helped Malbie to harass him, but
three years later the pair were reconciled, and “ Grayne ny Vale” was far less
anglophile. Her husband died that year, and she lived at Carrigahowley
Castle. The English suspected her of aiding the Bourkes in 1586. She was
not very regardful of her old allies, and got into further trouble by taking
three boats at Aran at the instigation of the O’Flahertys. However, it
appeared that she did not know that peace had been made. It was in 1593
that she went to England to secure the property and rights of her O'Flaherty
son and grandson, and her two sons by Sir Richard an Iarain. Owen, her son
by Donall Ichoggy O’Flaherty, chief of Ballimahinch, had been lulled on
“a false alarm” of a rescue while in the custody of Captain O’Mullay?; but
Murrogh, her son, and his son Donnell were alive. Her petition abounds in
details of her long and chequered career. She naturally emphasizes her
services to the English on all occasions. The other casual mention of her
name is of little interest, nor is the actual date of her death recorded; but it
can be seen that legend preserved much fact, and hardly exaggerated the
character and exploits of that masterful woman—like all her race, “terra

marique potens.”
Folk-lore.

There is no subject connected with Irish archaeology on which it is so
hard for a stranger to get information as folk-lore. Even when one has lived
long among the people, and when they have got to trust one, much is held
back for fear of misunderstanding. Accordingly I can add little, if anything,
to what has already been done in this field.‘

In the important group of lucky and unlucky acts may be classed belief in
the evil eye and “overlooking,” meeting a strange woman with red hair when
starting for work or on a journey, or accepting bait when out fishing without

1 Calendar of Carew mss., 1583, No. 501. 2 Tbid., No. 109.
> Calendar of Carew Papers and State Papers (Ireland). 4 Proc. R.JA., vol. v, ser. ili, p. 63,

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 43

‘paying ” for it with a stone from the ballast or some other object of little or
no value; giving fire out of a house on May Day, and taking a holy stone
from Caher Island.

For luck, bonfires are lighted on St. John’s Eve, and people make the sun-
ward turn round them seven times in the name of the Trinity ; cinders from
the fire are thrown into the potato field to ensure a good crop; a small offering
of a pin, button, rag, fish-hook, or even pebble should be offered on visiting
Caher Island, and the fishermen used to take off their hats and reverence
St. Patrick on passing it. Of the “good people” or “gentry,” ¢., fairies,
firm belief subsists. Dr. Browne met a man who had seen over 100 fairies
dressed in white, running on a mountain-side in the spring of 1896; other
people had rescued a child from them. Fairies are mischievous beings—the
least wicked of the fallen angels—allowed to haunt the earth till the Day of
Doom. They steal new-born children and injure (or even mutilate) cattle ; *
women, children, and cows are protected from them by tying on a red cord.
They produce the Will-o’-the-Wisp, the mirage, fairy islands, and phantom
ships in which they sail over the islands.2 Seals, too, are thought to be
enchanted people, and to have stolen a girl from Bofin. If, however, one is
shot, the following days are sure to be stormy. These animals do not like to
meet a priest, and plunge into the sea if they see a man in a black coat.
Ghosts are feared, but little is known about them; the puca infests a lake on
Cliara, and gives its name to Foheraphuca near Dugort, in Achill, and the
banshee is not unknown in Inishbofin. Blacksmiths are believed to have
dangerous powers of cursing, especially by turning the anvil. Another
evil rite is fasting for several days and boring a hole in a coin in the name
of the devil, uttering an evil wish against a person. This is believed to be
of deadly efficacy and is much reprobated.3 Of cures (beside those wrought
at Toberfelabreed, Caher Island, and Clochan Leo, on Inishark), head-measur-
ing closes the skull and so cures headache. Herbal cures are in repute
(usually nine herbs are boiled in milk), while the curative power of butter for
erysipelas is well established in popular pharmacy. Sick cattle are cured by

1 See Otway, ‘‘ Erris and Tyrawley,’’ pp. 33, 72-77.

* See ibid., pp. 94, 95, for electrical phenomena and luminous insects on the west coast of this
country. Mr. Henri saw a ball of fire on his flagstaff like the St. Elmo’s fire.

5 The horrible superstition of the ‘spancel,’’ an unbroken ring of skin cut off from round a dead
body, seems to have been confined to the Cross and Termon Carra district before 1840 (see Otway,
“ Erris,”’ p. 90): ‘* We have strooke hands to league with Death and made covenant with Hell.’’
So also the ‘‘ Cashlaun flaineen,” which I have had the good fortune to photograph on Galway Bay,
where itis still used asa fishing charm, was believed to wreck vessels in North Mayo in 1839 (“ Erris,”’
p- 389). The ‘‘ Caslaan Pleminhin’’ was a miniature castle of nine stones with its door in the direction
from which the wind was desired ; in Co. Galway it is a miniature dry-stone fort of about 20 stones.
See my photograph, Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. vi, ser. iii, plate xxiii.

2

2 44 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

boring their ears and passing a goatskin thong through one. There are also
traditional child-birth charms in high repute. A child with the whooping-
cough was passed three times under a she-ass and a drop of ass’s milk
sprinkled on it in the name of the Trinity.

Opposite these islands beliefs are abundant, including belief that stumbling
over a grave foretells death in a year (certainly not verified in the case of
antiquaries). The flint arrow-head is a fairy dart, but it also cures cattle struck
by it if passed three times over and under the animal with proper incantations.
There are fairies of the air, sea,and earth. One man danced to “the music of
their sweet pipings,” and died within a year.1 The hearth should be swept
clean, and new fire put down for their use at night. Ghosts of persons,
dogs, and a white cow have their place in local belief. The ghostly cow com-
memorated in the name of Inishbofin was turned into a rock by a witch; and
water-horses inhabit the lakes, and try to tempt the unwary to ride, and then
drown them like Sioda M‘Namara’s water-horse in County Clare. The devil
is feared as an agent of mischief as well as of sin; he even appeared to a
woman in chapel and told her he did it because people were so careless there.
Cases of demoniacal possession are remembered traditionally; protective
straw crosses are placed in the roof of a house on All Hallows’ Eve; a very
solemn oath with one hand on a skull‘ used formerly to be taken in the
Ballyeroy district.

A much-dreaded rite, at least in 1839, near Louisburgh, was turning “ the
stone of Duan McShaun.”* One of the magically endowed craft of the black-
smith was said to have been overmatched in cursing by a man (whom he had
prosecuted for stealing cabbages) who turned the stone against him so that he ~
died. Another man turned it against the parish clerk and the window of
Louisburgh church was blown in; and lastly, the great wind of January 6th,
1838, was supposed to have been caused by a malignant old woman turning
the Leac.’

It is very unlucky to dig a grave ona Monday, to take a tobacco pipe off a
grave, to build an addition to the west side of a house, or any addition if the
house is built at a haunt of fairies. It is, of course, most unlucky to meddle

4 Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv, ser. iii, p. 104.

2] have heard of ghost dogs near Belmullet, Bangor, and Portacloy; for similar beliefs see
‘* Folk-lore,” xxi, p.482. For cow ghosts, see Otway, “ Erris,” p. 34.

3 <‘ Folk-lore,’’ xxi, p. 486.

4 Proc., vol. iv, ser. ili, p. 105; Otway’s ‘‘ Tour in Connaught,”’ p. 287 n.

> «* Tour in Connaught,” p. 295.

6 For a malignant turning of stones at Kilmoon, Co. Clare, see ‘‘ Folk-lore,’’ vol. xxi, p. 49.

7‘ Tour in Connaught,”’ p. 296. A similar belief prevailed in Inismurray; Hill, a man who
turned the flag, was drowned; and the counter-belief sprang up that whoeyer got his wish from the
stone neyer got an answer to a prayer to Heaven.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 45

with an earthen fort; but I did not find that the promontory forts on Achillbeg
or Cliara were so regarded. It is also thought unlucky to move into a new
house ; but if it becomes necessary, some of the danger may be forestalled by
moving on Monday eastward and on Tuesday westward. ‘lhe fairy legends
of Inishturk are reserved for the section on that Island.

In the southern islands—Bofin and Shark—people avoid mentioning a
priest or a fox! while fishing. This belief as to the fox prevails all down the
coast despite the fact that the creature’s saintly namesake, Sinnach mac Dara,
is a deeply reverenced’patron on Galway Bay. It is most unlucky to praise a
child without adding the prophylactic, “God bless it,” for should illness
ensue, even some time after the praise, the people would certainly attribute it
to the evil eye.” Another preventive is by signing the cross in the name of
the Trinity. One old woman, in 1893, living on Bofin, was reputed to have
this terrible gift of the evil eye, injuring by it both her neighbours and _
their domestic animals ; and Lady Wilde records a case on Inishark.

One peculiar belief is that if one buys a cow at the New Year without
putting some of her milk in one’s boots, she is sure to “run dry.”

The people on Bofin believe firmly in fairies; nay, one man has seen
crowds of female elves clad in brown, while others have seen a number of
little men in green, with two leaders in black. It is usual to spit on children
to charm tbem from fairies. The “Fir dearg” and the Banshee, but
apparently not the Leprechaun and the Puca, are believed in as common
phenomena in these islands. Lastly, if a fairy changeling is left at a house, the
only efficient way to get rid of it and to recover the real child is to set a pot to
boil and to threaten to put the unwelcome substitute into it, when it will
vanish, and the lost child be restored to the family.’

3. INISHTURK. (Plates VII-VIIL.)

Inishturk has been allotted to the parish of Kilgeever, and the barony of
Murrisk, in Co. Mayo, opposite to which it lies, about 7 miles from the nearest
shore. The name obviously means Boar Island; but it seems improbable that
so formidable an animal was found in an island so far divided from the rest
of the world, unless he emulated the swimming powers of the Welsh boar,

" Knitting mittens for foxes and uttering praises to conciliate them were in use in more northern
Mayo in 1839—Otway, ‘‘ Erris,’’ p. 145.

* Otway describes a case of reputed evil eye near Rossport (‘‘ Erris,”’ p. 320).

* Dr. Browne, Proc. R. I. A., series iii, vols. iii, iv, v ; Professor A. C. Haddon in ‘‘ Folk-lore,”’
vol. iv, p. 49; Lady Wilde, ‘ Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland,’’ 1890; ‘‘ Ancient
Legends, Mystic Charms, &v.,” 1887; and Otway’s ‘‘ Tour in Connaught,” 1839.

4 Called in Lewis’s Topographical Dictionary, Gilgayower and Kilgavower.

2 46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Twre Trwyth, or shared the insular tastes of the Matail boar of Illanmattle,
on the Clare coast.! Perhaps, after all, as Twre Trwyth has been explained to
be a sea-rover, and the pirates’ harbour and fort are to be seen on Inishturk,
the “Boar” may have been a warrior or robber. Several instances occur of
such nicknames as “The Cock,’ “The Hound,” “The Wolf,’ and “The Red
Dog” in Irish records? It is even probable that the original Mahon
(Mathgamhan, bear) and Faelchu (wolf) got their names from their personal
ferocity. So this may explain the name of the island without invoking the
presence of an actual boar in so improbable a spot.

This beautiful island has been rarely visited, and never described archaeo-
logically. It rises boldly from the sea, in wall-like cliffs to the north-west,
and steep hills to the north, culminating in the dome of a crag on which
stands the old signal tower, 629 feet above the waves at its base. The town-
lands of Mountain Common and Garranty seem devoid of forts or hut-sites.
The old settlers seem to have congregated at the south-west corner, round
the beautiful little harbour of Portadoon. Here rich soil in sheltered valleys,
little streams and lakes, and the land-locked basin, with its beach and narrow
entrance, all formed an ideal settlement for a primitive tribe—the cliffs
white with sea-gulls, and the rocks abounding im seals and shellfish, while
the harvest of the deep lay outside, sheltered by the island from the northern
and north-western winds. The secure little creek of Coolport has now
superseded the other harbour, as being free from a dangerous swell, and
having a wider entrance.

Like Chiara, ‘Turk is rich in “ Ooghs,” long narrow creeks with precipitous
sides, ending in caves. Two in Garranty have great pits at the end. The
more eastern, Ooghnalee, is a rock-garden of ferns and other plants, with a
shelf (covered with bracken over 7 feet high) facing a tall triangular cleft.
The others are Ooghdoul, Ooghnaman, Ooghfinnoge (from the royston crow),
Oogheat, Ooghmore, Ooghnascaddaun (herrings), Ooghduff, and Ooghnamucka
near Dromore Head. North from it lie the Boughil rocks,’ under a mighty
cliff, overhanging the sea, and within are three long parallel valleys, lying
east and west, in Ballyheer and Drumnashargan; the southern, ending in great
storm-beaches, where huge blocks and slabs are heaped up, like cairns, walls,
and dolmens, by the incredible might of the waves and gales of that fierce
coast, bears the name of Turlinmore.

The place, so far as I have searched, is devoid of early history, first

1 Mabinogion, and ‘‘ Adventures of the three sons of Thorailbh mac Stairn.”’

2 For MacTire (wolf), as a personal name, see Annals of Ulster, 1099. Faelchu and Faelad were
common, especially in Ossory, and the head of the son of ‘*'fhe Cock”’ was publicly exposed at
Singland, 1084-9.

3 For the legend of the other Boughil (boy) rock, see under Inishark.

Clare Island Survey—MHistory and Archaeology. 2 47

appearing about 1574 as Inysturke. Only one fort had been noted as existing.
The Ordnance Survey Letters’ only say that “there is a kill dedicated to
St. Columba, and some small traces of a dun.” The island belonged to the
O’Tooles, who were said to be a Leinster tribe, but were also alleged to be
derived from a certain Tuathal Ua Mhaille.2 Dr. Charles R. Browne men-
tions a defaeed dim in Ballycragegy, on a bold knoll over the land-locked
little harbour. Of the dun, tradition says that it was built by pirates, who
harboured their galleys in the creek below, screened by rocks from the
observation of those sailing past. This “pirate crew” were the last Danes
in Ireland who knew how to make the dior lochlannach, a priceless drink
made from the heather-bloom. The fort was surprised and taken by the ©
Trish, who slaughtered the inmates except one old Dane and his son, offering
to spare the captives if they told the secret of the dzor, or, as others said, the
hiding-place of their vast treasures, the plunder of many districts during long
years. ‘he old pirate, fearing that the boy might be tortured or tempted
into betrayal, offered to tell if his son were put to death, so that none of his
kin might see his treachery. This done, the father tore himself from his
guards, and ran, shouting insults, to the deep chasm, springing over the cliffs,
and carrying his secret to Odin. A closely similar story is told in Kerry in
connexion with the old mearings, said to mark the heather-fields. In Clare
the stone fort of Caherscrebeen, near Leamaneagh Castle, is also reputed to
contain, along with cellars full of gold, silver, and deer’s fat, a vault full of
the bior lochlannach.

Of the Chapel of St. Columba I found no trace in the overgrown grave-
yard, save some heaps of stones, reputed to be its remnants. I find no record
of the sojourn of the “Apostle of the Hebrides” in Turk. He may have
been only chosen patron, and it must be remembered that even the Norse
venerated “ Kolumkille,’ and the Icelanders dedicated a church to his name.’
In the graveyard are some interesting modern cists, like those in Caher
Island and in Corcaguiny, made of thin flags, in which the coffin is placed
partly above the level of the ground, and all is then covered with stones—
latest survival of the cist and cairn burial in Europe. Two square heaps of
blocks, like the prayer-stations in various parts of Ireland, remain in the
long valley south of the church, next the sea.

Dun Batiycracca.*—This fort lies so exactly on the bounds of Ballycragea
and Ballyheer that it is hard to state to which it really belongs. Dr. Browne
says the first, and as this gives a mark of distinction from the Dun of

1 Co. Mayo, vol.i., p. 476. 2 Some of the Ballyheer O’Tooles emphatically deny this.
3 Landnamabok, i. 15. See ‘‘ Folk-lore,” iv, p. 229. 48ee Plates VII-VIII,

2 48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Ballyheer, I adopt his decision. The dun is a very striking structure, on the
end of the chief ridge, between the parallel valleys so characteristic of Turk
and Caher Islands. The builders knit their walls into every projecting rock
at the head of the steep slopes, 100 feet up, and fenced the weak spot where
the ridge continued eastward, at its most narrow point, by a strong curve of
wall, with blocks 4 feet to 5 feet long. The ends are now nearly levelled.
The rampart is usually from 4 feet to 6 feet high, and 6 feet to 8 feet thick
along the flanks. It was probably once 10 feet to 12 feet high. The part to
the north is a fine piece of work, well preserved, and rarely under 5 feet high
outside. It is of large blocks with their smaller ends out, like “header”
masonry, and is in a single section, with two faces and large filling. It
has two opes in the face of the wall resembling gateways, but I think only
gaps under the larger slabs. The south wall is more dilapidated. It forms
a revetment, and is, in parts, 6 feet to 8 feet high. Near the gateway it
was of two, if not of three, sections. Two remain. The bonding with the
crag is worthy of the builders of Langough and Ballydonohan! forts.
The sections near the gateway are 4 feet 6 inches and 3 feet thick, There
may have been another section, 3 feet thick, on the edge of the crag.
The outer faces were, as usual, of the larger stones, and the sections sit
on low ledges of various heights. The gateway was in the middle of
the south wall. It is 3 feet 8 inches outside and 3 feet 10 inches inside.
The passage was 12 feet long to the outer section of the wall. It is levelled
to the foundations, but seems to have had side walls projecting inwards.
The passage runs down a crag, with natural steps as at Dun Aengusa in
Aran. ‘The first step is 10 feet long and 3 feet high; the next 7 feet 3 inches
and 3 feet. Thence narrow ledges, bare footholds, descend 5 feet or 6 feet to
a narrow path down the south-west flank. This descent is broken, steep, and
overgrown. The garth enclosed by this wall is 171 feet east and west,
varying, of course, greatly, as it is a long oval in plan, like Dundomnall near
Belmullet. It is 14 feet 6 inches wide near the west bend, 46 feet to 47 feet
towards the middle and at the rock outcrop, and 38 feet 6 inches at 30 feet
from the east. The wall is nearly all removed at the west end. A heap
of stones and earth, perhaps a collapsed hut, lies at the east end; and a
heap and hollow may represent another house-site, at 60 feet from the west.
So very well-built and simple a fort on so commanding a position is
probably of early date. The type of wall is found in Ireland connected with
Bronze Age finds, perhaps of the fifth to the seventh century before our era, snd
was abundant in Gaul several centuries before its reduction by Julius Caesar

1 Proc. R. J. Acad., xxvii (c), Plate xy. and p. 395,

Clare Island Survey—History and Archacoloyy. 2 49

&

The legend, however, is very probably right, for Norse, Danes, and other sea-
rovers probably occupied so convenient a harbour and stronghold, “high on the
beach their galleys drew,” and lodged their plunder in the Din.

Mr. Tim Toole “ Austin”! (to whom I am indebted for much information,
kind attention, and hospitality when he went with me over the south-western
quarter of the island) tells me a curious family tradition. His srand-uncle,
about a century ago, found a deposit of treasure, a vessel with lumps of gold,
no ornaments being remembered, at the foot of the knoll, south from the gate-
way of the fort. He sold the rough gold for £40, but was told it was “worth
thousands.” It greatly supports this family statement that similar plain
ingots of gold were certainly found among the heap of ornaments of the “great
Clare gold find” near Moghane Fort, Co. Clare, 1854.* (Plates VII, VIII.)

Dun BALLyHEER.—It is very unfortunate that the next two forts have
been nearly swept away. The dangerous precipitous chasm of “Ooghmore ”
yawned, a danger to men and a constant death-trap for sheep and cattle, close
beside them. The community determined to build a wall round its edge, and
used the convenient store of material in the neighbouring duns. The same
has been done elsewhere for less urgent reasons, in mere wantonness and
idleness, and the result is always regrettable.

The Dun of Ballyheer occupied a low, craggy knoll with a flat top. The
wall closely conformed to the edge, and is still traceable. Fortunately the base
blocks of its gateway were too large for convenient removal. The plan shows
the irregular outline of a garth 117 feet east and west, 40 feet to 60 feet wide
north and south. No sites are apparent, but a hollow runs along the eastern
reach of the north side. The gateway was of large blocks ; it faced the east, and
a single stone, 7 feet 6 inches long, passed through the entire depth of the wall
to form the base of the south pier, being at present 3 feet 3 inches high over
the debris and 16 inches to 18 inches thick. The northern side had
two blocks 3 feet 8 inches by 29 inches by 12 inches and 2 feet
7 inches by 29 inches by 15 inches, leaving a passage 3 feet 4 inches wide.
Most of the wall was 6 feet thick, with base blocks 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches
long, but very little trace remains even of the foundation. (Plate VII.)

Dun OocHMorre.—In the angle formed by the main cliff and the great
chasm at the east of Ooghmore was a small, strong fort. It had a dry-stone
wall, nearly straight, about 78 feet long, built against a crag 6 feet to 9 feet
high, and along a ledge. The enclosure is 36 feet deep, and triangular. Part

1 The addition of a parent’s name is usual in the western counties where the personal name is
common.

? Proc. R.I.A., vol. xxyii, p. 219. Dr. Browne heard of a more recent treasure find in the
Dun on Inishturk.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, G 2

2 50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of the old wall was retained in the fence; itis of fine large blocks, 3 feet high
and long ; it varies in thickness from 6 feet to 9 feet, according to the contour
of the rock. Slabs were set on edge inside the wall.

Hovse-Sires.—It is very hard to examine a district consisting of so many
hollows, ridges, and valleys; but, helped by Mr. Toole, and with the aid of
Dr. George Fogerty and Mr. Praeger, Imay hope, after two days’ hard work and
examination of the slopes with a glass from every salient point, that little of
importance has been passed by.

(a) At Drumnasharganbeg, on the west bank of the little stream falling into
Ooghnascaddaun, Mr. Praeger called my attention to a nearly levelled house.
It abuts against a rock on the west side and is 25 feet across either way.
There are at least four cells lined with large set stones, with walls 3 feet to
6 feet thick. The south-western room is oblong, the south-eastern buried in
debris; the northern and eastern cells are circular, about 7 feet across
inside. (Plate VIII.)

(6) In Ballyheer, about 100 feet from the north shore of Loughnamucka,
in the long valley from Lough Allen to Ooghnamucka Bay, and at the
foot of the ridge ending in Dromore Head, is a house-ring. It is about 40 feet
over all, a couple of feet high, and heaped with stones, a well-preserved wall
of earth, and large blocks 6 feet thick. In this valley the outerops of a
large and remarkable quartz vein give life-like representations of large white
animals sitting up.

(c) Almost due south from the northern Allnerehoo cliff, opposite the bay
between it and Dromore Head, is a five-celled house. Heaped with debris and
partly rebuilt as a fold, the foundations are still preserved, and the northern cells
remain up to the spring of the corbelled roofs. Itis about 30 feet long north and
south by 17 feet wide, and has five polygonal cells, the central being 8 feet by
12 feet inside. The two northern cells are so small (4 feet by 3 feet and 4 feet
by 6 feet) that they were possibly store-rooms. The larger of them and the
two others (6 feet and 7 feet long by 5 feet wide) were perhaps sleeping-rooms.
It is remarkable to find this house unsheltered to the west, with a long ridge
to concentrate the wind upon it; but similar choice of sites is found in Clare
Island and Bofin. (Plate VIII.)

(d) It is hard to define the position of the next by the existing maps. Behind
the most northern of the houses to the north-west of Portadoon rises a bold knoll,
a reputed sidh or fairy fort, but with no trace of walls or earthworks to mark it
as a dun, though a most suitable position for such. On its northern flank is a
lower platform over marshy fields, once probably a lake. A path across which
some large slabs are set leads between the knolls to the northern summit.
There a curved row of large blocks, chiefly of snowy quartz, which with a

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 51

round flat platform 20 feet to 21 feet across, marks yet another house-site
on that unsheltered summit.

Srpu.—Besides the last-named haunted knoll, the chief fortress of the
fairy-folk lies in the commons to the north of the last. It is a remarkable
site ; there were evidently once two lakes above it, each banked up by a cross-
ridge. The streams gradually cut deep channels through each ridge, and the
lakes became marshy fields, the little stream still following its old course. In
the southern gate-like gap the eastern rock rises straight like a wall, with a
door-like recess, apparently closed by a slab of smooth grey stone; this is the
portal of the Fairies’ Palace. J am told that a shaft runs deep into the rock
overhead, and is their chimney. :

“Fantastic spirits are called by the Irish ‘men of the s¢dh’ because they
are seen, as it were, to come out of pleasant hills to infest men, hence the
vulgar belief that they reside in certain subterraneous habitations within these
hills; and these habitations, and sometimes the hills themselves, are called by
the Irish sidhe or siodha.”’ Tirechan’s very early annotations give “ viros sidhe
aut deorum terrenorum aut fantassiam estimaverunt.” O’Conor translates

Ath na sidhe in the “ Annals of Inisfallen,’” “Vadum lemurum.” The early
Icelanders also “believed that they” (their spirits) “passed into the
knolls at death.” The sid is called “ Campul na mucka,” evidently akin to
the Oogh and Lough na mucka to the south-west. I did not hear of any
supernatural pig to account for these names ; is there any connexion between
them and the constituent of the island’s name twre ?

I was told that a young man, in bravado, threw sods of turf down the
“chimney ” incontempt of the inmates. By degrees he felt uncomfortable in
his leg; then a dull pain and swelling; then he took to bed in constant agony.
A poor “wise woman” received charity at his house, and, learning what had
happened, undertook to cure the patient. She went out, gathered certain
herbs, and made a hot poultice for his leg. Before long the swelling opened
and she got out a long object like a traneen, or blade of grass ; she then bound
up the limb and it healed; the youth eventually recovered. It is evident that,
whatever the cause, it was a mere case of necrosis of the bone. I recall
similar treatment near Patrick’s Well, Co. Limerick, about 1885, by an old
servant, Michael Hazelton, an astrologer and herb doctor; but the patient
after the bone was drawn out, had to go to hospital to get the wound to heal.

Some thirty years since this rock was still greatly feared. Another young

! See ‘‘Colgan, Acta SS.,” March 17th, and Roderic O’Flaherty, ‘‘ Ogygia’’ ; also Dr. Joyce’s

‘‘ Trish Names of Places,’’ ser. i, chapter vy, and Lady Wilde’s ‘‘ Ancient Cures’’ and ‘* Ancient
Legends.”

* Tirechan’s annotations (Tripartite Life of St. Patrick, Rolls Series, vol. ii,, p. 315) from the
Book of Armagh.

* Landnamabok, 2-16.

G2

2 52 Proceedings of the Royal Trish A cademy.

man sent his coat thither, undertaking to fetch it by night; but “whatever
he saw,” he was so frightened that he ran for shelter to the nearest house.
His friends, very anxious, went ina body to rescue him, and, only finding the
coat, were in great distress about him till he returned by daylight, far less
ready to boast or defy “the gentry ” than before.

I found no early remains in the other half of the island, save a large heap
of stones, which may be a cairn, and two pillars. The last lie to the east of
Coolport Harbour, in Garranty, near the house of Mr. Faherty, to whose kind-
ness I was also indebted during my visit. One is prostrate, 9 feet 8 inches
long, with three faces 9 inches wide, and a fourth of 6 inches. The other, a
slab of gray slate, is still standing, and is 6 feet 2 inches high, 4 feet wide,
and 6 inches to 8 inches thick. I heard no name, legend, or statement as to
their age and character, so merely record them.

4, CAHER ISLAND. (Plates VII, VIIL.)

This striking little island, of slightly more than 128 acres in extent, with
its bold north-western headland, is a very familiar object from Clare Island
to Bofin, and from all the “opposing shores.” Though barely so much as 200
feet high, it rises so boldly over the waves, and so far from its loftier neigh-
bours, that it gives an impressive sense of loftiness and remoteness, with all
the suggestiveness of an island monastery, set far from land in a ring of
magnificent scenery.

There can be very little doubt but that the island took its name, Oiléan
na Cathrach, from the ancient Cathair or stone ring-wall, a conspicuous object
near the usual landing-place. O’Donovyan, in 1839, however, was misinformed
and misled into another interpretation. He was told by Owen O’Toole, of
Inishturk, and by Thomas Geraghty, the former owner of St. Patrick’s
“ Black Bell,” that there was no Cathair on the island. He accordingly was
driven to speculation, and, with his informants’ polite but valueless agreement,
decided that it was called from the “ city of the saints,” Cathair na naomh.
“City” is a very inaccurate rendering of Cathaw; the word is used (with
Conghabhal) for a monastery, as in the “Tripartite Life of St. Patrick,” or for
a bishop’s see (Cathedra), and O’Donovan’s “ authorities ” lived remote from
cities, and could not even tell correctly the facts about the places they had
seen. ‘There is therefore no need to go beyond the obvious meaning.

O'Donovan tells how the remains are Zeampull na naomh or Teampull
Phadruag, the leachtas, or religious stations for penitential observances, the
Leabaidh Phadrug, ov St. Patrick’s Bed, an early carved tombstone outside

' Ordnance Survey Letters, Mayo, vol. i, p. 471.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archacology. 2 53

the east gable of the church, and the Zeac na naomh, or saint’s stone, a mass
of conglomerate on the altar of the oratory. The last was used for a sort of
ordeal—a wronged person used to go to the island, fast and pray, imprecating
on himself the wrath of God, Patrick, and the saints, who had blessed the
stone, if he was wrong. He then turned the Zeae. If he was in the right
(said Geraghty), a storm arose and boats and men were lost. O’Donovan
objected that the destruction of innocent men’s lives and property was a
questionable proof of Divine justice, but Geraghty triumphantly silenced
him by citing the miracles of Joshua; and O’Donovan could only bow before
his robust faith. O’Toole took a more Christian view, that while unable to
deny the power of the relic, he had little regard for its decisions, and wished
that it were destroyed. It was, however, agreed that it punished perjurers
who appealed to it. Dr. C. R. Browne! was told by E. O’Maille that the block
had been thrown at St. Patrick by a “bad friend”; the saint, being unable to
avoid it, signed the cross, and the block fell harmlessly to the ground. A
similar legend is told at Downpatrick Head of how the saint escaped the
spear of the Giant Geodruisge, hurled from the now isolated rock of
Dunbriste.’

So holy was the island that boatmen, when passing it in 1839, took off their
hats and said, “ Umluighmid do Dia mér na hwile chumachta agus do Phadruag
miorbhuilteach”” (“ We make reverence to the great God of all the powers and
to Patrick the wonder-worker ”). So at Inisglora, farther to the north, and at
Cruach mac Dara, in Galway Bay ; opposite St. Grigoir’s tomb in Aranmore,
and at St. Senan’s “sacred isle,” of Iniscatha, off county Clare, the fishermen dip
sails, raise oars, or in some way salute the local saint.

Another mark of the sanctity of Caher Island was that (as at Inishglora)
no rat or mouse could live for even a few minutes on its shores, and the earth
drove them from any house in which it was sprinkled. 1t was wrong to take
any object from the island, but an offering should be left on it. Epileptic
persons could be cured by a few minutes’ sleep on St. Patrick’s Bed. It is
said that one visitor, who removed a stone from one of the /eachts, met with
an accident on the home voyage, and humbly brought back the stone to the very
spot from which he had removed it. So also Rev. Cesar Otway® tells us
how the wooden image of St. Brendan, on Inishkea, was carried off as a
palladium by smugglers, but they were pursued by a revenue cruiser and
vexed by storms, and driven up and down the ocean, so long as they retained

‘Proc. R.1.A., vol. iii, ser. iii, p. 66.

21 gave the Downpatrick legends in a paper submitted to the Roy. Soc. Ant. In., at their
Summer Meeting, 1911.

3 Tour in Connaught,”’ p. 382.

2 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the venerated object. I was told in Inishturk that the holy stone on the
altar of Caher Island was taken by a French ship, which met with such
storms that they threw it overboard, when the wind and the sea abated, and
the stone was soon afterwards found on the beach of Caher Island. One version
says it was the lamp-stone that did this. The same tale is also told of
St. Leo’s Bell, at Inishark, by the people of Inishbofin. The first published
account by Mr. T. W. Rolleston gives the notes written by O'Donovan.
It may be found in the Journal, Roy. Soc. Ant. Iv, vol. xxx., p. 257.

CAHERPATRICK.—There is a small house-ring or Cathair, called Caher-
patrick, on the 1839 maps. It is of coarse granite and other boulders, the
wall only about 4 feet thick and high. It is D-shaped in plan, the corners
lying to the north-east and south-east. The garth measures 39 feet east and
west, and 56 feet north and south. Inside there are no hut foundations. It
stands upon a knoll. The gateway faces the south. An ancient way leads
from it to the little lake of Kinkeel.

Beside it runs an old track eastward to the sea. It was called Bothar na
naomh, the saint’s road, in 1839, and was believed to run under the sea
towards the Reek. The saint (Patrick) was said to have emulated the miracle
of Moses by dividing the sea, when, driven in his chariot by St. Mionnan

-(Bionnan or Benen) and followed by a number of holy men, he visited the island.

Mr. Rolleston noted a walled headland, but would not decide whether it
was an early promontory fort or not. It runs across the neck of the beetling
headland of Kinrawer at the north-west end of the island. The rock runs
back along the south or landward side, with a shallow little lake, and seems a
tempting site for a fort-builder. Probably the exposed and narrow ridge,
where, on the day of my visit, it was hardly possible to stand upright against
the breeze, was too unsheltered, though indeed many of the fenced headlands
are equally wind-scourged. he fence is barely 3 feet thick, irregularly concave
to the land. There is no debris, and the site is evidently not a cliff-fort.

The coast names are Porttariff, Ooghnalura, Ooghdoul, Ooghatulskaun,
Gubacappul, and Turlinveagh. We found the foundations of two huts. The
southern, at the end of Porttarriff (Bull port), was a grassy house-ring, 29 feet
over all, the wall little over 4 feet thick; the sea has cut away the drift-bank,
on which it stands, to the west. Mr. Praeger noted another exactly similar
and of the same size, behind the smaller creek at about 300 yards farther to
the north. Itis sheltered from thesea by a beach of upcast stones. The shore
is rarely much over 20 feet high at the south shore of the island. Many
old enclosures are traceable, but the island has been uninhabited since 1839.
The fields were laid out in the curiously various “lazy beds” with C and §
curves, common on Clare Island. (Plate VL.)

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 5d

The Church and Stations. (Plates VII, VIII.)

The interest of the island les in its religious buildings. It is very striking
when we land at Portatemple to see every knoll and ridge crowned with little
cairns and stones. I was told, indeed, that the number of these stations made
the observances so severe that pilgrims were driven to seek other shrines of
less strict requirements. The great pilgrimage, now in such high repute, and
attended by many thousands of pilgrims, held on Garland Sunday to the
summit of Croaghpatrick, has quite superseded the more obscure and less
accessible shrines of St. Patrick.

The church seems of early date, but has been greatly rebuilt with thin
slabs. It is a small oratory 11 feet 11 inches to 12 feet 1 inch long, by 8 feet
5 inches wide inside; 17 feet long, by 13 feet 5 inches at the west, 12 feet
7 inches at the east outside,! and its walls 26 inches to 27 inches thick. The
east window, though apparently primitive, having a narrow lintelled slit and
splay, has a reveal or jamb, and is not inclined, so is probably of no remote
age. The west door has jambs, with slight imposts, but it too has a splay, not
suggestive of early work. The arch is of singular and poor construction of
absurdly thin, irregular slabs, set nearly upright, with a comb-like edge evidently
once entirely concealed under plaster. The repairs probably took place in the
fourteenth or, perhaps, even in the fifteenth century, but there is no architec-
tural feature to date it by more certain methods. On the altar-slab, before the
east window, is a mass of interesting objects, the chief of which is what is
probably a stone hanging-lamp. It it oval, 10 inches long; the basin 5 inches
by 43 inches, with a raised border. At either end is a hole for a cord worked
in from opposite sides, and a deep groove runs round the edge. It is filled and
surrounded by a number of the usual offerings—pins, nails, fish-hooks, rosaries,
shot, and copper coins, the act of homage, not the intrinsic value, being alone
of importance. There is also the mass of conglomerate called the “saint’s
stone;” both are well seen in Dr. Fogerty’s fine photograph,’ which is itself a
nearly complete record of the oratory.

The church stands in a very primitive cashel of large dry-stone masonry,
an interesting evolution of the features of the earlier stone forts. It is 46 feet
4 inches east and west, and 22 feet north and south, leaving a clear passage
round Templepatrick 3 to 4 feet wide on the south, and 5 to 6 feet wide on the
north. The cashel is usually 3 feet thick, and much thrown down, especially to
the north-west. The east wall contains a narrow passage such as we find in the
early ring-forts of the Grianan of Aileach, and some of Fahan, Co. Kerry, and

1Tn Mr. Rolleston’s account, Roy. Soc. Ant. Ir., vol. xxx, p. 360, “‘inside” is evidently a
misprint for “ outside.” 2 See Plate VIII.

2 56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

elsewhere. It is entered by a primitive lintelled doorway 2 feet 4 inches wide,
and, perhaps, 3 feet high. Over it, and at the same level to the south, are
small niches like the ambries in huts at Dun Koghanacht on Inishmore (Aran)
Dingle, and elsewhere. In the east end of the enclosure, which is 24 feet long
and 22 feet wide, stands a dry-stone altar, roughly 9 feet square, on which
lie the “pumice-stone” block and other objects. Near the gable of the
church, and to the south of its window, is the Leacht, a well-cut early tombstone
carved with a cross with spade-like ends of two bands, the arms being detached
triangles. Stones carved with crosses remain, two fencing the Leacht, one in
each of the eastern corners of the cashel, and one at its south-western angle.

An oblong enclosure 20 feet wide, and practically of the same length as the
cashel, adjoins the latter to the north; in it lie a cist-grave of thin slabs, 6 feet
long, and another altar or station, with a standing stone in the middle.
Another enclosure les to the west, with a modern (or at least rebuilt)
fold-like structure. A third lies to the south-east of the cashel. Indeed, it
is not easy to decide which of all these buildings have any connexion with
the church, or are of any great age.

On the low ridge to the north of Templepatrick is a row of stations. The
northern (A) hasa slab with a cross with expanded ends. Three more run to
the south-east ; the second (B) is not in line with the rest, and has a double cross
formed with raised panels in the spaces; the third (C) has a cross, with its
head indented like a cross moline in heraldry ; its sides expand ; near it is a
basin 29 inches by 13 inches, cut in the natural rock. The other stations do not
seem to have carved stones, except the great southern one. The principal
one is on a bold whale-backed rock, and has a cross-slab. The cross is very
slightly indicated by shallow indentations in the sides; bands run around
these. The head panel, if ever carved, shows now no trace of ornament. In
the centre is a weird figure, the hollow-eyed face alone clear; below is an
interlacing, elusively clear at a distance, but nearly effaced out of all design
on nearer view. (Plate VIII.)

There are at least five more small stations, one on the bank at the
strand; each consists of a small heap, with a plain pillar rising in the middle.

Tobermurry (Zobar Mhuiré), the well of the Blessed Virgin, lies far up the
island to the north-west of the church. It isstillin high esteem and veneration,
being visited and prayed at before any pilgrim leaves the island.

5. INISHBOFIN. (Plates IX, X.)
Inishbofin or Bofin, formerly in the Barony of Murrisk in Co, Mayo, was
in 1873 restored with its companion, Inishark, to Connemara (Ballinahinch)
barony in Co, Galway, to which in the fourteenth century it had belonged,

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 57

till the O’Mailles took it from the O’Flahertys about 1380. Roderic
O'Flaherty alludes to these islands in 1684, giving us almost our only clue to
their history :—“ Northward of Ardolen (High Island) are Inishark and Bofin,
isles of the country of Conmacny-mara in old times . . . but for 300 years
now belonging to the Owles (Ui Mhaille), which, therefore, I omit, only that
Inisark is of the same property with Bofin, and the saint therein worshipped,
St. Leo, of whose reliques is a bell there extant.” He then goes on to tell of
St. Colman at Bofin in 668 from Ussher’s “ Primordia.”!

In great contrast to its bold and mountainous neighbours, Clare and Turk,
or to the rugged mass of Ardoilean to the south, Inishbofin lies, a low,
featureless mass, on the water. It has, however, more picturesque features
than appear at first sight. Dunmore is as bold a cliff, if not so high, as any in
the group we have studied, and the dykes and chasms at Dunnahineena are
impressive. It is surrounded by reefs and minute islands, and evidently its
low shores are none the safer for ships, as the names Wreck Cove, Deadman’s
Cove, and Royal George Cove witness. As to its general topography, the
whole western end, with most of the traces of early settlement, from Dungrania
to Dunmore, is included in Westquarter. In the middle are Fawnmore and
Middlequarter, where the bulk of the later inhabitants seem to have dwelt,
and the legends and lay history centre. Here lay Aittigh Guarim and
Guarim’s Castle, which have left no trace, and opposite the last in Knock is
the Cromwellian castle, said to be on the site of Bosco’s earlier fortification.
In the same townland, half a mile to the north-east, is the site of the ancient
seventh-century monastery of St. Colman, which, like so many of the old
religious centres of Ireland, sank to the status of a mere parish church,
Possibly the earliest remains on the island are in the sandhills opposite
Inishlyon in the townland of Knock.

There is a rich harvest of place-names. Dunmore, with its by-name
Dunkeen, Alladoon, Glasillanadoon, Dungrania, Dooneen, and Dunnahineena
centre round the forts. On the shores are Cooltra, with its convex strand ;
Turlinambaud and the creeks and gullies of Ooghmacan, Ooghnalee,
Pollnatulla (a great cave with two inland opes, giving a fine view of its dark
corridor), Ooghnadoby, Bunafea, Pollnalecka, Bunamullen, Lugnabuddogy,
Ooghardlea, Ooghnastrappy, Ooghanunsa, Belnabraud (a “ gorge ”), cutting off
Port Island at high water, Bellascoltaun, Rooduff, Preesaun (another cave
and pit), Gubaranduff, Ooghacat, and Bellalyon, The rocks and islets are
Glasillanaban near the Stags of Bofin, Feacarrick, two Glasillauns,
Mweelanbwee, Carrickheelia, Carrigeen, Carrickaclogher, Glasillaunabelasty,

1 hIar Connaught, ed. J. Hardiman, p. 116.
R,I,A. PROU., VOL. XXXI. H 2

2 58 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Carrickatroher, Scohadoogort. The lakes are Bofin, Loughaveeneeny,
Loughnambraud, Loughgowlanagower (with the horrible hybrid “Gowlauna-
goat ”!), and Loughnagrooaun.

In Inishlyon are Ooghnagunnel (suggesting a guiding candle, perhaps for
smuggling), and Ooghnagalliagh. Cloonamore, and much of Middlequarter and
Knock, are a wilderness of little craggy knolls with bogs and pools, forming
a featureless labyrinth, difficult (especially on a cloudy day) to find one’s way
through when trying to reach any object.

THe Lecenps—The Island of the White Cow (Inis bo finde), or, as Bede
renders it, “Insula vitulae albae,” derives its name from no mere animal,
if legend is to be trusted. Ages ago Inishbofin was a spectral island, and
floated about hidden by mist from mortal eye. At last some fishermen, lost in
a fog at sea, deemed that they were nearing land. They cautiously approached
the shore and lit a fire, or, as others say, shook the ashes out of a pipe.
Touched by fire the island was disenchanted and fixed on its base, the mist rose
and the wanderers found themselves on the “ North Beach ”—a shingle ridge.

‘< On one side lay the Ocean, and on one
Lay a great water, and the moon was full.”’

A ghostly-looking old woman was seen driving a white cow, and as soon
as it reached the water she struck it and it became a rock. One of the
men in anger ran over and struck the hag, who, with him, at once became a
rock. Down to 1839 the cow has been seen “revisiting the glimpses of the
moon” before any great disaster. This was told to O'Donovan in that year.!

The same year Caesar Otway’ collected a variant from an Omey fisherman.
Bofin was once a part of Hy Brasil. It was invisible, save at rare intervals,
after which “it passed away again like a fog-bank.” A mackerel-fisher and
his son, from Omey Island, went far out to sea one night. They brought a
“coal” of turf to broil their fish on a lump of blue clay, and were hard at work.
At last they heard the song of birds and sounds of sheep and cattle, and
saw they were in a queer, misty part of the sea. In their surprise they upset
the fire, and, as it fell overboard, a beautiful island at once appeared. They
landed, bringing fire on a bunch of seaweed, and saw a “lady full beautiful,”
dressed in green, driving a white cow to a lake. The young man caught the
cow by the tail; she kicked, and the tail came off in his hand, and proved to
be a root of seaweed. The elder man pursued the lady, who fled from the
fire and plunged into the lake, and ever after Inishbofin remained
disenchanted.

The fairies, however, remain on it ; they were heard romping and carousing

1 Ordnance Survey Letters, Mayo, vol. i, p. 485. ? Tour in Connausi:t, p. 391.
* See Section 7, p- 74.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 99

in the hills, and threw down showers of fish to tempt the inhabitants to eat
the fairy food. A man who belonged to a confraternity was once “ going by
the rath side” of some unnamed fort, when a fairy man, with a long flagger
(iris leaf), met him and struck him on the face. The mortal at once drew
his black-hafted knife, and stabbed the elf, who groaned and fell. Terrified,
the fairy-killer ran for help, and, on his return with some men, found only
“a heap of slime, like what a dead frog turns into, on the spot’”—the mortal
remains of the fairy !!

Mr. Cyril Allies—a member of an English family, who, till his recent sale,
owned the island—when out shooting was told that he was surrounded by a
number of fairy girls dressed in brown. His quarrymen on another occasion
refused to work, as the rock was too hot from all the “good people” in it. It
was the custom for old women on meeting a nurse with a child to spit all round
them for protection.? The other folk-lore items are noted in the Clare Island
section of this report, Dr. Browne’s Papers, and Lady Ferguson’s two books.

Forts and Huts.

SAND-HILL SETTLEMENT, Knock.—Passing the Abbey, we find near
the gang-way of tidal rocks leading to Inishlyon an interesting early
settlement. There is first a midden of shells and burned stones at the
extreme south end of the sand-hills. It contains charcoal and peat, quantities
of limpets and periwinkles, a few oysters, mussels, and broken bones,
Dr. Fogerty also found a very rude-shaped hammer-stone. Almost due west
from the northern point of Inishlyon two huts had been built under the shelter
of a low jutting rock rising about 6 feet high to the west of the low crag on
which they stand. Each hut was surrounded by a mass of shells, but few
occurred inside. The northern hut retains an undisturbed portion of the
sand-hill, over 4 feet high in its centre, but the foundation is clear. It is not
quite circular, the wall running in short, straight reaches, but curving between
them. Itis 21 feet across inside north and south, and 18 feet east and west, the
walls, as usual, being between 3 feet and 4 feet thick. At 15 feet to the south
is a more defaced oval hut-ring 3 feet thick and 18 feet north and south by
15 feet east and west inside. There are several other sites to the north of the
bay, irregular patches of stones, burned pebbles and shells, but too indefinite
for description. Mr. Richard Ussher found the skull of a seal in one (I think
at the hut-rings), but it possibly got there in far later times than the Stone
Age. (Plate X.)

1 Tour in Connaught, p. 395.
2 A.C. Haddon: A Batch of Irish Folk-lore, ‘‘ Folk-lore,’’ vol. iv, p. 350.

H2

2 60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Aeadem}.

DuyMore or DUNKEEN (0. S., 9 b).—Though not the largest of the forts,
the strongest is certainly Dunmore. The size implied by the name may be
in contrast to Dungrania, the Dooneen, or to the house-ring, not far to the east
of it. As such names are rarely true proper names, that of the Dun was
more likely Dunkeen, the pleasant fort, as that name attaches to the cliff
beside it. The Irish, alone of early nations, appear to have loved picturesque
wild scenery, and to have embodied their delight in place-names, such as
Ardeevin, Dromkeen, and such names. This phase of character has not died
out among the peasantry, and I have often admired the unaffected, artistic
pleasure of fishermen and herdsmen in scenery, and their sense of the poetical
in nature.

In fortifying the great hill that juts out so boldly into the Sound of
Shark, the builders secured an important outlook. From its summit, nay,
even from its rampart, they overlooked Inishark, and away over endless reefs
and islets to the walled mass of Ardoilean,! along the low shores and lofty
peaks of Connemara, to the south and east, to Slyne Head and Cleggan, and
northward to Achill.

The maps of 1839 show a long, straight rampart, from the southern cliff
half-way across the headland; but O'Donovan was told by John Moran (an
inhabitant of Bofin, on whom he had to rely for information, as he could not
visit the island), that “there was a fort in West Quarter, called Din Mor,
which was of earth, but is now just effaced.” Dr. Browne repeated this from
the Ordnance Survey Letters, without comment or marking its source, so till
I noticed the early origin of the statement I was misled into supposing that
the works shown on the map had been levelled just before his visit. This
was borne out by the new Survey marking no works, but “site of,” at
Dunmore. It is indeed surprising, in face of this apparently unequivocal
evidence, to have to record that the fort is still extant, though defaced, its
plan, and even features, being still intelligible, and its ruin visible and well
marked, even as far off as the Harbour; that it is not an earthwork, but a
dry-stone wall; and that it is not straight, but boldly curved. This clearly
shows the grievous wrong done to Irish studies by the parsimony of the
Survey in providing no competent persons to oversee the marking of
antiquities, which the new maps purported to give. I make this strong state-
ment, not to reflect on the surveyors, who were not antiquaries, but to point
out to students of Irish archaeology how little deductions, based merely

1 For the antiquities of High Island we have a note by G. H. Kinahan, Journal Roy. Soc.
Ant. Ir., vol. x, p. 348, and a careful description by R. A. S. Macalister, ibid., vol. xxvi,
p- 197.

* Ordnance Survey Letters, Mayo, vol. i, p. 484.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 61

on the records of this supposed authoritative survey, can be relied on in
questions of archaeology. Also it shows what careful and prudent editing
should be given to the Ordnance Survey Letters, which many well-meaning
persons would circulate in Iveland, full of misleading statements, in hastily
published editions. It is enough to back this allegation in the matter of the
promontory-forts alone by stating that the 1839 Survey did not mark the
early fortifications of Balor’s Castle, Port Conaghra, Cashlaunicrobin, Dun-
minulla, Dun Fiachra, Dunaneanir, Port, Dunnaglass, Dunagurroge, the
great and complex Dun of Kilmore, Dunnagappul, Dun Ooghmore, and this
Dunmore, all in Mayo. A cliff-fort in Aran, with Doonaunmore, Anneville, Dun
Gorraun, the huge Doonegall, Doonaunroe, Dundahlin, and Horse Island in
Co. Clare, and Brumore, Doon Castle, the Cahercarberys (most important
forts), the great rampart of Dun ruad, Dunmore, Moneenagurroge, Faillnamna,
the upper fort of Doon, on Eask Hill, and Minard, in Co. Kerry, are also
unmarked. All were recognizable; some were among the most imposing of
Trish earthworks and cathairs, and yet they were left unrecorded; and many
are still omitted on the new maps.

Dunmore-Bofin, as I may eall it for distinction, consists of a single dry-
stone rampart, of the best type of masonry. It runs ina bold curve from
the south cliff of Dunkeen, remaining for over 60 feet, and leaving farther
traces in set-stones, along a natural terrace, or shoulder, about half way up
the slope. At the foot is a fosse-like hollow, evidently natural, but which
could, with little trouble, have been continued as a fosse and earthwork
round the foot of the slope. (Plate 1X.)

The wall has two faces, the outer of fairly large blocks, 2 feet and 3 feet
long by 2 feet to 2 feet 8 inches high and deep. Owing to the curve, the
joints are unusually open. Over these, bonding deeply into the carefully
packed rubble-filling of the interior, was a course of stones, 3 feet to 4 feet
long, set as “headers,” with the ends out. The inner face was of smaller
masonry, and but little remains. The wall is still from 3 feet to nearly
5 feet high. At 32 feet from the south cliff, which is flaking off into huge
“slices” at that point, are the remains of the gateway. It looks eastward,
about E.S.E., and has parallel sides, 6 feet 3 inches apart, of large blocks.
There were probably coursed piers, as at Dun Aengusa and elsewhere, to
narrow the entrance. The passage is 10 feet deep. The wall is of one section,
varying irom 10 feet to 13 feet, and, perhaps, at one part 15 feet thick.
Much remains, a few feet high, for 30 feet northwards from the gate, beyond
which are slight traces of foundation; but the work of destruction has not
ceased, and stones are still thrown down the slope or over the cliffs by
idlers. About 60 feet back from it is an oblong patch of stones, 36 feet

2 62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

long, north and south, by 12 feet wide; some set ones appear. Behind them
rises a second steep slope, for about 65 feet. The top platform is about
25 yards wide on the summit. There are no hut-foundations apparent, and
it was probably too storm-swept for residence. Indeed, the fort itseli was
probably uninhabited, save when, in the event of raiders landing on the
island, the inhabitants fled, with their goods and cattle, to its friendly
shelter.

Howse-Sires.—Eastward from Dunmore is a low ridge of hills, and along
a natural terrace, to either side, we found five hut-sites. (Plate X.)

(a) The first is built against a low perpendicular rock near the west end,
in full sight of Dunmore. Like all these sites, it has been long since
reduced to its foundations. Probably it was largely built of sods, with stone
facings. So little remains that we cannot tell whether the roofs were of
stone; but the remains of corbelled roofs over the smaller cells on Inishturk
and those of Inishglora and High Island suggest that some at least were so
covered. It had four circular cells, 6 feet wide, and with walls 3 feet thick,
grouped round a court, or larger cell, 11 feet by 9 feet.

() Farther eastward, on a bold green knoll, once cultivated, was a circular
house-ring. Unfortunately it was included in the tillage-plots, when much
corn was grown in the islands during the wars with Napoleon, and its
interior was dug up along with its western side. It is like that of Lough-
namucka on Turk, and those on Caher Island. It is, like the last, circular,
and 39 feet inside ; the wall of earth, stone-faced, and from 9 feet to 11 feet
thick. The gateway faced eastward, with one block, 4 feet long; it is about
8 feet wide, but may have been originally about half that width.

(c) The third has a straight wall against the steep slope to the north, with
large face-blocks, 4 feet to 6 feet long, and 5 feet high and thick. Against
this was a court, or central room, D-shaped in plan, in the middle of which
is a regular circular pit, 4 feet deep, evidently modern. Round it are five
(or perhaps six) huts, usually oval, and about 6 feet by 5 feet. The north-
western seems to be polygonal.

On the northern slope of the hill are two simpler house-rings, noted by
the indefatigable search of Dr. Fogerty, while I was at work on Dunmore.

(dZ) The more western is also in sight of the great fort. It has gaps to
the east and west, being much levelled and hardly 2 feet high; all the facing
has been removed. It is oval, 18 feet north and south by 21 feet east
and west inside. The wall is 9 feet thick to the north and east, and
6 feet elsewhere.

(e) Still farther eastward in a nook of the slope remains the northern
segment of another ring, the rest entirely effaced. Whiat remains is 6 feet

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 63

thick with large face blocks and an entrance 3 feet wide to the north-east,
The interior is 15 feet across east and west.

At the opposite side of the island, in Cloonamore, near Dunnahineena, not
far from the stream, and nearly opposite to Roonduff, is another enclosure.

(f) It is built against a rock on the western side in a shallow valley, and
was D-shaped in plan. It measures inside 21 feet north and south, and
11 feet 6 inches east and west, being entirely of stone, mostly removed. — It
was, perhaps, a somewhat late fold, but its utilization of a cleft for a recess
suggests that it may have been an old residence.

(g) Another hut, in equal dilapidation, abuts against the rock where a
little pass leads up from the large boggy hollow between the loughs of
Gowlanagower and Loughnagroovaun. . It is 9 feet long east and west along
the rock, and 7 feet wide. The latter lake, a clear little tarn, full of Water
Lobelia, has, on the east shore, heaps of stones under the low cliff; but if they
represent huts, no foundations are traceable. As large roots of bog deal and
oak are found in the bogs here, as on Clare Island, there was probably no
lack of timber for roofing the houses of stone and earth.

DUNGRANIA OR DUNGRAINNE.—On the low west shore of the harbour near
Turlinabaud and facing Bosco’s Castle and the signal tower rises the remnant
of a large table-like rock. It is nearly isolated, and is reputed to have been
occupied by a castle of Grania Uaile, who defended from it (as her ally,
“Bosco,” did from the “Gun Rock” opposite) the approach to the port in
which she, Bosco, and perhaps Guarim kept their fleets. The foundations of
the castle were stated to remain on the platform in 1839.1 Now, all that I
saw belongs to a far earlier type, perhaps at the latest six or seven centuries
before the “great sea-amazon ” of the West.

The rock, exposed on its western flank to the whole force of the waves, is
being rapidly eaten away. A bank of shingle brings us to the foot of the
grassy eastern slope, which is easily scaled by a sheep track, over which we
see the slight remains of a stone revetment along the steep bank, little more
than the lower five or six courses remaining anywhere. The platform is
richly grassed, a favourite resort for sheep, like Dunallia and Dun-Ooghaniska
on Clare Island. It is about 50 feet high, from 12 feet to 56 feet wide, and
165 feet long; of course it was once far wider, to judge from the base, nearly
square, as indeed the cld maps show it. The southern end is washed bare
by the waves for 30 feet from the edge. Then hut-sites occur with walls of
earth and stones. The first is of three conjoined cells, with walls 5 feet to
4 feet thick; the western half is gone, the eastern adjoined the fort wall. The

_1 Ordnance Survey Letters, Mayo, vol. i, p. 484, “‘Grania’s din, from Graaia Wael Ny Maley’ ;
it was a castle, and still traceable.

2 64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

cells are 18 feet and 12 feet inside; a circular annexe, 15 feet inside, adjoins
them on the north-east. At 142 feet from the south is another group, the
eastern hut 18 feet inside, the remnant of the western 15 feet across along the
cliff. At the northern end at the highest point is a single circular hut 15 feet
wide ; all are levelled down to usually a foot high. (Plate IX.)

It is noteworthy how common this type of fortified shore-rock is in the
Mayo islands. Under the shelter of the large rock several lower, small,
green-capped towers of drift remain on this shore. There is a similar curious
natural fort of grass-topped drift on the low rocky islet of Glasillaunadoon
off Dunmore, the last remnant of the earth-cap that gave the rock its name,
“the green island of the fort.”

DooNEEN.—On the north shore of the harbour, between the road and the
bay, near the modern church of St. Colman, rises a tumulus-like rock, grassy
and with arched strata, called “Dooneen.” From the name, we might con-
jecture that the top had been fortified, the works disappearing with the surface,
like Duntraneen on Clare Island, as the rock was washed bare. The rock
platform at Belnabraud, opposite Dooneen, does not show any wall, but I had
not time to visit it.

DUNNAHINEENA (O. 8. No. 9)—The site of the only fort on the north or
east side of Bofin is of far more geological than archaeological interest. It
was once joined to the mainland by a steep descent and ascent, along a narrow
neck, from a spur between two stream valleys, but the neck has long since
fallen away, the landward half alone remaining. A wall-like dyke of volcanic
rock very artificial in appearance still joins the islet to the mainland at its
base, but there is no way of access to the summit from the landward side,
though an active climber might, I believe, reach the platform from a boat,
up the eastern (seaward) slope. The summit is about 2 acres in extent and
covered with richer sward than the mainland; it is 82 feet high, and about
400 feet by 250 feet, as shown by the large-scale maps; their plan, with some
added details, is given. The defensive works have perished with the approach,
the cliff falls “laying bare the foundations unto the neck.” We have not,
however, to conjecture the former existence of a fort from the name alone,
for a long reach of revetment wall of earth and stone is visible along the
western side, near the top of the long grassy slope, probably unaltered since
the rampart was first built. Half a hut-site is still to be seen on the
crumbling edge of the cliff, opposite the neck, possibly once guarding the gate,
like a porter’s lodge. Towards the centre of the platform there is also a low
mound, sc very regular, as seen from the high ground opposite, that it is
possibly a ring-mound. Whether this be so can only be settled by a visit to
the summit by some fairly experienced person. (Plate X.)

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2 65

The cliff at the hut-site has fallen so recently that the rock is raw and
bare, and the debris lies loose and dry on the edges; none of the rich orange
lichen, or bosses of sea-pink, that we see elsewhere, has had time to grow
on the new surface, whether of the cliff or of the earth bank above it, on
which the hut rested. Next to the west of the arch of strata opposite
the neck, appears another fresh surface; it is probable that the fall of the
southern cliff, to the right, took place very long ago. The great blocks of the
fallen neck choke up the gully below; the weak point was evidently the
curved strata of the neck, of which only a knife-edge remains to landward.
The name Dunnahineena (some think) means Finnguine’s Fort (Dunadh).

There is a Lough na Veeneeny on the westward side of the island.
The coast, though low, is pretty; the labyrinth of rocks and bogs in
Cloonamore, opposite which is the dun, has been already noted.

St. Colman’s Cell and Church.

The story has often been repeated from the record of the Venerable Bede,’
how in A.D. 667 Colman, the saintly Abbot of Lindisfarne, for thirty-seven years
a Columban monk of Iona, and probably a native of Connacht, whither he
retired, entered into the unhappy Easter controversy. This was at the time
a subject of bitter dispute, threatening to separate the Church in Ireland and
its daughter in Scotland and northern England from all communion with the
other western churches. We need not repeat the discussion of Wilfred of
York with Colman, before King Oswy, but respect for St. Peter made the
King decide against the Irish usage, despite his love and veneration for the
abbot. Colman, defeated but attached to his national observances, deter-
mined to leave Lindisfarne. He opened the grave of his great predecessor,
Aidan, and secured some relics of that abbot; and then, accompanied by
a number of British and Irish monks, who adhered to him against royal and
episcopal decisions, he retired, with all the Irish and thirty Saxons, to Jona,
and rested, comforted by the sympathy of its monks. Then again they
faced the waves and storms round Donegal and across the broad bay of Sligo,
down the coast, and rested not till they came to Inishbofinde, the Isle of the
White Cow. ‘There they chose a site for their rude little church (probably,
like that of Lindisfarne, of hewn timber) and their little cells, of which all
trace has now disappeared.

The place was well chosen, not far from a fine crescent strand, in a
sheltered valley, near a lake and possibly among a friendly population of

1 Ecclesiastical History, Liber iii, c. 25, and iy, c. 4. Ussher’s ‘‘ De Primordia,”’ p. 834. Annals
of Ulster, 676. The Four Masters, 667 and 674. Loderick O’ Flaherty, ‘¢ hlar Connaught,”’ p. 115.

R. I. A. PROC., VOL. XXX, af 2

2 66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

simple islanders, perhaps even kinsmen of the abbot. It promised endless
peace to all; but the Irish, whether grown restless from their journey, or in
search of old friends, wandered away, and left all the work to the Saxons;
even the harvest was neglected,and quarrels arose. Colman saw that two
incompatible races (no longer held together by the tradition of an old-
established monastery) were better apart. He took the thirty Saxons and
moved inland to Mayo, where he bought a site for his third monastery ; there
the English monks could be ruled on their own lines, as the Irish were on
theirs. He ruled over the two houses till his death on August 8th, 674 or 676.
The first date is that of the abbacy of St. Choenchomra, Colman’s successor at
Bofin, and therefore probably the real one. Choenchomra was reverenced also
as a saint on July 23rd. St. Baetan succeeded him as Abbot of “ Inismore ”
(or Inishbofin), and died on January 14th, 711 or 712. On that day another
abbot, of unknown date, Luighbe, is venerated at Inishbofin. Whether
Colman died or was buried on this island, or at Mayo, does not seem to be
recorded; probably the more important abbey on the mainland was his
resting-place, but, of course, relics must have been preserved on Bofin.

There are great difficulties in following out the history of the island; the
name is not uncommon, and may lead to confusion, especially with the islands
of the same name in Co. Donegal and Lough Ree, the last with an interesting
early church and a late abbey, embodying a decorated romanesque window
from a building of the periodabout 1100. It is rarely that the scanty records
give us any clue as to what “Inisbofin” is intended. The rectory of Inishbofin
was impropriate to the Marquess of Clanrickard, a sure sign that it was at one
time monastic property.

The church is described in the Ordnance Survey Letters’ as “very old and
curious,’ but it deserves neither epithet. Itis a very commonplace building,
with no trace of carving or ornamental features, and probably no part remains
that is over five hundred years old. Whether the heaps of loose stones in
the graveyard are, as certain imaginative writers have fancied, the remains of
the cells of Colman’s monastery, there is nothing to show. The only possibly
early object which may well date from the time of the founder is the
primitive bullaun stone, or font, now lying in the south window. The coign
stones of the door and windows have all been removed, the sill of the north
window is alone iz situ, the splay arch of the east window is not of cut stone,
nor could I find a single block with moulding or carving among the weeds and
debris. The church is 70 feet 6 inches long (including the buttress 5 feet) and
23 feet wide outside; it is divided by a gabled wall, though this was evidently

1 Mayo, vol.i, p. 484. Rey. John 0’ Hanlon conjectures that Choenchomra was not of this Inisbofin.

Clare Island Survey— History and Archaeology. 2 67

an after-thought. The building is 36 feet 6 inches long to the north, 37 feet to
the south, and 17 feet 9 inches wide; the walls are 3 feet thick. A defaced
door leads into the western compartment, evidently separated for a priest’s
house and sacristy, a room 17 feet 9 inches square; the west end is down, and
the two narrow side windows are defaced. Rows of plain corbels, along the
western half of each side, suggest an upper floor, or perhaps a gallery, when
ib was included in the church. ‘The south doorway of the church hada rather
flat relieving arch covered with shell mortar; the door turned in stone sockets,
of a type common about 1480. The doorway lies 3 feet 6 inches from the west
wall, and the broken side windows are about the same distance from the east,
and nearly opposite to each other. The northern (as we noted) retains its sill.
It was unglazed, but had a weather-shutter, turning in a socket, as was common
in castles of the same period. The basin-stone, or font, is a block of grey
conglomerate, 25 inches by 27 inches, with a round basin 15 inches across.
The large east window commands a beautiful view of the great mountains on
the mainland. The splay is 5 feet wide, with plain jambs and a segmental
splay arch, over which is a very neat relieving arch.' To the south is a broken
recess, or ambry, filled with bleached skulls, very frail and weathered; beside
it in the south wall is a smaller ambry, perhaps for a credence-table. The
gable is propped by clumsy buttresses, over 5 feet square, packed with dry
rubble. The northern, its case of mortared masonry having been broken, is
now hollow, the dry, loose material having slipped out; the southern is intact.
How the published accounts gave “61 feet by 23 feet outside” is impossible
to explain. (Plate X.)

There are no early monuments, and few modern ones with inscriptions—
a beautifully carved headstone with a pathetic epitaph commemorates the
Rev. Henry Basil Allies, who died in July, 1897, after twenty-nine years
of priesthood. Inside the church, in the north-east corner, is a long
Latin inscription in such unusual lettering as to suggest that the sculptor
copied his exemplar blindly. It commemorates the virtues and labours of
Rey. Martin Fadden, the coadjutor on the island, who died in March, 1820, and
whose unsparing efforts to tend the living and bury the dead of his flock,
whose bodies he brought hither with his own hands during an epidemic (of
cholera morbus), are recorded. The epitaph alludes to the church—* Hic intra
muros veteres Sancti Colmani ecclesiae dormit.” At the east window on the
altar-site is a table-tomb of James Mac Cormack, September, 1875, and in
the end room, one of Essex Summons Philips, February, 1834, aged 5, the son
of Essex Philips.

1 A very inaccurate view is given in Canon (’ Hanlon’s ‘‘ Lives of the Ivish Saints,’ vol. i, p. 197.
Yi §

12

2 68 Proceedings of the Royul Irish Academy.

The site of the traditional well of St. Colman was forgotten before 1839 ;
the modern, white-washed well-house enclosed that of St. Flannan, the mid-
seventh century patron of Killaloe, Co. Clare; Ihave not found his connexion
with Inishbofin, but he was a worker in islands as far north as the Flannan
Islands north-west from Scotland, where his venerable “ boat-shaped ” oratory
still remains, with some beehive cells.1_ He was also reverenced at Bunowen,
Ballindown Haven, and Irrosflannan on the Connemara coast. He was son
of Thoirdhealbhagh, a so-called King of Thomond, not recorded in the regal
lists, but an ancestor of Brian Boru.*

Secular Buildings.

The legends of the islands* are in inverse ratio to the history. The two
protagonists of the tales (later than those of the white cow and of St. Colman)
are “ Bosco” and“ Guarim ” (or Gorham), who have as yet no place in history.
Aittighe Guarim, near Bunnamullen Bay, was demolished for material for the
priest’s house before 1839 ;* Mr. Cyril Allies tells me that a quern stone was
found when a hole was dug on the site in recent years, but not even the
foundations were disclosed. It was not unusual to bury a quern stone,
generally a broken one, as a sort of symbolic sacrifice, in the foundations of a
house. Of Guarim’s castle there was only a tradition of the site on the high
ground not far to the north of the new church, in 1839. Guarim was “a
certain old chief” who quarrelled with the monks of St. Colman over the
question of tithe. Not content with refusal, he laid an ambuscade, captured
six monks, and put them to death at a spot in Middle Quarter, where their
blood still rises from the ground on the anniversary of the crime. Scanda-
lized at the sacrilege, even his hardened followers turned against him ; they
bound and brought him to Renvyle Castle, where he was tried and condemned
to be left chained on a rock at low water, for the tide to drown. Since then
it is alleged that no Gorham can enter the priesthood.

This is evidently the legend that, in recent years, originated the story and
the name of the “ Bishop’s Rock,” unknown either in name or legend in 1839.°
The Cromwellian soldiers are said to have drowned a bishop. The story is
clearly unfounded, as it is unrecorded (so far as I have read the works) among

1 Roy. Soc. Antiq. Ir. Journal, xxix, p. 328.

2 Proc. R.i.A., vol. xxix, p. 195. His life is published in ‘‘ Acta SS. Hiberniz, ex codice
Salmaticensi,’’ 1881.

3 See Dr. Charles R. Browne’s notes, supra, Proc., vol. ili, ser. iii, pp. 360, 363.

* Ordnance Survey Letters, Mayo, vol. 1, p. 484.

5 The statement in ‘* Two Islands’’ makes it evident that the story was new to the natives, and
astonished them when they heard it.

Clare Island Survey—History and Archacology. 2 69

the martyrdoms, even of obscure monks and laity, so industriously amassed by
Anthony Bruodin and other Irish monks of the period, and published on the
Continent; and it is equally absent from the lists of bishops and from the
wonderfully minute information (so far as I have examined it) in the Record
Office, relating to the period from 1651 to 1660. That the Cromwellians
were “zealous to slaying” in hot blood is certain; but after the enemy
was reduced there was no hole-and-corner cruelty: all was harsh, cold,
and in the open daylight, according to the letter of the law. The date of
Guarim lacks even legendary consistency, one account’ making him a con-
temporary of St. Colman, others an ally of “Bosco,” and thereby of Grania
Uaile, nine centuries later. ;

Bosco, whose name was attached to the castle embodied in the Cromwellian
“ Barrack ” was a pirate, a Dane or Spaniard, who stretched a chain from his
castle to the Cat’s Hole, near Guarim’s Castle, to protect the combined fleets
of himself and Grania. He also placed a cannon on the “Gun Rock” for
better defence. He used to throw his prisoners into the sea through an
embrasure, still shown in the castle. He buried a large treasure somewhere
in the ruin; but it is supernaturally defended, and when even a priest com-
menced to dig in the haunted courts, he was ordered to stop by a voice speaking
in Irish from underground.

Bosco’s CASTLE, OR CROMWELL’S BARRACK.—Though very featureless, the
ragged mass of walls, opes, gables, and chimneys is distinctly impressive as
seen across the harbour, or from its waters. Tradition says that it was pre-
ceded by a castle of Bosco, or of Grania Uaile. The latter, in all records known
to me, only held Rockfleet Castle on Clew Bay; even her traditional chief
castles of Doonagh and Clare Island are only mentioned as held by her father,
and were certainly in other hands in Grania’s day, so far as the Government
recognized the ownership.

The history of the present building seems well ascertained, and I saw no
remains in it that appear to be of earlier date than the rest, which is clearly
of the time of the records. The island was surrendered to the Commonwealth
in 1652, and its soldiers repaired an existing building of some sort, and used it
as a barrack. After a few years they determined to abandon the station,
and in 1655, Sir Hardress Waller and Colonels Hewson and Sankey recom-
mended to the Council of State that the garrison should be withdrawn
and the works dismantled. The Irish Government accordingly offered to
any contractor the Galway barque “Elizabeth” (employed in bringing
limestone for the intended “ buildings of Buffin”) and a sum of £600, on

1 See John Moran’s Letter, doc. cit.

2 70 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acudemy.

condition that he would undertake to block the harbour. The Common-
wealth, in the struggle with the Dutch, naturally feared lest the daring
sea captains of the sister republic might use so convenient a haven. ‘lhe
task was clearly too difficult and unprofitable, and no one accepted the offer.
Half measures, so usual in English rulers towards Ireland, were not a vice
of the Cromwellian Government ; if the harbour cannot be destroyed, it
must be held strongly, was their decision, and the next year, June 3rd, 1656,
the works were resumed.

They replaced the twenty-two small guns by larger artillery, and, the
garrison having “come to stay,’ they appointed as chaplain “an able, pious,
and orthodox minister of the Gospel.” Sir Charles Coote was directed to con-
sider whether Colonel John Honnour, the Governor of Boftin, should take steps
to prevent the natives from keeping boats on the islands or on the adjacent
coasts of Ir-Connaght and Mayo. This impracticable scheme was probably
rejected. He, however, was ordered to remove all dangerous persons and
ill-affected Irish, to appoint a magistrate, and make good highways towards the

island, I presume through the trackless mountains and moors of the opposite
mainland.’

“ Bophin,” like Aran, was made a penal settlement for priests and monks
deported from all parts of Ireland. Bosco’s Castle, like Arkin in Inishmore,
controlled the unhappy settlement, sixpence a day being allowed for the support
of each priest. The Cromwellians, once armed resistance ended, were harsh
and stern, not wantonly cruel; nevertheless, the situation must have been one
of misery, even for the garrison. A curious too-true picture might be drawn
in a romance of the two strongly convinced parties holding such contrasted
forms of Christianity, each person ready to die for the faith that was in him,
and regarding the other side as a servant of Antichrist. Behind all rankled
the unhealed wounds of a cruel civil war, and the sense of exile and separation
from the persons, places, and pursuits most valued in the past, with intolerance
whetted by the presence of the other party. Little else is to be told; the
owner, John, the ninth Earl of Clanricard, in the reign of James II, was created
Baron of Bophin. I know of no record during the reigns of Charles and
James ; but in 1691, after the surrender of Galway, a division was sent to
Boffin to receive the surrender of Colonel Riordan, who held it for the lattez
monarch. The Dutch were now the allies of England, but the French
privateers were still to be dreaded, so the garrison was maintained. After
1700 the place is rarely mentioned. ‘he Clanrickards held it down to the
nineteenth century ; then it was owned successively by the Wilberforces and

1 Council Books of Dublin Castle. See James Hardiman’s notes in ‘‘ hlar Connaught.”’

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. PAI

‘by Mr. Allies, whose kindness to Dr. Browne and to myself deserves the
recognition of the Academy for aiding its workers.

As to the present inhabitants, Lewis says there were 1,462 in 1837,
when it was the property of the Marquess of Sligo. Lcclesiastically it was
part of the union of Ballynakill; the Marquess of Clanrickard held the
rectory ; Bofin had two private schools for about eighty children. ‘There were
212 families in 1893; of these, 134 bore Irish, and 29 Anglo-Norman, names ;
the well-established families of Lavelle (17) and Scuftles (22) are reputed to
he foreigners, but may be the Irish Mullavels (O Maolphabhaill) and the
Anglo-Norman Scovelles.

Tue Burpinc.—The fabric of “Cromwell’s Barrack” consists of a long
irregular enclosure, with variant bastions at each corner and a round turret on
- the south face. Inside is an irregular courtyard, with a choked well in the
middle, and buildings to the north, west, and east. The stonework was once
rich in well-cut coigns of blue limestone; but nearly all have been removed
by lime-burners; the arch and a few jamb-stones of the gateway remain.

The site is well chosen, on a sort of headland, bounded by the harbour to
the north and west, a convenient little creek running in at the latter side.
A rugged hollow, partly quarried, defends the south side. To modern ideas
the site is too much commanded by higher ground to the south-east, and has
no fosses to that side. (Plates IX, X.)

The chief frontage is to the east, with the only entrance, a fine, round-
headed door, recessed and chamfered, 5 feet 3 inches wide, though much
injured by the vandalism of the lime-burners. It is in the middle of a curtain
wall, 45 feet long and 6 feet thick, flanked by two bastions; a passage
32 inches wide runs along the top.

Before describing the ruins farther, I desire to point out that I was unable
to complete to my satisfaction the plan here given, though the main court and
its buildings and bastions are to scale. The western bastions were only
roughly and hurriedly measured, so I desire my drawing to be considered
as a sketch-plan, which time and weather did not allow me to finish.

Entering, we see the hole for a rather slight bar in the north jamb, a
passage 6 feet wide and 18 feet long, and side buildings on either hand, 30
feet long. Hach consists of two small rooms, with fireplaces in the inner
angles, and large chimneys to each pair at the curtain. To each outer side of
these buildings a passage 5 feet wide leads up to each eastern bastion by a
sloping way. The bastions are “diamond-shaped,” each inner face 12 feet 6
inches, and the walls 5 feet thick, with recesses and loopholes in each face,
their stonework mostly removed. The range to the north side of the court is
about 78 feet long. It has two rooms, the first evidently a kitchen, the other a

2 72 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

guard-room; the first is 30 feet long outside, and 24 by 18 feet wide inside.
The next, to the west of the last, is 43 feet 6 inches long, and 19 feet wide,
with a large window, flanked by ambries, in the west end, and three loopholes
in the north wall towards the harbour ; the south walls of both rooms are nearly
levelled; portions of two windows remain in the first, with a small loophol
commanding the sloping way to the north-east bastion, and a fireplace in th
east wall The partition wall has a door, and the north wall is blank; there
seem to be traces of two doors and a window in the south wall of the west room.
Separated from it by a passage 6 feet 9 inches wide, is the west range, probably
a store—three gloomy rooms, each with a loophole in the west, and with great
fireplaces and chimneys; but the face next the court is nearly all broken, and
the end walls blank. Behind it a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide, leads between
it and the outer western wall over the creek. In this rampart are opes
through which (doubtless by a crane) supplies could be raised from boats.
Behind this, to either side, is a bastion, with parallel sides. The northern is
27 feet long; between it and the large room is a smaller bastion, projecting
5 feet, to sweep the northern wall,and 15 feet long. The small south-western
bastion is 15 feet long, 7 feet 9 inches wide, with walls, as usual, 4 feet 9
inches to 5 feet thick. It, like the larger one opposite, has loopholes com-
manding the cove and southward. East from it, in the passage at the south
end of the stores, a semicircular turret projects from the outer wall The
latter at 20 feet from the store bends back, with a small house in the angle.
I did not find any garderobe in the ruin. The curtain wall runs straight from
the angle to the south-eastern bastion without any other features save the
narrow walk and loopholes along its summit.

6. INISHARK,

The island of Inishark is so closely bound up with Bofin in history and by
nature that, although I was unable to visit it, 1 may give the results of the
study of others with what I was able to see from Bofin, and learn about its
remains... The name is as yet unexplained, nor have I found any early record
to throw light on it. It appears in 1586 as Enisherke and Enisharke ; Roderick
O'Flaherty a century later calls it Inisark. The Ordnance Survey has adopted
the ugly, unnecessary, and cumbrous spelling, Inishshark. One popular

1 Ordnance Survey Letter=, foc. cit.. p. 485; ** lady Wilde, ‘‘Ancient Legends,”’ i, py. 119, 132,
143: ‘Ancient Cures,” &e., pp. 141, 151-4; and Dr. Browne, supra, Proc., vol. iii, ser. 111.,
pp. 359-365. Moran only enumerates the following remains on Inish Shark:—1, Stone cross,
leac Leo, to south-east of Leo’s chapel; 2, Teampull Leo, a primitive little chapel; 3, Uaimh Leo
on the south shore where the saint meditated ; 4, Tobar Leo in the caye; and 5, Clochan Leo, round

cyclopean hut,

Clare Islund Survey—HMistory und Archaeology. 2 73

explanation regards it as named from the Basking Shark so common in these
seas, but this implies a hybrid name, half English half Gaelic, as debased as
“ Gowlanagoat.” Others, like the interpreters of the name of Inisherkin,!
Co. Cork, derive it from Hare, love; and others (more plausibly, but I
believe without authority) render it “EHare’s Island.’ Inishark contains
about 580 acres, and the inhabitants are nearly all concentrated near
the south-east corner, where the shore is lowest, It has steep and high
cliffs to the north and west, and is so storm-vexed and so lashed by
fierce waves that it is often impossible to land on it for several weeks
at a time. I examined the sides next Inishbofin with a glass, in such
good, clear light that even animals, geese, and sea-birds were visible, but
saw no fences or entrenchments on the only projecting headlands on its coast.
The shore names are Ooghnageeragh, Ooghnacappul, Ooghcurreen, Ooghna-
veagh, Ooghnacromlack,” Ooghnagaragh, Ooghnacuragh, Oomeenashinnagh,
Ooghanany, Ooghancarrickad, Ooghaneeny (at Shark Head), Ooghanavaud,
Ooghvrisly, Lackagh, Lackataragh, Cromal, Dooneenapisha, Boughil and
Cailleen. The last two, “the boy and girl,” are two great rock-pillars, the
last leaning over. Otway* was told that the girl had tempted the boy to sin,
and goes on (whether to embellish the tale, or with local warrant, I know not)
to state that their souls are the eagles nesting on the rocks, or that they are
Adam and Eve. Outlying these are Glassillaun (two), Inishgort, and the two
Inishkinnys. The early remains comprise the following :—

DUNEENAPISHA, “little fort of the peas,” is a high cap of clay on a shore-
rock; a grassy slope leads to it on the landward side, and there seem to be a
ditch and mound across it, near the southern end,

Sr. LEo’s Cuurcu, or Teampul Leo.—It has been repaired, whitewashed
and is used as a chapel whenever the curate visits the island. In 1870
it was in a lamentable condition, much broken, and used as a cattle-pen; it
had a neat slit window in its eastern gable. The Zeac Lev—A slab carved
with a chalice, and a figure with extended hands, supposed to be a bishop, is
now set on the eastern gable of the church, Another cross of better work-
manship inside the building is regarded by some as the real Leac.

CLocHAN LEo.—A dry-stone cell, 6 feet wide by 11 feet to the south and
9 feet to the north; the beehive roof has nearly allfallenin. The north-east
corner is square, and the others rounded, The doorway was only 2 feet wide,
and 2 feet 6 inches high, and was at the south-east corner, The hut stood in

- 1 The old name was Inis aircin, not seircin, Lady Wilde suggests Inis-Erk (Ancient Legends,
p. 57). :

2 Whence Mr. G, H. Kinahan asserts the presence of a fancied dulmen.

3 ‘Tour in Connaught, p. 394... The custom of ‘‘improying’’.folk-tales (common down to far later
times) renders it hard to eliminate Otway’s additions.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. Kk 2

2 74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

an irregular, dry-stone cashel, somewhat oval, 60 feet east and west by 45 feet
north and south; the entrance was 3 feet wide, and to the north-east. Tt was
entirely deiaced before Dr. Browne described it.

StTaTIons.—There are fourteen religious stations marked as “monuments”
on the maps. One of them is a granite boulder, with a dullan or basin in it.
The natives, after performing rounds at the stations and praying at the well,
sometimes sleep in the clochan. I found no record of the patron, St. Leo ; his
festival is on April 11th. The map marks a “ Cloghancongleo,” a ruined hut
on the south-east point of the island. It resembles a defaced cairn or house-
ring as seen from Bofin.

Other relics of Leo are his footprint when he stepped down on to a slab
after completing the roof of the clochdn, and his cave. The latter is called
Uaimh Leo and Fuath Leo, \ying south from his church in a creek. His well
is not in the cave, as stated in the Urdnance Survey Letters, but at the head
of the cove.

The chief relic was, however, the bell. O'Flaherty, as we saw, recorded its
existence in 1684. It was of “brass,” probably bronze or bronzed iron, but a
bad custom arose of cutting off a portion as an amulet for those emigrating,
and by 1846 the bell had been entirely broken up. A few portions are
said to have been kept concealed with jealous care by old people in Bofin.
Legend said that the bell was once carried off by some French sailors, who
were so vexed and endangered by storms that they turned back, one
version says, “from the Bay of Biscay,” and restored the bell, or, as others
say, cast it into the sea. It was soon afterwards found on the shore by
seaweed-gatherers. The same story was told me in Inishturk, but it was
about the holy stone of Caher Island.

7. SPECTRAL ISLANDS.

The story that Inishbofin was once a floating island till fixed by a spark
of fire’ is a form of one of the most interesting legends of the west coast of
Ireland. Unlike so many beliefs, it rests directly on visible facts, the mirage
and the evidence of the submergence of the coast. Science has traced the old
river-beds of the Shannon and Erne far under the sea, and has recognized the
sinking of the Porcupine Bank and Rockall; but the sunken bogs and tree-
stumps told everyone what had taken place in the past. For many centuries
it_has been embodied in early Irish literature. The “ Voyage of Maelduin,”
probably far older than its earliest extant copy about 1100, tells of roofed
dins and an inhabited country seen under the waves and of the “thrice fifty

1 Supra, p. 58.

Clure Islund Sureey—History and Archueoiogy. 2 75

distant isles in the ocean to the west of us, larger than Erin twice is each of
them or thrice.” The Dind Senchas tells of Connla’s well under the sea.’
Giraldus Cambrensis, in the late twelfth century, not only noted stems of
trees covered at high tide in North Wales,’ but tells a legend similar to that
of Inishbofin, if not referring to that place. Among the western isles of
Ireland was one called “ Phantastica,” a “cumulus ” emerged from the waves
where no land had been visible. The islanders supposed it to be a whale or sea-
monster, but it remained motionless; so some lads went out in a cwrach
(navicula), but failed to reach it on two successive days. On the third day,
advised by an old man, they fired a red-hot arrow at it, and it at once became
stationary and habitable, for ‘* fire is hostile to anything phantasmal.’’
James Hardiman cites an old manuscript in the Academy’s Library which
says that (like the gods of Hellas) the Tuatha De Danann hid in “ floating
islands, with a wind that evermore keeps them out of sight of shore.” These
lands lie far out to sea, though “sometimes perceived by the inhabitants of
Oulis and Iris” (O’Maille’s country, Umhall and Erris), and from “Calbegs”
(Killybegs) in Donegal. Several seamen saw it when at sea; one Captain
Rich tells of the land and harbour, with two headlands, which vanished in
mnist, for “the enchanters could, by magic skill, conceal their land from
foreigners. William Hamilton, of Londonderry (M.P.in 1663), relates circum-
stantially how “O Brazile, the enchanted island,” had been seen by multitudes
off the coast of Ulster (probably Donegal). Captain John Nesbit, of Fer-
managh, settled at Killybegs and traded with France. On one voyage, March
2nd, 1675, he found himself in a dense fog off an unknown island, in less
than 3 fathoms. He and eight persons (three are fully named) saw it; he
and three officers landed and saw woods, cattle, horses, sheep, and black
rabbits; the travellers came to a castle, but no person answered them from
it. They returned to the shore, and lit a fire, for the evening was cold; but.a’
hideous noise ensued, and they took the boat and fled to the ship. Next day
they saw a gentleman and his servants on the shore and brought them off.
He said he had long been imprisoned in the castle by an enchanter ; but the
lighting of a fire by Christians had wrecked the main tower and broken the
spell. Nesbit brought them to Killybegs, where many believed their story
on seeing their old coins and hearing their out-of-date language and ideas.°
Hamilton (as told by a Quaker) states that he was destined to disenchant the

1 “ Voyage of Bran’’ (ed. Kuno Meyer), vol. i, p. 12.

2 Dind Senchas (ed. Whitley Stokes), Revue Celtique, xv (1894), p. 458.

3 Itinerary in Wales. Book I, ¢. 35.

4 «© Topography of Iveland,’’ Dist. II, c. xii.

5 James Hardiman’s Irish Minstrelsy (1831), vol. i, p. 367, copiel by T. Crofton Croker in the
<¢Tour’’ of Boullaye Le Gouz, p. 68.

2 76 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

place; and he tells his correspondent :—“ your cousin, a wise man and a great.
scholar,” took out a patent under Charles I to hold the island.

Boullaye Le Gouz, in 1644, one evening, when approaching Ireland, saw
‘he says) a spectral land, from 1 to 3 miles away, with trees and cattle; and
the pilot told him that it and similar islands near Greenland were often seen,
and that there were floating islands further north near the Pole.

Roderic O'Flaherty, in 1684, mentions the visionary island of O’Brasil, or
Beg Ara, seen from Aran, and how at the rocks of Skird in the same bay
phantom cities, towers, “blazing flames and smoak,” were seen, with even
people running, and, at times, ships and corn-stacks. One Morogh Ley declared
that he had been carried off to O’Brasil for two days in August, 1668. Later
legend tells how he brought back a medical work now in the Academy’s
Library, called “the Book of O’Brasil.” O’Flaherty says that about that
time some fishermen were carried two days out to sea from the Owles
(O’Maille’s country) and saw an unknown land, with sheep, but were in 30
fathoms of water beyond the Imaireboy cod-bank.* I myself have seen, on at
least three occasions in 1868 and 1872, from the cliffs near Kilkee, County Clare,
an apparent island, with hills, trees, towers, and smoke, after sunset, near
the horizon*

The European belief in mysterious islands probably sprang in a great
degree from the Lives of St. Brendan. These stories had commenced before
the Norse wars, but may have been shaped by the discoveries of the Vikings.
along the American coast. It was probably during the twelfth century that
the later versions of the legend spread through the Norman Settlements from
Treland into Europe. The 1280 map of Richard de Haldingham at Hereford
Cathedral does not mark any island outside Ireland ; but, in 1339, A. Dulceti
marked on his map a large island, about 60 miles west of the coast of Munster.
The far superior Catalan map in 1373 named this island as “St. Brendan’s
Isle,” and gave another, “The Isle of Mam,” farther to the south. The 1459
mappa-mundi of Fra Mauro, executed for Alphonso V, King of Portugal,
marks Brasil—“I. del Berzel, anesta isola de hibernia, son dite fortunato ” ;.
but the knowledge of Ireland itself is mere ignorance.* Solerio’s map, 1385,

1 << Tonr in Ireland’’ (ed. T. Crofton Croker), p. 3. Archbishop Ussher, in ‘‘Hibernia,’’ mentions:
the ‘* Lora Miranda” seen by St. Brendan on the ocean.

2 har Connaught (ed. James Hardiman), pp. 68, 69,72. The Book of Ley has the date 1434
written in it. Readers will remember Gerald Griffin’s poem on the Aran fisherman lost in the
pursuit of Hy Brazil. : :

3 Journal R.S.A.I., xxx, p. 289, and xl, p. 121, and ‘* Guide to Islands,” vi, p.24. ‘‘ Folk-lore,”
xxi, p. 481.

4 The only cities named are “‘ Stariforda’’ (? Carlingford), ‘‘ Garafonda”’ (at Waterford), and
*Domborg” (at Cork). See also early maps in Nordenskidli’s ‘‘ Facsimile Atlas.’’

Clare Island Survey—History and Archaeology. 2°77

gives “Brazir” off Spain. In 1492 the great Behaim globe, without America,
shows “Brasil” to the west of Donegal and two unnamed islands below it.

In the two centuries after the discoveries of Columbus it was to be expected
that the constant voyages in the outer ocean would soon undermine all belief
in the mythical islands of “Brazil,” “the seven Bishops,” “St. Brandan,”
« Buss,” and “Mam,” but such was not the case. Even such a cartographer
as Abraham Ortelius, in the ‘“Theatrum orbis terrarum,” in 1589, shows
“Demar” and “Brasil” to the west of Iveland in his map of Europe, and
“ Bund ” to the west of “ Brasil” in the map of the world.

In the middle of the following century a Dutch map (made during the
wars of the Republic with Cromwell) shows Brasil in about the position of the
Poreupine Bank; while, in 1680, the “English Atlas, printed for Moses Pitt
in London, marks “ Brazil” and “‘ Maida ”— the former a large island due west
from the Land’s End and to the south-west of Ireland.

The last notable retention of O’Brasil, foreshadowing its relegation to folk-
lore, is that of Guillaume Delisle. He retains “ Bus,” “ Frislande,” and the
“Roche de Bresil” in the map of Europe. 1724, while in-that of the British
Isles, in 1702, he has a pregnant note: “ Dans ce parallele, 51° latitude, et un
degré de longitude, quelques Cartes Marines representent une Isle a laquelle
elles donnent le nom de Brasil; et a 46 degréz et demi de latitude et 556 degréz
de longitude, ou environ, une autre quelles appellent Asmanda. Je ne Seay Sur
quel fondement ces deux Isles ont été placées, mais j’ay de la peme a me
persuader quil y ait des Isles, si peu éloignées de nos Cotes, qui nous ayent été
inconnues jusqu icy.” But the Rock of Brasil is marked on charts till 1865.

The whole subject deserves far wider investigation and elucidation than
it has received in this paper; but it is of sufficient interest (and, by its effect
in encouraging Columbus, of world-importance) to call for some notice in
treating of some of the Irish islands in which it formed an unshaken article of
belief from time immemorial.

The legendary islands of the coast correspond to shoals—the Cantillons’
Island to rocks in Ballyheige Bay, Kilstapheen to a shoal in the Shannon
Estuary, Kilstuithin to sunken rocks in Liscannor Bay, County Clare, and
Monaster Ladra to a dangerous reef opposite Annagh Point in County Maye.
This seems to imply that Tir Tairngire and Magh Mell originated in the
same way.

Legend in Aran says that Hy Brazil appears once in seven years (like the
land off North Mayo); that in County Clare asserts that Kilstuithin does the
same, and that whoever sees its golden-roofed towers rising over the sea or
glinting deep beneath the waves dies before its next appearance.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. L

bo

2 78 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

As for the Mayo lands,’ “ Mickletony ” O’Donnell, of Termoncarra, told
Caesar Otway that some twenty people had seen Monaster Ladra, and one had
pursued it for several days in his boat to try to disenchant it. This “druid
land” was often seen from Iniskea and Inisglora. Owen Gallagher, a servant
of Otway’s friend, Lieutenant A. Henri, when lost at sea, beheld looming
through the fog an unknown island, landed and found it inhabited by “seal
men.” Henri, before 1840, had heard of this land as extending from Teelin,
in Donegal, to the Stags of Broad Haven. A woman named Lavelle had seen
a pleasant land about a mile off Dunminulla at Portacloy; it had hills, cattle,
and drying clothes under the sea. A Ballycastle man had seen it twice at
intervals oi seven years. Had he seen it a third time, he could have dis-
enchanted it: but he died the day before the completion of the twenty-first
year.* It is said by the ancient Irish that when Tir Tairngire is disenchanted
the sea will break over the present lands,* and that the sea is to overflow Hy
Fiachrach, and, at last, cover the fioating cairn at Tra Eothaill?

Note.—Monvments 1x Norra Morrisr (0.58. 95, 96).

From Clew Bay southward, though little is shown on the map, several interesting
monuments remain. I have to thank Mr. Praeger for the following notes :-—

(1) Among the sandhills south of Emlagh Point and close to Lough Cahasy is
a cross-inscribed pillar 5 feet by 2 feet by 1 foot. The cross is ‘‘ Maltese” and
encircled ; there is said to have been an inscription, but none remains. (2) The
sandhills here and also at Dooaghiry, six miles southward, abound in midden
remains. (3) Near Cross Lough on the upper side of the road leading south is a
circle of irregular stones rarely 4feet high. (4) At Tullavranna in a sandy plain is
an earthen mound 20 feet high and 30 feet across, preserved by gravestones some
9 feet long and haying a primitive church Templedoonmore. A stream cuts into
the edge exposing coffins, bones, and skulls (see Irish Naturalist, xx, 193).
(5-7) Three ring-forts at Aillemore, Cloonlaur, and Stookamore. South from
Louisburgh, in Tobernahaltora, is (8) an unmarked dolmen, the chamber, 8 by 5 feet,
with a cover, 7 by 6 feet. Mr. G. H. Kinahan describes a curious slab-structure at
Aillemore also south from Louisburgh. It is 13 by 5 feet. Borlase notes it, and
suggests that there may be an “altar” at the former site. This record of a
supposed poor district suggests how much has still to be done by Irish antiquaries
in this single county.

“© Erris and Tyrawley,” pp. 79, 98, 247, 401, ani Otway’s “ Tour in Connaught,” pp. 387, 439.
Revue Celtique,” xxvi (1906), p. 49.
* Book of Leinster, f. 239 b, “ De Matribus Sanctorum.”’

Proc. R.I.AcAD., Vor. XXXI. PART 2, PLATE I.

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(CONNE/ARA)

CLARE IsLaND SURVEY.—WESTROPP : ARCHAEOLOGY.

*)

Proc. R.I.Acap., VoL. XXXI. Part 2, PLave II,

Clare Island Abbey from the west.

O Maille tablet, Clare Island. Cross, Clare Island.
CLARE IsLAND StIRVEY.—WEsSTROPP : ARCHAEOLOGY.

Proc. R.I.AcAD., VoL. XXXI. PART 2, PLATE II].

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CLARE ISLAND.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—WESTROPP: ARCHAEOLOGY.

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Proc. R.I.Acapb., Vor. XXXI. PART 2, PLATE V.

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CrarRe IsLAND ABBEY AND WELIS.

CLARE. ISLAND SURVEY.—WESTROPP: ARCHAEOLOGY.

Proc. R.I.Acapb., VoL. XXXI. PARY 2, PLATE VI.

PAINTINGS on THe CHANCEL VAULT.
CLIARA ABBEY

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CLARE ISLAND.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—WESTROPP : ANTIQUITIES,

Proc. R.ILAcAD., VoL. XXXI. ParT 2, PLATE VII.

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CAHER ISLAND AND INISHTURK.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—WESTROPP: ANTIQUITIES.

Proc. R.I.AcApD., VoL. XXXI.

Part 2,§PLATE VIII.

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ISLAND
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INISHTURK AND CAHER ISLAND,

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—WESTROPP: ANTIQUITIES.

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Clare Island Survey.

5)

PLACE-NAMES AND FAMILY NAMES.
By JOHN MACNEILL.
Read January 27. Published Aprit 30, 1913.

THE list of place-names of Clare Island collected in this paper will, I trust,
be found to have a scientific value from several distinct standpoints. The
Ordnance Survey maps do not aim at recording fully the topographical
names for divisions of land less than townlands; there is probably no
principle on which they act in inserting or omitting the names of smaller
divisions! The townland names have acquired a sort of legal status, and
thereby a definite degree of public recognition, and yet in many instances the
division of the country into townlands has been a matter of arbitrary choice.
Most of the townlands are, no doubt, divisions marked out and named by
ancient tradition. In a large number, however, new names have been
substituted in recent times for the old names, and even within living
memory new townlands have been created at the will, apparently, of the
landowners. For example, I have been unable to trace the name of the
townland of Hazelbrook, in which I was once resident, at Portmarnock, Co.
Dublin, in any record earlier than i840. Until about that time, the land
now so named was part of another townland. How satisfactory the topography
by townlands is may be judged from the fact that some of them contain
less than 40 acres and others more than 4,000. In Clare Island, the town-
land of Fawnglass contains 75 acres 2 roods and 14 perches, and the
townland of Bunnamohaun contains 1182 acres 1 rood and 3 perches.
The Ordnance Survey map, on the scale of six inches to the mile, names no—
subdivision of the latter townland, which is about two miles long and one
mile broad and comprises more than one-fourth of the island. Bunnamohaun
now contains no human habitation, and consists almost entirely of rough
grazing and waste land. But the name shows that part of it was formerly
inhabited, since it means “the low ground of the cabins.” It is further
evident that this name has been artificially extended in signification. ‘The
low ground” must have been the western side of the island, or a portion

1 The six-inch maps of Clare Island contain just one name, not well transliterated, of a smaller
division, ‘‘ Rooaunbeg.’’ out of the many recorded in this paper; the much danger adjoining
division, Rusin Mp, is not named on the map (Mayo 84).

R.I.A. PROG., VOL. XXXI. A 3

3 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

thereof; but at present the townland so named happens to include the whole
ridge of Cnoe Mér, which is the highest part of the island.

The Irish place-names, as they appear on the Ordnance maps, are often so
distorted that the semblance of the originals is wholly obscured. The effort
to represent the sounds of the names to an eye accustomed to English
spelling comes often very wide of its mark. The majority of the names on
the Clare Island maps are a record chiefly of the failure of an impossible
task. Many of them can convey no even proximate notion of the sound to a
reader of English, and are more likely to misguide than to guide a reader of
Trish, It was doubtless the difficulty of dealing with such material that
caused the Ordnance Survey officer to get confused occasionally, not only as
to the forms of names, but also as to the places to which the names belonged.
I note that in atlases for general educational use, place-names in Scotland,
which are commonly spoken with their Gaelic pronunciation, are printed in
their Gaelic spelling; and if this method fails to indicate the pronunciation
to everybody, it yet secures historical accuracy. The other method, used in
our Ordnance maps, fails in both respects.

The scantiness of prehistoric and early historic structures in Clare Island
has been noted in Mr. Westropp’s paper (Part 2). The place-names bring
under notice two sites, each named Szdhedn, of which one, in the townland of
Glen, is probably an artificial tumulus, and the other, near the lighthouse,
seems rather to be a natural hillock, In both cases certainty could only
follow exploration. The economic history of the island gathers a few facts
from topography, and even a few facts are of more scientific value than any
number of fancies. The general history and ethnography of the island cannot
afford to ignore the rather remarkable evidence contained in the list of
surnames.

Professor Wilson, in his paper on “ Agriculture and its History,” Clare
Island Survey, Part 5, has stated the problem, ‘‘ How far were the older
Clare islanders true Celts, and how far were they modified in blood and in
economy and custom by the Norsemen?” A large proportion of the family
names bring with them a sufficient historical record to solve this problem—
at least to the extent of enabling us to state it afresh on a structural basis of
ascertained facts. Of true Celts, as a distinct race, ancient history and
modern ethnology are alike ignorant. There is no Celtic racial type; and
the only precise meaning that can be attached or ever has been attached
to the name Celts is that it denotes a people whose language is or was
Celtic. We have evidence that Clare Island once contained a population

1The more accurate preservation of the place-names of Wales, besides enabling some dull folk to
think themselves humorous, has greatly facilitated the study of Welsh history and archaeology.

Clare Islund Survey—Place- Names and Family Names. 33

largely, if not mainly, representing racial elements older in western Europe
than the Celts. We have also evidence, in Clare Island and the adjoining
mainland districts, of almost incessant streams of immigration during many
centuries, and these streams can be traced to many parts, not of Ireland
alone, but of the continent of Europe, not in legend but in fully authenticated
history. So far as I know, there is no evidence of any colony of Norsemen
in or near the island during the period of the Norse migrations ; but the
surnames bear witness to the presence in some degree of a later-coming
Hebridean element which is largely of Norse descent.

Some of the place-names will be seen to reflect bygone conditions of
agriculture. TZuar Mér, the name of what remains of the most westerly
village, means “the great bleachgreen.” Another place is called na Tuartha,
“the bleachgreens.” The present generation in Clare Island has never seen
a field of growing flax; much less has it had any experience of the spinning of
linen thread or the weaving and bleaching of the linen fabric. Yet these
things were familiar to every generation from the Great Famine back toa
time much earlier than the first appearance of the Norsemen on the Irish coast.
The “ Parliamentary Gazetteer ” of 1845, in the article on Westport, gives the
following information on the authority of Mr. Inglis, who wrote in 1834 with
reference to the linen industry :—

“The linen trade in this district, and most probably in other districts, is the
source of all the extras which are obtained beyond the absolute necessaries of
life. The land is let in very small portions ; 7 or 8 acres is about the usual size
of a “take.” Potatoes are raised for the family consumption; grain, to pay
the rent ; and the flax is destined for clothing and extras. The decline of the
linen trade has produced great want of employment; and the condition of
the agriculturists throughout these districts has very much deteriorated. ....
The linen trade was extensively carried on here; and eight years ago as
many as 900 pieces were measured and sold on a market-day. Now the
quantity scarcely averages 100 pieces. Taking the whole district, including
Westport, Castlebar, Newportpratt,’ and Ballinrobe, about 500 pieces are
sold weekly ; and about 30,000 persons are supposed to be more or less
employed in the trade. No trade gives such universal employment as this ;
not fewer than 60 persons are employed, from first to last, in preparing a web
of linen.”

The word gort, “a cornfield,’ is of frequent occurrence among the place-
names in the more cultivated parts of the island. The “Parliamentary
Gazetteer” says of Clare Island: “Much grain is shipped for Westport ;
large quantities of sea-manure are landed; and about 340 men and boys

1 Newport, Co. Mayo.
A2

32 - Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

divide their cares between farming and the fisheries” The working male
population then was about equal to the entire population at present. From
Westport, in 1835, the export of corn, meal, and fiour amounied to
14,6244 tons. “Considerable shipments of corn were formerly made at
Newport; butthey do not now exceed 1,000 tons a year, most of the trade
having been removed to Westport.” Corn, like linen, has long ceased to be
a staple article of commerce in the district of Clew Bay. The authority
quoted makes no mention of the export of live stock from Clare Island at the
period 1841-1845. In Mr. Kilgallon’s account of the recent export trade,
quoted in Professor Wilson’s paper, p. 45, there is no grain or other tillage
preduce, only live stock and wool. Since 1845, the industrial civilization of
the island, and indeed of the mainland for the most part, has been lapsing
from the agricultural and manufacturing to the pastoral stage.

Among other kinds of grain, we need not doubt that wheat was grown in
Clare Island, as elsewhere in Ireland, from prehistoric times. The Irish names
for wheat, cruithneacht and tuireann, cannot be dated as borrowed words. The
word crutihneacht seems to have originally meant “ Pictish produce,” from
Cruithni, the Irish name of the Picts, who formed a large element in the
prehistoric and early historic population. There was formerly a water-mill on
the island. A small group of houses, where the northern road crosses the
stream in the townland of Maum, is siill called an Muileann, “the mill.”
The stream is Abhainn an Mhuilinn, “the river of the mill,” and it flows
from Loch an Mhuilinn, “ Loughavullin,” “the lake of the mill” Muileann
appears to be a loanword from Latin, but is of great antiquity in Irish. A
legend ascribes the invention of watermills to Cormac mae Airt, a pagan king
of Ireland. In 4D. 651, two sons of Blathmac, king of Ireland, went
marauding in Leinster. They were pursued, and forced to hide themselves
in the wheel of acorn-mill The mill was set in motion, and the two princes
were crushed to death. Verses made on this event are thus translated by
Kuno Meyer -—

O mill

that hast ground corn of wheat,

This was not a grinding of oats (7)
Thou groundest on Cerball’s:grandsons.
The grain the mill srindeth

Ts not oats, but it is red wheat:

Of the branches of the great tree was
The feed of Mael-odran’s mill”

i Hibernice Minors, ed. by Kuno Meyer, p. 73. Seealso the Annals of Ulster, a-p. 650 (= 651).
The word translated “‘ oats ’’(?) in the first stanza is serbiind = or, in the Annals, serbaind. It seems

Clare Island Survey— Place-Names and Fumily Names. 8 5

The minute nomenclature of the coast-line is inherited from a time when
the business of fishing gave more occupation to the islanders than it does at
present. During the years 1890 to 1902, I was accustomed to spend a
considerable part of my summer holidays in the middle island of the Aran
group in Galway Bay, and had thus an excellent opportunity of closely
observing the manner of life of the inhabitants, which must somewhat resemble
the former life in Clare Island before recent economic changes had come into
operation. That similar changes have not worked out in Aran is probably
due to the unfitness of the islands for corn-growing on a commercial scale,
and for pastoral existence. The extensive growing of corn for export in places
like Clare Island must have operated on habits of life in the same direction as
the economic division of labour under modern industrial conditions has
affected the working population of manufacturing districts. In highly
developing one form of industry it must have induced a degree of atrophy in
other forms. The collapse of the staple industry, consequent on the repeal
of the Corn Laws, found the rural community unable to restore the varied
industrial activities of their former existence. Pasturage, a still simpler
pursuit, took the place of corn-growing, but was less productive, and ultimately
more than three-fourths of the population disappeared.

In Inishmaan, the middle island of Aran, these changes did not take place.
The area of the island is less than two-thirds of the area of Clare Island, and
most of the surface is bare rock. There is no peat, and the islanders have to
buy their fuel from Connemara. In 1841 there were seventy-eight families
in Inishmaan. When I was visiting it there were over seventy families. Except
the school-teachers and their households, the whole population of working age
were engaged in a great variety of occupations—fishing, the curing of fish, and
the preparation of fishing-apparatus; even fishing-line, of excellent quality,
was made from thread; there being no safe harbour for sailing-boats, the
only boat used was the curach, manipulated with such skill and ease that the
boat and the rowers seemed to be parts of one active and highly organized
animal; rock-fishing was also practised ; every suitable patch of ground was
cultivated, chiefly for potatoes and rye, the chief use of rye being to supply
straw for thatching, and the thatch of the houses was annually renewed.
Nearly all the clothing worn by men and women was the product of their

fo mean ‘‘[material for] bitter ale.” In fact, Meyer quotes a variant reading, which has not the
negative, and might be rendered: ‘‘ It was a grinding for bitter ale thou groundest on Cerball’s
descendants.’’? In the second stanza, the ordinary word corca, now coirce, is used, meaning ‘‘oats.’’
The mention of ‘‘ved wheat’ is interesting, as implying that the red and white varieties were both
known. ‘‘The great tree’? means the monarchical line of Niall of the Nine Hostages.

The two men were sons of Blathmac, king of Ireland (+ 665 or 668), son of Aed Slane, king of
Treland (} 604), son of Diarmait, king of Ireland (+ 565 or 572), son of Cerball.

3 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

own industry; their shoes were of untanned hide, and were so suitable for
the rocky surface of the island that I was always glad to substitute a pair of
them for my boots. The hides for making shoes were bought in Galway, and
cost about £1 each. A patch of osiers belonged to each house, and the
weaving of baskets was a household occupation. The preparation of kelp was
another industry common to all; most householders possessed a few sheep,
acow, a mare, or a donkey, and some pigs; the pigs and the surplus offspring
of the other live stock were exported. The great range of activities required
for all these occupations made the islanders alert and resourceful beyond any
experience of mine in other places. During one of my visits a “slip”’ was
a-building to make better provision for the launching and landing of the
curachs. For this work the Congested Districts’ Board supplied a foreman,
cement, and tools. The dressing and laying of the stone were done by the
islanders, whom I saw at work with mallet and cold chisel as if they had
never known any occupation but that of stonecutters. The contrast in economic
history between Inishmaan and Clare Island explains how the one island has
been able to maintain a population hardly, if at all, less than it was when the
population of Ireland was at its maximum; while the other island, nearly four
times as populous in 1841, has at present almost exactly the same number of
families as Inishmaan.

In Inishmaan, as in Clare Island, every outstanding feature of the coast-
line bears a distinctive name; but the maintenance of the fishing industry
keeps these names in constant use. I was fortunate enough in Clare Island
to find a guide who was born before the Great Famine, Padraic Mhac Thuathail,
born in Inishturk, but brought up from infancy in Clare Island; hale and
active in mind and body, keenly observant, courteous, and eager to assist me.
He is one of the best speakers of Irish that I have met, and a good
speaker of English, too. In both languages he deliberately chooses the words
and phrasing to suit his thought, as a poet or a good orator does, instead of
using the ossified phraseology which is customary with most people. It is
probable that many of the places named by him could no longer be named by
many of the islanders. Indeed I was told by others that only he and one
other man could be found to supply me with the correct place-names.

Professor Wilson has called attention to the situation of the Clare Island
homesteads which, at first observation, seems to bespeak a degree of
indifference to the fishing industry, since they are not placed so as to give the
best access to the sea. The situation of the homesteads in Inishmaan is
somewhat similar, though all the men and grown-up youths are engaged in

1 The cultivation and manufacture of flax, however, were only remembered by the oldest
inhabitants.

Clare Island Survey— Place-Names and Family Numes. 37

fishing, and also in the seashore work of kelp-burning and gathering seaweed
for manure. All the houses are far from the sea. The sites are, no doubt,
dictated by a sound traditional instinct, in which several needs are expressed.
Tn these exposed western islands every site is not suitable for a house. In
fact, only the more sheltered sites are suitable. A spring of good water must
be sufficiently near at hand. ‘he house must be so placed that those who
are at home can look after the cattle and sheep-grazing in the open. In
mountain districts on the mainland this last consideration appears often to
govern the choice of site, the houses being placed at or near the edge of the
rough grazing, in apparent disregard of convenience in other respects,

At present the houses in Clare Island are dotted here and there singly or
in pairs, Older maps show them grouped in small villages, and village sites
are still easily traced. My guide, Padraic MhacThuathail, born in 1841,
remembers many inhabited homesteads forming hamlets which are now
deserted.

Among some of those who had visited Clare Island before me on the work
of this Survey I found the impression that the Irish language was almost
unknown to the islanders. Bearing in mind my experience of other places
of which a similar repute prevailed among visitors, when I met any of the
islanders about whose knowledge of Irish there might be a doubt, I spoke to
them in Irish only, and I found that the middle-aged and elderly folk in every
part of the island could converse in Irish. The younger adults and the children
have at most a small stock of Irish words and phrases. English is now
consequently the common language of intercourse, and many who can speak
Irish well rarely do so.

The local dialect of Irish is not to be distinguished in any general respect
from the dialect of Partry and Joyce’s Country, the nearest districts in which
I had previously made a stay. Its phonetic system is the best preserved of
all the extant Irish dialects known to me, that is to say, is the most fully in
conformity with the orthography of early modern Irish. The main departure,
common to all the dialects of Connacht and Munster, is the weakening of @
and ea in an initial syllable followed by a long syllable, eg., brddan for
bradan (“salmon ’”’), criogan for creagén (“ a piece of rocky pasture”), The
diphthongation or lengthening of short vowels in certain positions, which
characterizes the dialects of Munster, the Aran Islands, and Connemara
(though with varying outcome in the various dialects), is not found in the
dialect of southern Mayo, except in the one instance, common to all the
modern dialects, of d lengthened before long 7, asin barr, ard. Both in Partry
and in Clare Island I noted occasional phonetic tendencies suggestive of
northern influence. The very characteristic rounded 0, normal in Connacht

3 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and Munster, often became unrounded or open in unstressed syllables, e.g., in
the ending -é6g of nouns, -échaidh of verbs; and the @ of unstressed -ach,
normally a neutral vowel in Connacht and Munster, e.g., in swarach, was
sometimes heard with its typical value as in stressed syllables. I would
ascribe these northern traces to the transplantations of Ulster people to
Connacht in the seventeenth century, in part, perhaps, to the influx of
Hebridean galloglachs during the three preceding centuries.’

In the list of family names particulars of the recorded or traditional origin
of a considerable proportion of the families now settled in Clare Island have
been supplied. The notion exists that because the islands and coastlands of
western Ireland are on the outer edge of the Old World, their inhabitants
must in a specially high degree be representative of an aboriginal West
European stock. The mere inspection of a map does not afford sufficient
foundation for an assumption of this kind. Even if one is entitled to judge
the matter a priort, there are other considerations that cannot properly be
overlooked. ‘he coastlands and the adjoining seas, since remote prehistoric
times, have always been the freest highways for the redistribution of the
human race. Mountainous, marshy, or heavily forested inland regions have
always been the least accessible, and, with the exception of wholly barren
deserts, the least tempting lands for newcomers. The predominantly mari-
time distribution of prehistoric megalithic structures in western Europe and
north-western Africa indicates an extensive migration coastwise, and reaching
to Ireland, at a period which at the latest was early in the Bronze Age; and
must have preceded the Celtic immigrations traced from central Europe, a
region, according to Borlase, almost or wholly devoid of structures of the
kind. Since the Atlantic Ocean was the limit of early migratory movements
in a western direction, we should rather expect its fringes to exhibit the
maximum of accumulation, with a strong tendency in the conquering and
dominant newcomers to wear down and wear out the older and weaker
elements.

In the ancient folk-migrations displacement of one population by another
is likely to have been of rare occurrence, and perhaps never took place except
in cases when the invaded population could find another territory in which
they might live in freedom. For conquering invaders, the most valued
acquisition, ministering at once to their wealth and ease and self-esteem, must
have been a subject population. The displacement of the language of the

1 Surnames from the Hebrides and Argyle, belonging to families largely of Norse extraction, are
frequent in western Connacht. The galloglachs (‘‘ gallowglasses’’) of Irish history were mainly
Norse-Hebridean mercenaries. Rogers (MacRuaidhri), MacDonnell, and MacSweeney or Sweeny.
are galloglach surnames common in co, Mayo. MacAlpine and MacAuley are probably of like
origin.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 9

conquered by the language of the conquerors has sometimes created in a later
age the illusion of a displacement of population. The Anglo-Saxon conquest
of England is a case in point. Conversely, popular history ignores the Norse
occupation of the Hebrides and the Norse dominion there for more than four
centuries, and takes the modern Hebrideans for an extremely Celtic people,
because in the long run the Gaelic language displaced the Norse language in
that region.’ In like manner, the population of southern Scotland is often
supposed to be Anglo-Saxon, for no better reason than that an Anglian
dialect has, in quite modern times, become exclusively the popular speech.
Anglian colonization, as a matter of historical fact, did not extend beyond
the eastern maritime region. Buchanan, writing in 1589, says that Gaelic
was then “magna ex parte” the language of Galloway. It was also, magna
ex parte, the language of the Scottish Lowland settlers in the north of Antrim
as late as the first half of the eighteenth century.

Displacement, however, took place in other ways after conquest. The
dominant class in a country is often the least prolific. It was otherwise with
the Celts in Ireland. The rapid increase of the Gaelic nobility can be seen as
clearly in the annals as in the genealogies, and stands in strong contrast to
the very frequent extinction of the male line in the pedigrees and histories of
the Norsemen and Franco-Norsemen.* Some have supposed that the Irish
surnames in “OQ” and “Mac” are not ordinarily evidence of descent from the
ancestors in whom they originated ; that the subjects of an Irish chief were
accustomed to assume his surname. I have never found any evidence of such
a custom, even during the period when the privilege of the “five bloods”
might have made it acceptable. Dubhaltach Mac Fir Bhisigh, the last of our
hereditary genealogists, did not believe that the custom existed. He seems
to have been challenged about it, perhaps by his friend Sir James Ware, and
his answer is emphatic. He is discussing the question whether racial origin
may be traced by means of physical characteristics, and he says of this
eriterion :— :

“Though it may not be found true in all cases, there is nothing incon-
sistent with reason init. And further, it is an argument against the people
who say [ironically] that there is no family in this country which the
genealogists do not trace up to the sons of Mil. And notwithstanding this,

' The Hebrides remained closely attached in intercourse and politically subject to Norway until
1263 ; but the Norse conquest was not merely a political conquest like that of England or of parts of
Treland by the Normans. That there was a very complete Norse colonization with a prevalence of
the Norse language is proved by the fact that a large proportion of place-names in the Hebrides,
amounting in some of the islands, it is said, to two-thirds or three-fourths, are of Norse origin.

2 See the Norse pedigrees supplied by Vigfusson, Jcelandie Sagas, vols. i and ii, and compare the

descent of the Norman dynasty in England, and of the lordship of Leinster and the earldom of
Ulster after Strongbow and De Courcy.

R,IA. PROO., VOL. XXXI. B 3

3 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

even thongh it were so, it would be no wonder; for, if a man will look at the
sons of M{l, and the great families that sprang from them in Ireland and in
Scotland, and how few of them exist at this day, he will not wonder that
people inferior to them, who had been a long time under them, should not
exist; for it is the custom of the nobles, when their own children and families
multiply, to suppress, blight, and exterminate their farmers and followers.
Examine Freland and the whole world, and there is no end to the number of
examples of this kind to be found; so that it would be no wonder that the
number of genealogies which are in Ireland at this day were carried up to
Mil.”

We have no grounds for questioning this testimony, offered by an ardent
adherent of “the race of Mil,” the dominant Gaelic people of ancient Ireland,
as to their custom of making room for their own kindred by squeezing out
the plebeian folk. The examples to which he appeals for corroboration are
sufficiently abundant.

The contempt of the dominant Gaelic people for the older conquered folk
is frankly expressed in another passage, quoted by the same authority “from
an old book.”

“Everyone who is black-haired, who is a tattler, guileful, tale-telling,
noisy, contemptible; every wretched, mean, strolling, unsteady, harsh, and
inhospitable person; every slave, every mean thief, every churl, everyone
who loves not to listen to music and entertainment; the disturbers of every
council and every assembly, and the promoters of discord among people;
these are the descendants of the Fir Bolg, of the Gailitin, of the Liogairne,
and of the Fir Domhnann, in Ireland. But, however, the descendants of the
Fir Bolg are the most numerous of all these.”

The customary “suppression” of plebeians to make room for the patrician
race must have been a gradual process, too petty to obtain notice in the
chronicles. There are, however, examples of suppression in a more con-
spicuous degree. The story of the descendants of ‘Umor,3 who were of the
Fir Bolg, tells that in the time of Ci Chulainn they were so oppressed with
burdens by Cairbre Nia Fear, king of North Leinster, that they migrated in
a body across the Shannon and settled on the western seaboard. The great
conspiracy of the subject races throughout Ireland, a few generations later,

‘O’Curry, “‘ MS. Materials of Irish History,’’ p. 225. The Irish text, given in O’Curry’s
Appendix, is from the introduction to the ‘‘ Book of Genealogies,’’ of which the original is now in
the possession of the Rt. Hon. M. F. Cox, M.D., and O’Curry’s transcript, the only one, is in the
Royal Irish Academy library.

2 Tb., p. 224.

> «« Book of Ballymote,’’ 30a 28. The story is told in prose, and also in a poem by Mae Liag,
who died in 1016.

Clare Island Survey —Place-Names and Family Names. onl

was caused by the oppression they suffered from the Gaelic ascendancy. The
tract on the plebeian communities’ says:—“ From these a bondage-rent of
service accrued over the free race of Ireland. That is to say, the free races
deprived them of the lands on which they served; and they decayed, and the
free races encroached upon them and took their land from them, so that the
servile rent thenceforth was attached to the free races, being fixed upon their
lands.? For all the men of Ireland are free except the people we have
enumerated.” Among those enumerated is Tiath Macc n-’Umer, plebs filiorwm
‘Uméir, already mentioned and hereinafter to be mentioned in connexion with
Clare Island and the district of Clew Bay. If these accounts are legendary,
they come nevertheless from writers who were familiar with the relations
between patricians and plebeians in their own time. Like things happened
at a less remote period than that of which these stories are told.

O'Donovan, in a note on Ui Maine, “Book of Rights,” p. 106, cites a life of
St. Greallan to the effect that “‘ Duach (recte Dui) Galach, the third Christian
king of Connacht, permitted them to dispossess Cian, the Firbolg king of the
district, which was then called Mag Sein-cheineoil.” The dispossessed people
was named Tuath Sen-cheneoil (“the Tuath of the Ancient Kindred”), and is
one of those named in the list of the plebeian peoples (BB 255 a 24).

Annals of Ulster, a.p. 551 (=552). “Bellum Cuilne in quo ceciderunt
Corcu Oche Muman (‘of Munster ’) orationibus Itae Cluano (‘of Saint Ita of
Cluain Credail’).” The Coreu Oche (Core[o] Oige) are named in the list of
plebeian peoples, 1. 15.

Ib. A.D. 751 (= 752). “The annihilation of the Brecrige by Cenél Coirpri
in Telach Findin.”? The Brecrige are named in the list of plebeian peoples,
1, 20. Cenél Coirpri was a sept of the Ui Néill. “The annihilation of the
Caillrige of Lorg by the Ui Britin.” The Caillrige (Cailraige) are named in
the list of plebeian peoples, 1. 12. The Ui Britin, akin to the Ui Néill, were
the dominant sept in eastern Connacht.

Ib. a.D. 752 (= 753). “The killing of the Ui Ailella by the Greceraige.”
This was a revolt. The Greceraige were a plebeian people (Tuath Cregraighe,
list, 1. 26) partly settled under the Ui Ailella (BB 256 a 13), who were akin
to the Ui Briuin, and occupied Tir Ailella (= Tirerrill barony, Sligo).

Ib. AD. 776 (=777). ‘“‘Strages Calraigi la Hu Fiachrach” (“by the

1 Tb. 255a: ‘‘Of the names of the rent-paying communities (aithechthwatha) and of their
distribution throughout Ireland, according to the Book of Glenndalocha.”’

* The ‘“‘ Book of Rights’ gives several instances of free peoples to whose lands a servile rent was
attached: the Déisi of Munster, p. 51; the Luighne of Connacht, p. 105; the Delbna and the Ui
Maini of Connacht, p. 107. ‘To the list of tributes to the king of the Ulaidh (p. 168) is appended the
statement: ‘‘ These are his food-rents (biatha) from his free peoples (saer-thuatha), not mentioning
his servile communities (daer-thuatha).”?

B2

33 12 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Ui Fiachrach”). The Ui Fiachrach, akin to Ui Britin and Ui Ailella, were
the dominant sept in northern Connacht. The Calraige here named are
probably the section from whom Glencalry in North Mayo is named.

Ib. A.D. 811 (=812). “Slaughter of the Calraige of Lorg by the Ui
Bridin. Slaughter of the Corco Roidhe of Meath by the Ui Maice Uais.”
The Ui Maice Uais were, like Ui Britin, Ui Néill, Ui Fiachrach, and Ui
Ailella, a sept of Dal Cuinn, dominant in Connacht, Meath, and most of
Ulster.

Ib. A.D. 815 (=816). ‘A battle is won over the Ui Fiachrach of Muirese
by Diarmait [king of Connacht] son of Tomaltach, and Fobren in the country
of the Graicraige [=Grecraige) is burned and plundered, ubi plurimi occist sunt
agnobiles.”

This Diarmait died in 833, without having made sufficient provision for
his posterity in the manner described by Dubhaltach. How his grand-
children repaired the omission is told by another genealogist (BB 102a 30):
**Uatu, son of Dathlaech, [son of Diarmait], with his sons and brethren
[brothers and cousins], headed westward across the Suck; and the sons of
Uatu slew in treachery at an ale-feast in one house [the chief men of] the
Corco Roidhe of Fidh Manach all but a few.” And “the sons of Uatu took
possession of the lands of the Corco Roidhe”’ (100 a 20).! The year 900 may
be taken as approximate date of this event. Corcu Roidhe was one of the
plebeian peoples, Tuath Fhir Ruidi, 1. 24.

That most of these acts of extermination are located in Connacht
probably signifies that the plebeian communities there retained longest the
power of resistance. Feebler elsewhere, they suffered perhaps less violent
forms of “blighting” and “suppression,” on too small a scale to be recorded
in chronicles. It is sufficiently clear that there was a continued displace-
ment of the inferior population by the dominant Gaelic element during many
centuries.

The process was facilitated by the readiness of, at all events, the less
opulent of the patricians to take to husbandry. “ Five generations from king
to spade,” said an old proverb. That the transition might be even more
rapid is indicated in the story in the “Fragmentary Annals” told of the
grandson of a king of Ireland, himself afterwards king of Ireland, Finnachta

} These lands, not defined in Onomasticon Goedelicum beyond that they were west of the Suck,
were in the district of Tuam, for the text cited above says that the race of Diarmaid further
encroached (102a@ 35) on the lands of Cenél nDubain (barony of Kilmaine, co. Mayo) and of
Cland Choscraigh (barony of Clare, co. Galway), and on the lands of the Soghain as far as “Ath
Gldinchinn (1. 41), = Bél ‘Atha Glainchinn, “ Ballyglunin,’”’ where the railway between Athenry
and Tuam crosses the Abbert river. Fidh Manach =Coill Fheadha Manach, “ Killamanagh,’’ west
of Tuam, near Shrule.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 13

(+ 695), grandson of Aed Slane (f 604). “In respect of this world’s goods,
this same Finnachta at the first was endowed but poorly : he possessing but
wife and house, and, saving one ox and a cow, no stock atall.”! The narrator is
a re-furbisher of old chronicles for the benefit of those who prefer a well-told
tale to a dry list of events. Whether his account of Finnachta’s early
poverty and life as a husbandman be myth or fiction, he makes no wonder of
it as a fortune that might fall to the lot of any king’s grandson.

The seeker for an aboriginal race of men in Clare Island is likely to be
disappointed. The island is the habitat of a population not less diverse in
early distribution than the flora and fauna are at present. Nevertheless, as
to the primitive inhabitants, there are some traditions worth noting. The
tribe of the Sons of Umor has already been mentioned. ‘The legend says
that they were a branch of the Fir Bolg. They were driven out of Ireland
into the surrounding islands by the ‘'uatha Dé Danann. In a later age they
were driven back to the mainland of Ireland by the Picts. ‘They then
settled in Meath, but soon, as has been told, fled from oppression to lands
west of the Shannon.

The tract which gives the territorial distribution of the rent-paying
peoples (BB 255 6 36) is to all appearance an authentic document stating
known facts. It has—

“Tuath Mace nUmoir in Dal Cais [= East Clare] and in Ui Fiachrach
Aidhne [E. and S.E. of Galway Bay]... Tuath Chonchobuirni and (Tuath)
Mace nUmoir in Ui Briuin [of Mag Seola, barony of Clare, Co. Galway] and
around Loch Cime [Loch Hacket, on the Tuam side of Headford, Co. Galway ]
and in Cluain Fuiche [Cloonfush (?), W.of Tuam]... Tuath Mace nUmoir in
Umall [the baronies of Burrish-Oole and Murrisk, Co. Mayo, including Clare
Island].”

The poet Mac Liag gives the following places of abode of the Sons of
Umor: Duin Oengusa in Aran, Loch Cime, Loch Cutra (ear Gort, Co.
Galway), [Magh] Aghair (between Ennis and Tulla, Co. Clare), Muirbech
Mil (supposed to be the muirbheach or sandbanks at Kilmurvy and Portmurvy,
Great Island of Aran) “ Dal” with an oenach beside it (probably ‘I'ulach na
Dala, site of an ancient assembly-place and a modern fair, 4 miles N. of ‘'uam:
Onom. Goed.), Rinn Bera (otherwise Cenn Bera, Kinvarra, on Galway Bay),
Modlinn (a poetic name for Cuan Modh = Clew Bay), iath Aigli (the district
of Aisle, at Cruach Phadraic, otherwise Cruachan Aigli, Mons Heli of L.
Arm.), Laiglinn (unidentified), Din Conchraide in Inis Meadhoin (now called
Din Conchubhair in the middle island, Aran, Galway), Tulach Lathraig

1 «Silva Gadelica,” p. 438. 2 Hence Lally of Tollendall.

3 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(Tillyra, Co. Galway), Rinn Tamain (‘l'awin, Co. Galway), Orich Aidne
(=Kilmacduach diocese, Co. Galway), Boirenn (Burren barony, Co. Clare).
(BB 30 6 10-20).

It is thus evident that the Race of Umor was anciently known as an
unfree population, believed not to be Gaelic in origin, inhabiting, among
other western tracts, the kingdom of Umhall, including Clare Island and
the islands of Clew Bay.

Over them in Umhall ruled a patrician folk known as Fir Umhaill, the
Men of Umbhall, otherwise the Ui Britin of Umhall. These were a sub-sept
of the Ui Briuin of Connacht, descendants of Brioén, who lived about A.D.
400, being a brother of Niall of the Nine Hostages. They belonged to the
kindred called Dal Cuinn or Connachta, meaning not the inhabitants in
general of the province of Connacht, Cdiced Connacht, the Fifth of the
Connachta, but the dominant gens who ruled the province, and from whom it
was named.’ Whe oldest known habitat of this folk is defined by the name
Machaire Connacht, “the plain of the Connachta,” otherwise known as Mag
Aoi. In it was the seat of their ancient kings, Cruachain Aoi or Raith
Cruachan (“ Rathcroghan,” Co. Roscommon).

The Connachta or Dal Cuinn afford the most remarkable example of the
expansion of the patrician race. This expansion, in their case, can be traced
continuously from the fourth century until the fourteenth, when Clann Aodha
Buidhe, the descendants of Aodh Buidhe Ua Néill, king of Tyrone, 1260-1283,
established themselves over a large part of the feudal territory of the earldom
of Ulster, east of the river Bann. For an ancient list of the possessions of
Dal Cuinn, before the feudal invasion, see my paper on “Karly Irish
Population groups,” § 158. At the end of the list are the Men of Umhall.

In the genealogies of the Ui Britin (BB 89), the first pedigree given is that
of Domhnall Ruadh Ua Maille, dynast of Umhall; “killed by Clann Mebric and
other foreigners (feudal settlers) ” on Christmas night, 1337. He is twelfth
in descent from Maille, the dynast from whom the surname is derived, and
whose date should be about 400 years earlier. From Maille up to Conall
Oirisen, son of Brion, there should be about sixteen generations. The pedigree
has only seyen, and therefore cannot be held authentic in detail to any point
earlier than the eighth century. That the Ui Briuin were settled in Umhall
in the eighth century is clear from the mention of “nepotes Briuin Humil” in
the Annals of Ulster, A.D. 786. The family of Ua Maille was for many
centuries at the head of this septin Umhall. They were a sea-going stock.

1 The names Ulaidh and Laighin, in like manner, have a general and a strict meaning. In
the strict sense, as used by the genealogists, they denote only the dominant dynastic races of ancient
Ulster and Leinster.

Clare Islund Survey—Place-Names and Fumily Names. 38 15

“No one has heard of a man of Maille’s race that was not a mariner.”? The
shape of their territory extending around Clew Bay from point to point (the
baronies of Burrish-Oole and Murrisk), broad at the seaward ends, but a mere
strip of coast at the head of the bay, strongly suggests Clare Island as the
headquarters of their maritime domain, and explains the name “Ua Maille’s
Island,” used in the Annals of Ulster (A.p. 1415). About one-fourth of the
population of the island are descendants of Maille in the male line.

The place-names of the seaside were for the most part noted down in the
course of a cruise round the island, beginning with the harbour at the east
end and going thence northward, and so round by the west and south and
back to the harbour. In making reference to the Ordnance six-inch maps,
from which the englished forms of the names, so far as they are given, are
here cited, it will be convenient to follow the same direction.

The names on the map are here given in italics.’

1. Clisyo, Clare Island. So usually, not €iledn Clioqio.

2. dn Céib, Harbour, lit. “ the quay.”

3. An Tpsis, “the strand,” from the Harbour northward, about a quarter
mile in length, also named—

4, Tpdrg Oyrgoe, “ [Saint] Brigid’s strand.”

5. Leac no Tpdso (pronounced Tydbo), “ flagstone of the strand,” forms
the west side of the Harbour.

6. Leac no mb6, “ flagstone of the kine,” a low rock surrounded by sand
towards the north end of the strand.

7. An Copp Sop, “ the rugged bend,” a rocky point close to the Lace
School, once a police barrack, noted “ Constab. Bk.” on the map.

8. dn Coiléop, “the quarry,” on the rocky shore between on Copp Sap
and Ceann no Copyio.

9. Ceann na Coppo, Kinnacorra, “headland of the bend,’ the most
easterly point of the island. Here the divided swell of the Atlantic,
sweeping round by north and south, meets again, and a great boulder-beach,
V-shaped, raised by the waves, forms the limit of the land.

10. An Tujlinn bess, “the little boulder-beach,” is the southern limb of
the V. j

11. Tuplinn no Sctocé&n, “boulder-beach of the pillar-rocks,’”’ is the
northern limb of the V. It ends northward in large rocks.

1 Topographical Poem. ‘ ‘I'he Ui Britin in their seagoing ships’’ (Book of Rights, p. 106) must
have special reference to the Men of Umhall.

2 Departures from the normal Connacht pronunciation of the Irish names are specially noted when
they occur.

5 Another form of the word is Coipéal. Both are derived from the French carriére. Many
Irish words, often said to be of English origin, show by their pronunciation that they came into Dish
from the French of the early feudal colonists,

3 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

12. Loédn Ceann no Coppa, “the lakelet of Ceann no Coppa,” is a natural
dam formed behind the boulder-beach. Note that Ceann in this name
remains uninfiected. A somewhat similar lake in 1mp Measdéin (Aran),
dammed up by a sandy beach, is called Loé Cinn Saini[m], where Cinn is
genitive of Ceann; Ceann §Saini’ “headland of sand.” The presence or
absence of inflection in such instances depends on the extent to which the
words forming the name are felt to be separately significant or to have
coalesced into a single term.

13. Capps na bPopncdn, Carricknaportaun, “the rock of the crabs,” a
long reef running northwards from Cesnn no Copys, and projecting from
200 to 300 yards into the sea to north of Alnahaskilla.

14. Sablan no hdpgaille, the angle of land beyond which the reef
projects, “the fork of the oxter.” Apsoilt = “ armpit,” (azilla, achselgrube).’
The reef is not inaptly compared to an arm held out from the body of the
island. The name on the Ordnance map, Alnahaskilla, stands obviously for
Mill no hdpsoilte, “the cliff of the oxter”; but my guide refused to
recognize it, correcting it repeatedly to the form I have given above.

15. Leac na Cpeatnaige, Lacknacranny, “ flagstone of the creathnach,”
a low rock on the shore, west of Capyioig no bPopcdn. Cpestnoé f., gen.
cpestnaigse, is a form of dulse (dilisc) found growing on the shells of live
mussels and preferred for eating to the ordinary kind that grows on rock.

16. Ton Tustoil, “Tuathal’s butt,” the ground above leac no
Cpheatnaise.

17. dn Usiéfe] Deas, Ooghbeg, “the little cave.”

18, Aipoeatt, Ardal, “ high-cliff.”

19. Maoldn no n-éan, “bare knoll of the birds,” a rock in the sea.
The name on the map is A/nanean, representing dull no n-éan, “cliff of the
birds,” but was not recognized by my guide.

20. Leic »’ Sgannail Mép, Leckascannalmore, apparently = “ great stone
of the scandal.” Ssgannat had doubtless some other meaning, for it is
frequent in early Ivish as a personal name, as is also its derivative Scannlén,
whence the surnames O Sgannail “Scannell,” and 6 ScannLéin “ Scanlan.”
A large rock on the foreshore. Beside it—

21. Leic »’ Sgannail Oess, “little Leic-a-sgannail.” Note that in these
names, moti and beas have not aspirated initials, though Leic is feminine.
They are further instances of a group of words forming a noun independent
of accidence.

22. An Colbs, “the bedside,” the cliff and promontory west of Leac »’
Ssannoil. Several cliffs in 1nip Mesddin are named Colbs, which is the

1 The Old Irish word is ochsal, ozal,

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 3 17

ordinary name for the outer side or “stock” of a bed, and means a “bench”
in earlier Irish. The point of the promontory is named—

23. Sob »’ Colba, “ beak of the Colbha.”

24. Tanorde Nioclair, “ the shoals of Nicholas,” a row of rocks covered at
high water, west of Sob « Cols. The foreshore over against these is
named—

25. Dun »’ Spdyvodin, “ the foot of the little waterfall." In the little
bay west of an Colbas.

26. Pont lite, Portlea. I have no explanation of lite.

27. Poll no n Samnar%, “ pool or hole of the calves.” At the north of
the long beach of Popic lite. Sathnard = sathna, gen. pl. of Samoan, “a
grown calf.” In most parts of Connacht, a short vowel ending, as in 5amno,
is often closed with an added y (i).

28. Leac o’ Pyioptin, Leckaprison, “the flagstone of the prison.”

29. Mill on Foters, Allanahy, “the giant’s cliff.”

30. Leic »’ Baro, “ flagstone of the boat,” close to AilL an Fatorg on the
northss=

31. dn Colod VDeos, “ the little haven,” close to taé Copjpogssin on the
south. Catod originally an adjective, “hard, firm.” Then “firm land,” as
distinguished from soft marshy land on the bank of a stream or lake; hence
the “callows” of the Shannon. Then “a landing-place,” and so finally a
small haven on the sea-coast.

32, Uaé (or Marge) Coppogdin, Ooghcorragaun. I have no explanation
of the second word, which may be a personal name.

33. An Leac Tidy, “ the great flagstone,” north of Usé Copposdin.

34, toiée Oathain, “the deep cove,” takes the place of the Ordnance
Survey name Ooghanloughan (apparently for Usiée on Locsin, “the cove of
the lakelet [rock-pool 2] ,” not recognized by my guide).

35. Leac na Cpeatnaige, the second place so named, north of taiée
Oathain.

86. Uai’c no Mopo (ie. Moré Wic no Maya), Ooghmacnumara,
“Mac Namara’s cave.” The surname Mac Namara, originally Mac Con

1«¢scéyodn, asmall cascade. An esr is formed by a river; a pcdyvodn by a stream or feavdn.
When rivers decrease in summer, their ears become resprodin. Old Cormick, of Erris” : O’ Donovan,
Supplement to O’Reilly’s Dictionary. ‘‘ Killough (otherwise Port St. Arne) . . . in the county of
Down. ... There is a remarkable well here called St. Scordin’s Well, and highly esteemed for the
extraordinary lightness of its water. It gushes out of a high rocky bank close upon the shore, and
is observed never to diminish its quantity in the driest season”: ‘“ Encyclopedia Britannica,’’ fourth
edition. ‘The saint’s name, still spoken of in the locality, seems to have grown out of the name of the
well, probably cobap o’ ppdqvosin. S54v065, equivalent to ppdyvo4n, is the name of a stream
falling from the cliff a little west of the outlet of Owenmore river, on the south side of Clare Island.
The basis of these words is rp4v0 = ‘‘ squirt, gush, vomit,” etc., verb p54yvoaim.

R,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. Cc 3

3 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Mara, is found on the island. According to my guide, the correct name of
this cave is—

37. More no wOpuroescai, “cave of the starlings.” But the gen. pl.
opluroescéai is a modern colloquial form. We should probably expect Uo1é
ns nOy\00 if the name were an old-established one. We found the cave
frequented, not by starlings, but by swallows and rock-pigeons.

38. Copporg no Loédn, “rock of the pools,” on north side of the last-
named cave. Possibly, by some confusion, this name may have originated the
Ooghanloughan of the O.S. map.

39. Leic ti Bpeanartt, “O Bréanaill’s flagstone.” The surname probably
represents © Bréanainn, as Loch “Ennell” represents the older name 1oé
daninn.

40. Scocdn Marte Foose, “the heron’s sea-stack.” The heron, coy
TPENESCOS in Clare Island and the Aran Islands, is called familiarly mee
fos, “long Mary,” in Clare Island; Sioban fooa, “long Joanna (Julia),”
in Avan, This rock is marked on the O.S. map by the misplaced and very
much mangled name, Carrickarelich.

41. On Tidso, “fort of the strand or ebb.” The O.S. map has
Doontraneen, presumably for On Tpsaitnin; but my guide would not hear
of this name as correct. He pronounced cyd§o (gen. of tyd1§) as THABS
or typ\d-ti. In Omeath, Co. Louth, I heard the ancient pronunciation tpdso,
with spirant §. In South Connacht and Munster, the pronunciation is tp,
§ becoming regularly silent after 4,6, tu. The place is an island at high
water, and the site of an ancient fort, described by Mr. Westropp, Clare
Island Survey, paper No. 2.

42. On Mille, Doonallia, “cliff fort,’ an ancient fort’ on a high, almost
isolated, rock. Close to it on the north, three rocks in the sea are shown on
the map. The most westerly of these, nearest the main island, is—

43. Cayporg no Roilleac, “the rock of the oyster-catchers.” The
position assigned on the map to “ Carrickarelick”” shows the looseness of the
Survey work ; and the form given to the name is well calculated to send the
trustful searcher on a wild-goose chase for an ancient cemetery (j\e1l15) in
the vicinity of “ Long Mary’s sea-stack.”

44. An Usiée Oub, Ooghduff, “ the black cave.”

45. Sob Woe Soin, “beak of Uaé Som,” the point apparently
indicated by “ Sraher” on the map. Close to it, on the west—

46, Moe Soimd or Usiée Horm, “cave of sand.” I write 5o1n19, as
heard, for 5oinith, gen. of 5oineot, “sand.”

47, Spdtop, Sraher, “pack-saddle,” a rock in the sea at Usé Sainre.

1 See Mr. Westropp’s paper,

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 19

48. Colbs na Seicée, “ bedside of the hide,” the cliff-face due east of the
lighthouse.

49. An Leicedg, the high rock on the northern point of the Sean A
derivative of Leic, Leac, and similar in meaning.

50. An Forpeann, “the crew,” a long sunken rock shown, but not named,
on the map, close to land a little east of the northern point of the island. The
jagged peaks of this rock, rising a few feet above the sea, when seen from
the sea at a distance, present a very strong resemblance to men in a curach
fishing. Hence the name.

51. Leic na Coppi, Lecknacurra, “the flagstone of the bend.” One might
infer that the northern point of the island was called an Copp, “ the bend,”
or Coyi71 with some defining adjective or genitive; but I did not find such a
name in use.

Here our course turns southwestward. The next name on the six-inch
map, after Lecknacurra, is Cushacappul. This should represent Corp o’ Capaitt,
“‘the horse’s leg”; but my guide would not recognize the name. There is,

-however, a hollow in the high ground east of the lighthouse, known to him
as Sinn na 5Capailt, “ the pen of the horses.”

52. Ne Dsépacéoi, or Capps nd n'O4poéoi, a large rock in the sea about
half a mile north of Leic na Coy, perhaps “ the wild ones ” (odpac, “ bold,
fierce, restless,’ O’Reilly). It is called in English “the Daisy Rock”? or
“‘Deasy’s Rock,” apparently mere sound-imitations of the Irish name. The
O.S. map calls it Calliagherom Rock. This name properly belongs to—

53. An Cailleaé Crom, “the stooping hag,” the rocky promontory of
Clare Island, jutting out from the lighthouse northwestward. The O.S. map
is again in error in marking Calliaghcrom as the name of the cliff on the edge
of which the lighthouse stands, south of the promontory of An Cédilleaé
Cpom. The map has thus two Calliaghcroms, neither of them in the right
place.

54. An Copiporg Fooa, Carrickfadda, “the long rock.”

The lighthouse was called by my guide an ceaé edluiz, “the house of
guidance” (so, péatc edluiy, “ guiding star’). The Irish name is not to be
taken as a fixed proper name; but it is an interesting alternative to the more
usual ceaé poly, “ house of light,” used in closer imitation of the English
term.

55. dill no D6, “the cow’s cliff,’ is the name of the cliff marked
Calliagherom on the O.S. map, at the west side of the lighthouse.

56. Dinn an lols, Benilra, “the eagle’s peak,” rising over the sea to
the height of 427 feet. 1ola, in Connacht dialect =10Lap, “eagle.” Fiolan
is used in Munster and also in Tyrone.

C2

3 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The O.S. map has Sheean as the name of a rock in the sea. The name
(Side4n) belongs properly to a hill some distance inland (291).

57. Sn Mdm Risboacé, Maumreagh. Ruobsé “brown, brindled” (yu0b
“a stripe ”), is pronounced j10c¢ in Munster; and this form, spelled reagh or
rea, seems to have been habitually adopted in the English writing of place-
names. The name on the O.S. map seems to designate a sea-rock. It is
properly the name of the adjoining height on the island.

58. dn Aull Ré1d, “the smooth cliff,” at An MAm Riobeé, probably takes
its name from the absence of coves and promontories.

59. Ton no Sropips, “butt of the Siopp,” at the southern end of dn Salt
Reid. The Siorr is the hill to the east (286).

60. ALL no mbArineac, Alnamarnagh, “cliff of the limpets.”

61. Sloipeiledn no n§eopaltaé, “green island of the Geraldines,” a
large rock, unnamed on the O.S. map, in the sea opposite the southern end
of All no mbédrjinese. The name, in the form Glassillangaraltach, has been
transferred on the map to another rock, Sloipeiledn Moy, nearly two miles
farther westward (76).

62. Sloiperledn Dess, “little green island,” unnamed on the map, a rock
in the sea, S.E. of Bloipeiledn no nSeapolecac, and close to the western end
of the boundary between Ballytoohy More and Ballytoohy Beg townlands.

63, Mall Tain, “bull’s cliff,” south of Blaipeitedn Deas.

64, Ton Sill Torpib, “ butt of bull’s cliff,” appears on the map as
Tonaltatarrive, as though for Ton Silt »’ Torpib, “butt of the bull’s ravine.”
Alc, “ravine,” is very frequent in Ulster topography. It is fairly
evident that someone familiar with Ulster Irish was engaged in reducing
the place-names of Clare Island to the form in which they appear on the
O.S. maps. In this name, dill-Taipb becomes an uninflected group-word.

At this point, the western face of the island ceases to be a sheer lofty
cliff and becomes a steep acclivity, rising to the height of 500 yards. On
the coast-line of this slope, about a mile and a half in length, the O.S. map
has only two names, one of which was not recognized by my guide. His list
of names was taken down by me as we passed along in a sailing-boat. Iam
thus unable to locate with precision the places that the five following names
should occupy on the map, which does not give them in any form. They
were noted in the following order :—

65, Usimin Oud, “ black cove.”

66. AiLL o’ Caoptainn, “ cliff of the rowantree.”

67. CTathan no Ron, otherwise catnn og no Ron: coman, “stump, block” ;
comnac, “a fine field in which daisies, sorrel, and sweet grass grow ” (“Old
Cormick of Erris,” quoted by O’Donovan, Supplt.) ; na p\6n, “ of the seals.”

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 38 21

68. Scpaps no ntlan, “ledge of the lambs.”

69. Leic »’ Caopeéainn, “flagstone of the rowantree,” probably the rock
marked on O.S. map (Mayo 84), close to the foot of the cliff, about an inch
to the left of the place where the boundary between Lecarrow and Bunna-
mohaun townlands ends at the cliff on the N.W., and on the edge of the
Ordnance sheet.

70. An SalL Mop, “ the great cliff,” the main slope from the summit of
an Cnoc Mop (1520 ft.) to the water-edge.

Ooghduff, on O. S. sheet 84, at the place where the shore-line begins to
bend to S.-W., can only stand for an Uo1é Oub, “ the black cave.” I did not
get the name from my guide. See Usaimin Oud, 65.

71. Poll »’ Outil, “hole or pool of the(...?).’ Among the meanings
given by O'Reilly for oul, the following may be pertinent; “a snare, trap,
spring, gin; fishing with nets.” It is, however, to be noted that for vol,
O'Reilly gives “a kind of fishing-net; .. . a snare; link of hair.” We may
suspect some confusion here between otil, with long u, and vol with short 0,
possibly through an alternative spelling, oul, for the latter word. In the
sense of “a snare for fishing”—combining somewhat the meanings assigned
by O'Reilly to both words—ool is the correct form. In Irish-English,
“dulling for trout” is well known,—the fish as they lie still in a pool are
snared with a noose of horsehair.

72. Copporg Poll o’ Onl, probably the sea-rock marked on the map
beneath the name Altatruffaun.

73. Aall cSpupain, “cliff of rivulet,” the western Seat of the great cliff.
Spupdn, in Connacht dialect, = pputdn. After L, n, 7, the aspirated 7 (= h)
often becomes ct (written then tj or cy). The O.S. version of the name
Altatruffaun, as with Tonaltatarrive, above, is an error likely to have been
made by one familiar with the topographical nomenclature of Ulster.

74, dalle Leatus, “cliff of (... 2).” The final syllable of Lleatwo may
be phonetically represented by Aziw, the w being very lightly sounded. aw
nearly represents the Connacht and Ulster pronunciation of the unstressed
ending -s0 in verbs and nouns. In dilte here, I am uncertain whether the
final vowel is a mere helping vowel between final l and initial l, or represents
the shortened form of the article—dill o(n) Leatad, but a masculine
genitive Leatad is most unlikely. I could not get an explanation of the
name, and can only suggest that it stands for oll leatoud, “half-black
cliff,” though in that case we should expect the article before sill. One
thing certain is that the O. S. from Allahan is quite wrong, being an evident
attempt to solve the difficulty of the name by inventing a new one, aill
Leatan, “broad cliff.” Here again it is evident that the Survey official knew

3 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Trish enough to be able to twist an unfamiliar word into one more familiar to
himself.

75. ML o? Hyroenpomndin, Allagreenramaun, “cliff of the (.. . ?).”
No explanation of sjuenpothdin (not -mdin) was forthcoming. It may be
the name of a fish or bird, or perhaps a frequentative form of the verbal
noun spisnyiuged, “sunning, basking in the sun,” as nigeacén of nige,
“washing,” pniomacdn of pniomh, “spimning.” The writing of m for m is
further evidence of a certain degree of acquaintance with the writing of Irish
on the part of the person who collected the names for the Ordnance Survey,
since m has the sound of w or v, retaining, however, the nasal quality in
accented syllables.

76. Sn Sloipeitedn Mop, “the great green island,” sea-rock at western
end of Att o’ Suanpomsin. Wrongly named on O.S. map Glassillangaraltagh,
for Slaiyeitedn no nSeapoltaé, already located (60).

77. Sn Slsipeitedn Vess, “ the little green island,” sea-rock south of an
Slareitedn Mop, and named Gilassil/an only on the map.

78. Ton » Tabaip, “ butt of the tower,” the sea-front near the old Signal
Tower. Tsbs1i is merely the English word in Irish guise.

79. Té6n Oaobscé, “butt of tubs.” Osbsaé means also “a flax-dam”
(O'Donovan, Supplt.). The O.8. version Zonadowhy may stand for Tén no
oaboice (ooibée), with genitive singular instead of genitive plural.

80. dill » Bpedin Mop, “great cliff of the pin,” overlooking the little
bay south of the Signal Tower. Uyedn, dialect-form of biopdn, “pin.”

81. Att »’ Bpedin bess, “little cliff of the pin,” further south over the
same bay.

82. No Lescdgai, “the flagstones,” promontory south of the same bay.

83. Doo » Manors, Budawanny, a high pinnacle on a narrow
promontory. Doo = membrum virile; » Manors, “of the monk.”

84. Cappoig no mbpolt, Carricknamrol, “rock of the lamentations ?”
O'Reilly has buppol “loud lamentation, a roar of grief,” buppoloc
“obstreperous in grief.” Cappoig na mbuppal would pass easily into C.
no byoll in ordinary speech; as in Aran Is. mriya for Mupésd, brirtay for
Miunipicespitac.

85. An Cyiomalt, “the stooping cliff,’ over the inlet south of Doo s’
Monorg.

86. No Caiple Conyac, “the unsteady horses,” rocks on the shore, on
the north side of the south-western promontory of the island.

87. Ceann »’ cSeinoile, Kinaterdilla, “head of the beetle,” sometimes
translated “Beetle Head” by the islanders. “Séimoite reincile (read
yemcile 7), a beetle for beetling clothes ” (O'Donovan, Supplt.).

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. $8 28

88. dn Sertivoile, “the beetle,” the outer rock-island of the promontory.

89. An Seiivoile Deas, “the little beetle,” the inner rock-island of the
promontory.

90. An Gloreilesn, “the green island,” the peninsular extremity of the
promontory.

91. Deol Sedin »’ Coie, “the mouth (ie. passage) of John of the
cauldron,” between the outer and inner Seitnoile,

92. An béol Deas, “the little passage,” between an Seitioile Deas
and Stoipeitedn.

We now turn eastward along the southern shore of the island.

93. dn Leic burde, Lackwee, “the yellow flagstone,” a headland.

94. Moré an Mavard tipse, “the otter’s cave,” west of—

95, Caypors 0’ Cporde, “rock of the heart,” headland east of on Leic
Bude.

96. Uaié (or Hac) Oathain, “deep cove,” east of Cayipoig a’ Cporde.

97. An Mooldn Oud, “the black blunt rock,” indicated on O.S. map. by
Ooghmoylanduff. The latter name, not used by my guide, should represent
Woiég on Moaoldin O16, “the cave of the Maoldn Oub.”

98. Leic o’ Siolla Mop, Lackagilmore, “flagstone of the big man,’
promontory on west side of toié an div. §Fiolta, “servant, guide, gilly,”
becomes (like the English “fellow”) more general in meaning when an

5)

adjective is added.

99. t1oié on DAr0, “the boat’s cove,” deep cove at the end of the townland
boundary between Bunnamohaun and Strake.

100. Uaiée no Mavsd, “cove of the dogs,” on the east side of the
promontory containing Poll no Msoo0.

101. Poll no Mao, “hole of the dogs,” otherwise Poll o’ thao,
“hole of the dog,” a cavern extending from the east side of Usiée no
Mord eastward about halfway through the promontory, then upward till
it opens on the flat top of the promontory. It is flooded below at high water.
My guide explained the name by saying that dogs to be destroyed were
thrown down the hole, but the O.S. version of the name, Pollawaddy = Pott
& thooo1, has only one dog in view.

101 a. Ooghganny, as placed on the O.S. map, seems to be the name of
Moice no M00, but is perhaps misplaced. It was not given by my guide.
Synonyms used by different persons are not impossible. See Uac Saimid,
A6.

102, Uaé Latnac, marked Ooghnahawna on O.S. map. I do not know
what Latnaé means. 100 A. Ooghnahawna = Une no hdbnao, is evidently
a genuine name, “ cove of the river,” as one of the main streams of the island

Oo 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

discharges into this cove. The spelling awna, where the pronunciation would
be better conveyed to an English reader by owna, further bespeaks a writer
acquainted with Irish spelling.

103, Unie 0 oilips, Ooghadillis, “cove of the dilise.” The omission of
the final consonant in the O.S. name may be accidental; but on the Antrim
coast the edible seaweed is known in English as dudlis and dulse.

104. Uoié no ntlon, “cove of the lambs,” west of on On.

105. An Otin, Doon, “the fort,” a fortified promontory.

106. Uoré on Otin, “ cove of the fort,” east of an Otin.

106 a. Ooghaniska, Usié on tipse, “cove of the water,’ not on my list,
is evidently a genuine name, as the cove so marked on the O.S. map receives
a small stream from the land.

106 B. Ooghnageeragh, Unie nd SCaopae, “cove of the sheep,’ is not on
my list.

107. An Dpeacatt, “the mottled rock,” is the name of a broad rocky
patch between the south road and the sea, beneath the name Cratgmore on
O.S. map.

108. Tén 0’ Bypescortt, otherwise Tn o Byrertt, Tonadbrickill, “ butt of
the Dyjescatl.” The second form, corresponding with the O. S. version, is
certain to be the older. Indeed, byeacalt may be a popular etymological
reconstruction of a name originally Dyiceall. Arroeolt points to a final
element -el/ not -all.

109. Sgdyoog, “little waterfall,” at east side of Ton »’ Bcill. See
25, Dun o’ Spdqrodin.

110. tlarée Beas, “little cove,” east of S5dyvos.

111. Uoi’c no Mayo (contracted for Usié Mic No Mayo), Ooghnamara
“Mac Namara’s cove.” See 36.

112, Coppors no Mapa (for Copporg Mic No Maya), “Macnamara’s
rock,” a long reef stretching into the sea, south of Uosi’c no Mapo. Mac
na Mayo is the popular variant of the surname Mac Con Mapa, “son
of Cu-Mayio.”

Ooghlannagh, printed on O.S. map under Ooghnamara in such a way as to
leave doubtful the particular cove designated, is not on my list. It seems to
represent Uoié Latnaé, placed by my guide much farther west, as shown
above (102),

113. Usice Wed, “ Ned’s cove,” on west side of Capporg no Mapa.

114. bun no hdAbonn, “foot of the river,” where the Absainn Mon
discharges into the sea. This and the newer form Dun no hdibne were
both used by my guide.

115, Moré on Fail, “cove of the fence,” at bun no hdbonn. The O, S.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 205

‘map has Ooghvunanal (= tare bun [or buin] on FAL), which my guide
would not recognize. The name seems genuine, but may have arisen from a
mixture of tlo1é on Fail and Dun no hAbann. My guide also said toric
Bun no hdbam.

Oomeennamuckmara (= Usimin na Mc Maya, “little cave of the sea-
pigs [i.e. porpoises]”) is printed on the O. 8. map right below Ooghvwnanal ;
it is impossible to say what place is designated. The name was not
recognized by my guide. Probably it represents Uoié Mic na Moyo,
wrongly understood and wrongly located on the map.

116. Poll »’ Cuporg, Pitacwrry, “the hole of the curach or canoe.”
My guide would not recognize the O. S. variant, which may be genuine and
now obsolete. . ic = vulva.

117. Ero 04 Porc, “between two ports,” the blunt foreland between
Poll o’ Cupors and Port no Pyorrce.

118. Popc no Pysipce, Portnaprasky, “ Port of the pottage (or, of the
wild mustard).” This and Poyic no Pyoipise were both used by my guide.
Prroipess, f,, gen. proipse and (of late formation) parse, is the generic
name of a number of cruciferous plants and others popularly classed with
them. Latin, Brassica.

119. Capporg 0’ By dcop, “the friar’s rock,” a sea-rock opposite the mouth
of Pont no Pysipce. There is a legend connected with the name.

120. An Cilt big (Beas), Kilbeg, “the little church,” an islet on the east
side of Popit na Pypoipse.

121. bun » Spin, “gravel bottom,” the upper side of the T-shaped cove
of Usé Eapaitll. Spin, gen. of syan, gravel, sand.

122. Usé Capartt, Oogheappul, “horse’s cove.”

123. Pont cSpupdin,! “port of stream,” a small cove, receiving a tiny
stream, east of taé Caportl.

124. An Liosdin, derivative of lis, gen. lias, “ai great stone, pillar stone,
etc.,” east of taé Capaitt.

125. Pope »’ Lisg din, Portaleighaun, “ port of the great stone.”

126. n Sob Oud, “the black beak,” the rocky promontory east of Pont
a lrsgain.

127. No Leapesési, “the flagstones,” -by metathesis for Leacpocsi, a
colloquial plural of Leac. West of Popc »’ Cuasitle.

128. Popic o’ Cusitle, Portacoolia, “port of the stake or post,” just west
of the Pier near the Abbey. The name is placed too far west in the O.S. map.

129, Poyc no Cillead, Portnakilly, “ port of the church,” rather perhaps

1 The absence of the article may indicate here, as it often does in place-names, that a determining
word or words have been dropped after the name.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. D 3

3 26 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

“of the churchyard,” since cill, anciently denoting a church, has the usual
modern meaning of “burial-ground,” the ancient churches being at best mere
ruins, but the cemeteries around them being still preserved. The small
harbour protected by the Pier. Cillesd, with the ending pronounced -2,
is a new and local formation of the genitive, on the analogy coullt, gen.
-coillesd, “a wood.”

130. Uoimin Pesooip th bWpoodm, “Peadar O Bradéin’s cove,” Peter
Salmon’s Cove. The surname © Braddéin is found on the island, and
“Salmon ” is the accepted English equivalent : byoodn, “a salmon.” On the
east side of the cove—

131. Coppoig o Tuinn, or rather Coppors 0 cSumn, “rock of the
beam.” Sonn, “a beam or post” (not from tonn “a wave,” which would
have given Cayyioig, na CTurnne).

131 A. Oomeengarve = Usimin Sopb, “rough cove,” marked here on the
O.S. map, is not on my list.

132. No VDoipedési, the large sea-rock indicated but not named on the
0.8. map below the name Oomeengarve, also the rock due east of it, named—

133. Ooipedéai Eamuinn, Derraghyemon, “Edmond’s Doipedéai.” Of
this word, which is plural, I have no explanation. Other rocks at this place
are—

134. Copporg Tomip Eamumn, ” the rock of Thomas (son) of Edmond,”
and—

135. Capparg Sedin Aods Moin, “the rock of John (son) of big Aodh
(Hugh).”

136. dn Bedpna Sataé, Barnasallagh, “foul gap.” Dedpna is also
pronounced Dedpnord. Note that the O.S. map has s (restored) where the
actual sound (written 7) is h.

137. Popc Taipb Dess, Porttarriff beg, “little bull’s-port.”

138. Poyic Toipb Mop, Porttarriff, “great bull’s-port.”

139. Capporg na Seaypporse: my guide understood the name tobe
connected with yeapotn. “standing.” In my opinion, fedyoé, gen.
resppioise, is a normal Connacht variant of reipjesc, gen. yeipjise, as
copyioigim is of coippieasoim, and the name may be explained as “rock of
the plough or of the ploughland.” Carricknashasky, the O.S. version, is not
authentic, my guide informed me. Ifit were, it would stand for Capps
no Seapsoige, “rock of the dry cow,” and perhaps the O.S. officer here again
substituted a familiar for an unfamiliar word.

140. Moré on Oomaig, explained to mean “the dummy’s cave,” east of
Popc Taipib. If voma1g represents “dummy,” this name must be of recent

origin.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 27

141, Usimin no Coopaé Caorée, “little cove of the blind ewe.’ For
this, the O.S. map has Oomeenakinkeel, as it were Usimin »’ Cnn Coort,
“little cove of the narrow head,” but my guide rejected this name as quite
incorrect. It seems to have arisen from confusion with—

142. tlaiée ’n Caorl, “the cove of the narrow passage,” which in O.S.
spelling should have been given “ Ooghinkeel,” but appears on the map as
Ooghkeel.

143. Usimin Hopt na Mucloc, “the cove of Gort na Muclach.”. G. na M.
is a stretch of land north of Sob on Uoimin. The name of the cove seems
to be represented on the O.S. map by Oomeengubamonemeen,’ altogether
rejected by my guide, and unintelligible to me.

144, Sonpdn, Gurraun, east of Sob on Usimin. O'Reilly gives the
meanings “a grove or wood,” and “mud.”

145. Sob on toimin, Gubanoomeen, “beak of the cove,” a promontory.

146. An Usice Leatan, Ooghlahan, “the wide cove.”

147. Usice no Ma10i, Ooghnamaddy, “ cove of the sticks,” named perhaps
from driftwood.

148. Usice no Soillesd, Ooghnasellen (a misreading for “ Ooghnasellew ”),
“ cove of the fat.” Soilt, portt, “the fat of meat.” The gen. poillesd, for
yoille, is modern and local. See above, 129, under opt no Cillesd.

149, tore no Oyipe, “cove of the bramble.” The O.S. map substitutes
Ooghnadrishoge, representing either Uae na Oyyedise, “cove of the
bramble,” or Unie no n'Opyeds, “cove of the brambles”; oyipedos being a
derivative and frequent synonym of oyip. West of Oun Cloce is—

150. Capparg no mbeatlorge, explained to mean “rock of the ways.”

_ 151. On. Clocsa, Doon Cloak, “fort of cloaks (?).”.. An ancient
promontory fort. See Mr. Westropp’s paper.

152. An Cotooip, “the chair,” rock near Otin Cléco. :

153, Pont Tyuicesé, Portruckagh. I have no explanation of ctyuicesc.
Rurcesc would mean “wrinkled, corrugated,’ but. the two words .were
pronounced slowly for me as written.

154, An Copporg Mop, “the great rock,” extending eastward from "Otin
Cléca.

155, Us’ Nédpleo (for Mo1é6 N.), Ooghnapla, “ Annabella’s cove.”

1 The notes from which the names on the 0.S. maps were taken must have got into confusion
in this and other instances. I think that the notes may have contained ‘‘ Gortnamucklagh’’ as the
name of the adjacent piece of land, and ‘‘ Oomeen G.”’ as the name of the cove. But in the
preparation of the map, denominations of land less than townlands were generally omitted.
“ Gortnamucklagh’’ being thus ignored, when ‘ Oomeen G.’’ came to be written in full, “‘ G.”
would be supposed to refer to the nearest name beginning with that letter among the names
retained, viz. Gubanoomeen.- Oomeengubanoomeen, which suffered again in transcription, would
mean “‘ the cove of the beak of the cove,’’ a most unlikely name,

D2

3 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

156. tac Caitpions, Ooghcatherina, “ Catherine's cove.”

157. Usié no Caillige Ombe, Ooghnacallyduff, “ cove of the black hag
(cormorant, shag).” :

158. An Uoié Moy, “the great cove.” The bare name Oogh on the O.S.
map is obyiously incorrect.

159. An Cnoige, “ the knob,” a high bluff overlooking an Ua1é mon.

160. An tMoiée Datnain, also on Uaé Oathoin, Ooghganamna (!), “the
deep cove.”

161, toice ’n Cunoig, “cove of the curach (canoe),” between the last-
named and an Uasice Cool.

162. An Uasiée Caol, Ooghiceel, “the narrow cove.”

163. Uorée ’n Barn, Ooghanwaud, “the boat’s cove.”

164. Ceann no htloiée, Kinnahooey, “headland of the cove.”

165. Usice ’n Tupi, Ooghantur,“ cove of the tower (perhaps, of the bush).”

166. Capporg o’ Daimne, “ rock of the milk.”

The O. 8, name is Kinnawoneen, which is a corruption of—

167. Ceann »’ Dadbein (bddtin), “headland of the bawn,” ie. the
enclosure still called—

168. An Dadban, the “bawn” of the castle. From it projects the pier,
on Céib, at which our circuit of the coast began.

INLAND NAMES.

169. Daile an Sleanns, Glen, “ townland of the valley,’ named from the
valley of the stream—

170. Abainn »’ Sleanno, “river of the valley,” rising on the east side of
Cnoc no bfian, and flowing eastward till it enters the sea at the middle of
the strand near the Harbour.

171. Dapp 0’ Sleanna, “top of the valley,” district about the head of
the stream, the most northern part of the townland.

172. Cnoc no bien, Knocknaveen, “hill of the Fiana,’-the Ae Bee
(729 ft.) in the eastern half of the island.

173. Cyphers na 5Colun, “crag of the pigeons,’ eastern spur of Cnoc- no
Fan, north of the Presbytery, near the point where the boundaries of Glen,
Lecarrow, and Fawnglass townlands meet.

174, An Leapgan, “the slope,” on the north bank of the stream, “north
of the Presbytery. The final syllable is short.

175. An Lopgén (derivative from Lops “track” or Lupso “shin ”), the
slope facing east on which the Presbytery stands. Two fields east of thes

Presbytery, there is a small tumulus called—
176. Sidedn, “fairy knoll”; the fence passes over it.

Clare Island Survey— Place-Names and Fumily Names. 8 29

177. An MArmin, “the little mdm,” hill on north'side of Dapp 6’ Sleanno,

178. An Cy0sdn Dan, “the white (grassy) crag-field,” on north side of
FAn Slop (241).

179. Coll an Ate, “wood of the ford,’ S.E. of Lops dn, north of the
southern road, due north of Doon Cloak. The “ wood.” no longer exists.

180. An Cupyioc Moy, “the great moor,” the lower part of the valley,
adjoining the strand on the west. athe

181. No Rusince (plural of a feminine noun Rusn or Rusin, meaning
unknown to me), a long low ridge between the southern road and the cliffs
on the south. The highest point of the ridge is marked 194 ft. on O.S. map.
The slope north of this point is—

182. Toob na Ruan, “side of the Ruans.”

183. Cuil no Ruon, “back of the Ruans,” the N.E. slope facing towards

the strand. West of no Rusinte—
184. Hoyt no Mucloc, “cornland of the swine-ranges,” above Sob an

Uoimin. West of this—
185. FAL Duailesd, “fence of cowfolds,” at the S.W. corner of Glen

townland.

186. dn Dodtop 6 deoy, “the southern road.” North of Sopcns Mucloé
and £4L Duailesd, the road passes through—

187. An Sustoé, a stretch of cultivated ground. I have no explanation
of the name. (Sual, coal, fuel. Suats, shoulder). Ale

188, Cuppoce no GSusloigse, “moor of the Gualach,” north of Sopc no

Muclac.

189. Pdipc Séamump, “James's field,” west of ESL Dusitesd, north of
Popt Tard.

190. Dor o’ Sunicin, “top of the little cornfield,” south of Déacdn,
(205), north of southern road,

191. Log »’ cSeapporg, “the colt’s hollow,” and——

192. Log na bfFeilescdn, “ hollow of the butterflies,’ two hollows on the
west side of Cnoc na bFian and Déacdn.

193. Doéop Boile Tuoid, “road of Ballytoohy,” thence to the Abbey.

194. Dotan no Leice, “road of the flagstone,” an old track running east
and west through the hollow in Lecarrow townland between Cnoc no bfian
and Cnoc »’ MAma. On its south side are—

195, dn Cyerg, “ the crag,” N.W. of Dopp o Sleanna (171), and—

196. Ssaitp Lesc o’ Ooipin, “cleft of the flat rocks of the little oak-
wood,” in the west of the valley.

197. Cooljac, “narrow eee a ballon below the cliff on south side of

Dota no Leice.

3 30 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

198. Léans no bpolt, “marsh of the holes,” a marshy place near Caolpaé.

199. Leac o’ Sleanna, “ flat rock of the valley,” near Dotoy no Leice,
which is no doubt named from it, in the valley north of Cnoc na bfian.

200. M4m GFpin, “hill-breast of gravel,” N.W. spur of Cnoc no bFian.

201. Taob »’ Cnuic, “side of the hill,” the southern slope of Cnoc na
bfian, north of the Gualach. In its eastern side— :

202. dn FAL Sayb, “ the rough fence,” west of which is—

203. An FAL Uy, “the fresh or grassy fence.” This and the preceding
name are now given to stretches of land.

204. Dapp o’ Sgonnps, “top of the dry-stone fence (sconce),” the high
ground north of Taob an Cnure, rising towards—

205. Déac&n, “the beacon (?),” the hilltop marked 692 ft., north of the
dividing line between Glen and Kill townlands.

206. Daile na Cillead; Kill, “townland of the old church or church-
yard.” In its north-east corner—

207. Dapp o’ Daitle, “head of the townland.” The hill north of this is—

208. Cnoc an Fedtain, “hill of the storm.” South of Don » Baile,
at the road, is— A!

209. dn Psipc Mon, “the great park or grass-field.” South of this,
towards the sea, adjoining Pont Taipb, is—

210. An Pdric Lusépa, “ the park of rushes.”

211. Cpeig na Ceapcad,? “crag of the (rag?),” a rocky knob between
the southern road and Pont Coipb. There is another place (308). of the
same name in Ballytoohy Beg townland.

212. dn Mesll Moin, Malmore, “the great lump,” the south- eee
spur of Cnoc ns bfidn. The south-western slope, above the Abbey, is named—

218. An Cnoc Dan, “the grassy hill.” The adjective ban, “white,”
applied to land, denotes the bright green colour of a grassy surface, in
contradistinction to talath voearsg, “red, ie. tilled, land,’ and to the dark-
ness of bog or heath® Hence an ban, “the grassy turf,’ bainpeac, “a
grassy flat.”

214. An Maimycip, “ the Abbey.” Close to it—

215. Tobay Féile Muipe, Toberfelamurry, “the well of Mary’s pocaell 2?
i.e. a holy well, associated with a “station” or pilgrimage on Ladyday.

1 The genitive ciLlesd, replacing cilLe, is an analogical formation after words like coill, gen.
coiltlead. I use the traditional spelling for the ending, -sd, which in Connacht and Ulster is
pronounced somewhat like iw. ¢

2 Like cillesd, an analogical formation, from ceipc “‘ rag,’’ or perhaps replacing ceapocan,
nominative ceapoca, ‘ smitlry.”’

3 ““Dsinceanna bana 1 Lin an fpsors,” ‘ green fields in the midst of the heather”; Connacht
folksong, An Dditpin Durde.

Clare Island Survey— Place-Names and Family Names. 8 31

According to Pdoyiaic Moc Tustdrt, the name is Tobay Céile Mure,
“the well of Mary’s spouse,” Le. of Saint Joseph.

216. Stdca no Cilte, “the pillar-stone of the church,” a monolith with
incised cross, now built upright on the fence of the churchyard.

217. dn Muine ‘Oub, “the black brake or ae east of and
adjoining the Abbey.

218. Na Dpéanporde, “ the fetid grounds,” 8.H. of the Abbey, adjoining
Pojic no Cille.

219. &n Hajees Oub, “the black garden,” close to the Abbey on the
west. ;

220. Sopict no Sualoann, “cornland of the shoulder,’ S.W. of the Abbey
and adjoining it.

221. Cuppoc 0’ cSaseiqic, “the priest’s moor,” mane Moe Capartt,
S.W. of the Abbey.

West of Cnoc no bFion and N.W. of on Meall Mop, is a hollow
containing three small lakes. Close to the most easterly lake is a spring
or pool called—

222. An Poll Dértce, “the duoc’ or sink pool, or the pool of
drowning.” The boggy ground about it is—

223. Léeana on pull D&éce, “marsh of ). b.” From this is named—

223a, Loé Léana on Pull D&réce, Lough Leinapollbauty, “lake of the
marsh, etc.,” but this name was not used by my guide. For the northern
lake, his name was—

224. An Loc 6 Tuatd, “the north lake.” The O.S. name is Creggan
Lough, which doubtless stands for Loé »’ Cpeassin, “Jake of the rocky field.”

225. Loc Meipgeaé, “rusty lake,” on the south, is wrongly called Lough
Merrignagh on the O.S. map. There is no “n” in the name, but one has
gone astray from the O.S. version of the next name—

226, ABoinn © Dorin, Dorree[n] River, “river of the little oakwood.”
It flows northward from the marshy hollow aforesaid, then eastward eevee
Loc »’ Murlinn to the sea at Ponce Lite.

227. dn Leitéeatpama, Lecarrow townland, “the half-quarterland.”

228, Toob no Tulaise, “side of the mount,” the rising ground west of
the three lakes.

229. Sn Mam, “the breast of the hill,” Cnoc »’ Mama, “hill of the
Mam,” the northern spur of Cnoc no bf1an, west of Loé »’ Murlinn.

230. Doitle on MAma, Maum, townland.
231. Leacéoilt, “ half-wood, wooded hillside,” on the east slope of Cnoc

” Mdma towards Loé »’ Murlinn. Bushes in plenty are still there.

oraz Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

232. Poll o’ Dpannoa1d, “hole of the brandy,” a pool whose position
corresponds to that of the second 7 of the townland name “ Lecarrow,” O.S.
sheet 85. The O.S. name Pollabrandy is printed as belonging to the stream
flowing from the pool. The name, it is said, originated in the use of-the
pool as a hiding-place for smuggled brandy.

233. An Minleann, “the mill,” where the eastern road crosses the
stream near Maum townland, near Poyc lite. Site of a watermill.

234, Abainn o’ Mulinn, “river of the mill,” rises near ALL Tarp on
the west side of the island, receives Abainn o’ Doipin, flows through—

235. Loé »’ Muilinn, Lough Avullin, “lake of the mill,” in Maum town-
land.

236. An Leayad, a bushy hillside in north of Maum townland. —

237. Cuppiac s’ Logs, “moor of the lake,” north and north-west of Loc
rn Murlinn.

238. Caolpac, “ narrow place,” south of Loé »’ Mutlinn. We.

239. An Maéimin, “the little hill-breast,” rising ground on N.W. of
Fawnglass townland, S.E of Loé «’ Muitinn.

240. An Léeana Dan, “the white marsh,” north of Fawnglass townland.

241. Fan. Slay, “green slope,” Fawnglass townland.

242. An Cy0gdn Dan, “the white (grassy) rocky field,” in the north of
Fan Slop. Cynogan = cpeasan.

243. Deal na Cops, “mouth of the bend,” a sharp eminence in fAn
Slop; the road running westward through this townland turns 8.W. and
then north to pass Déat no Coppa.

244, Ceap na n§abog, “the goats’ division,” Capnagower townland.

245, Toba Dyngve, “ Brigid’s well,” or Tobap Feile Dyrgve, Tobder-
Jelabride, “well of Brigid’s festival,’ a holy well near Ceann na Coppa.
Devotional exercises are practised at it. The second name indicates Saint
Brigid’s feast, February 1, as a day of special resort to the place.

246. dn Scydca, Strake townland, probably “the streak or stripe,”
being a very long and narrow division.

247. An Ruain bis, Rooaunbeg, “the little Ruain,” north of Poll »’
Cupiaig. The O.S. spelling “Rooaun” supposes some such Irish form as
Rusddn, and is misleading, Ruain being a monosyllable. The dative has
replaced the nominative form in noun and adjective.

248, Abainn na Rusinesé Dige, “river of the little Ruin,” asmall
stream discharging at Poll »’ Cups. So we have nom. sing. Ruan, gen.
sing. Rusineaé, nom. pl. Rusince, gen. pl. Rusn, rather heteroclite.

Rusineaé and Rusmee seem to be late analogical formations.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. $ 33

249, Ns Tuspcai, “the bleachgreens,” western part of sn Ruain big,
east of an Absainn Mop. PI. of cuop.

250. dn Abainn Mop, Owenmore, “the big river.” “Palingeann yi 1
fem 1 mbun no hdbsann,1 n-Usiée Bun no hdbonn:” “it hides itself
(ends) in bun no hdbann, in the Cove of bun no hAbsnn” (112, 113),

251. An FAL foécaip, “ the lower fence,” land between the mouth of the
Absinn Mop and the Dyescatt on the west. From it is named tlaié on
Fart (115).

252, An Rusin mon, “the great Rusin,” on the N.W, side of An Aboinn
M6y at this place.

253. An Crerg Mon, Craigmore, “ the great crag,” north of the Dpescalt.

254. Cpeis-pliab, “ crag-mountain,” the shoulder in the middle of the
land, between on Cpeig Moy and on Cnoc Mop (the main summit).

255. Tors Roaiénige, the enclosed fields on the south slope of Cpers-
fliob. “ Tors, grains, or the refuse of malt,” O'Reilly. The topographical
use of the word is not clear. Roitnige, “ of fern or bracken.”

256. Abainn 4’ Otinas, “paluiseann ii fern 1 nore on Otin:” “the
river of the fort: it hides itself in in Moré on On” (Ooghaniska, O.8.)
Here two different genitives of otin were heard in one sentence.

257. Sn Coipnéosl Sob, “the rugged corner,’ west of the lower part
of Aboinn s’ Ouine, near the sea.

258. No Polls Slora, “the green holes,” the hollow along which the
road passes westward from Abainn o’ Ons.

— 259. An Les Ritce, “the smooth slope,” a long slope north of the
road at this place.

260. Na Cyiosdin Foros, “the long crag-fields,” between the Lergin
Ritce and Cpeispliab.

261. Sn Tuo Mop, Loormore, * the great bleachgreen.”

262. Aboinn o? Tusip Mor, “river of the Tuop Mop.”

263. Loédn »’ Pica, Loughanaphuca, “the Pica’s lakelet.” “The Pica
was seen there, and might be seen yet.”

264, Aboinn »’ Ptica, “the Pica’s river,” flowing through Loéén »o?
i pu Ch.

265. Dpdgoro o’ Bartle, “neck of the townland, or of the inhabited land,”
the angle of land between Loédn »’ Ptica and the cliffs of the south-western

‘Leingin, dative of Leipgean. fitce, passive participle of pitim, ‘1 run,” was explained as
Meaning ‘‘smooth.” Compare pé10, ‘‘smooth,’’ prs%, ‘‘a riding, a raid,’’ Gaulish rheda,
“chariot.”’ But yrtce has another meaning—cé an A1t peo yutte a5 4’ ngaort, ‘this place is
coursed by the wind, i.e. exposed to the wind”: Arran, Galway.

R.I,A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, E 3

3 34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

promontory. bOpdsor0, the lower part of the neck, where it joins the
shoulders and chest.

266. An Dinn Uyic,! “ the mottled peak,” the south-western spur of the
Cnoc Moy, north of Tusp Mon.

267. Fn no SCoopse, “slope of the sheep,” western slope of an on Binn
Dyuc, east of ABoinn 0’ Price.

268. bun no mbotdn, Bunnamohaun townland, “bottom of the buts.”
The townland now consists almost wholly of Cnoc M6, and its slopes, the
highest part of the island. It must have been named from the low ground
on the west and 8.W., no longer containing huts or houses.

269. An Toloin Ddn, “the white (i.e. grassy) land,” a general name for
the south-western district, westward from Cnoc no bien and southward
from on Cnoc M6n, to the western and southern coast-line.

270. An Cnoc Mér, “ the great hill” (summits 1520, 1453, 1315 ft.), not
named on 0.8. map. Cyersfliob and on Binn Bye are its foothills on the
south side. Its steep northern side is formed by on AilL Mop and All o’
cSpupain.

271. An Cloéo, “ the stonework,” along the sea at the Signal Tower on
the western side of the island. Cloéos varies in meaning from a row of
stepping-stones set in a ford to a stone building such as Cloéop Oils, the
extant stone-roofed church of Saint Duileach (St. Dolough’s), Co. Dublin.

272. dn Coto VOonn, “the brown coffer” (Coto = coppo). N.E. of
Signal Tower.

273. No Copndin, near MLL 6? Spranpomdin. Perhaps plural of the:
plant-name, coyindn (so pronounced in Clare Island = céynén) corit,
Cotyledon Umbilicus. Coyndn, “little goblet,” is obviously the correct form.
of the plant-name, from the resemblance of the leaf and its stalk to a shallow
drinking-glass with a slender stem. The name has doubtless been changed
to cdjndn, “heap (of stones),” in other places in allusion to the habitat of
the plant, already signified by the epithet coril “ of the stone-fort.’’ :

274. An Dpotlos, “the sultry place (?).” (Opotal, “sultry heat ”).
Near dille Leatod (“Allahan”). (Compare the meaning suggested for,
Sroanpom dn). s

275. dn Leysean Dén, “ the white (i.e. grassy) hillside,” east of Signal
Tower.

276. No» Lugne, “the shins,” western face of on Cnoc Mop.

277. Willinn »’ Cnuic, “elbow of the hill,” at the foot of the steep eastern
rise of an Cnoc Mop. Further east —

278. Dest »’ Ssonnps, “ mouth of the sconce (dry stone wall),” and—

‘ Dative for nominative of noun and adjective; an beann bpeac.

Clare Island Survey— Place-Names and Family Names. 3 35

279, Deol Uoimin Oubds,! “mouth of the cove of (.. . 2).”

280. Foitiy1 no Cpoorbte, “shelter or shrubbery of the branch (leafy tree),”
near all Taipb. (Dinneen gives rotop, nom. sing., porte, nom. pl, “a
wood, a forest; a woody swamp ”; “ woods, thickets.” The word seems to be
an ancient compound of ro and tip; “under-land.”)

281. No Suoitte, “ the shoulders,” the long ridge rising from the hollow
west of Cnoc no bfian to the eastern face of an Cnoc Mon.

282. Deal son Apgarll, “mouth without armpit,” a hollow under Cnoc
My at the head of no Suaitte.

283. dn Soblén, “the fork,” the upper valley of the Absinn Mon,
enclosed by Cnoc Mon and no Suailte.

284. Dols »’ Cnuic, “belly of the hill,” lower part of Cnoc Moy, facing
S.E.

285. Ssoalp o Tytip, Sgalpatruce, “cleft of the trews,” on N.E. side of
no Suortte.

286. An cSiopip, a hill near AL no mbAdipnesé. (For prop, O'Reilly
has the meanings “ vetches, wild pea, broomrape, orobanche.” Dinneen has
“riojijio, m., a sharp rock in the sea rising nearly to the water’s surface.”)
Pronounce like shiz.

287. Tén no Sroyps, “butt of the Siorr,” foot of the hill seaward.

288. dn Daile Tuard, Bullytoohy townland, “the northern townland.”

289. Doile Cuard beos, Ballytoohy Beg townland.

290. Cnoc »’ Loééin, “hill of the lakelet,” north of the Sioyy. The
lakelet is probably the marshy hollow known to workers on the Clare Island
Survey as “the Lighthouse Marsh.”

291. An Sidedn, “ the fairy hill,” a noticeable smooth high knoll, covered
with short green vegetation, north of the marsh. “diz 1 brut five,” said
my guide, “c4 ctiic acu annyin ”—“a place where the sidhe are; they have
a court there.” I have not elsewhere met this ancient usage of the plural
foe in ordinary speech. In most places, no proedgo, na yroryioi, ete., are
substituted, +e being used in set phrases such as bean ctj1%e, “banshee,” no
coin tyre, “the hounds of the sidhe.” The sidhe were anciently gods, “the
peoples used to adore sidhe;” Fiace’s Hymn. On the O.S. map, Srecan is
placed as the name of a sea-rock. See above (174) for another Sioedn
which has escaped destruction in the most cultivated part of the island.

292. Fortin Copollors, “thicket or shelter of Carallach(?),” south of
lighthouse.

293. S&mn no <Oaraacbl, “pen of the horses,’ a hollow beside the light-
house.

1 Perhaps for 0a beds, the indeclinable name of the saint from whom the heath Dabeocia is named.

K 2

8 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

294. Slcdn,a hill S.W. of lighthouse. Atc, “joint,” in Ulster topography,
“a narrow glen or ravine.”

295. Sn Meall Mon, “ the big knob,” the lighthouse hill.

296. Aboinn »’ Otin, “river of the fort,” the stream that reaches the sea
at Otin drtle.

297. Cuppiocé o’ Otiin, “moor of the fort,” the land west of Otin dalle.

298. Pdric Rusioypi, “ Ruaidhri’s field,” west of the northern road, almost
due west of t1oé Coppogdin.

299. Cuppioc Moé Coppasdin, “moor of U. C.,” the land west of taé
Copipossin, and east of the road.

300. Abainn Usé Coppasgdin, “river of U. C.,” the stream flowing into
toe Coppasdin.

301. Ns Clocése Sgoilte, “ the split rocks,” in the hollow round which the
road winds, due west of toé Copposdin.

302. Cpeis5 6’ Oilire, “crag of the dilisc,” a rocky knoll on west side of
road, south of na Cloés Sgoilce. Perhaps a place for drying dilise.

303. An Sean-cuap, “ the old bleachgreen,” knoll at S.W. side of Cuppaé
Use Copipasdan.

304, An Sopt Mop, “the great cornfield.” The road from the light-
house southwards forks here, one branch leading S.E. to the Harbour,
the other 8.W. to the Abbey. n Sonct Mop is west of the road north of
the fork.

305. Spupdn o’ Supe Morp, “stream of on Sopt Mon,” flowing from
Cnoc »’ Loééin to Pope Lite. Also called Abainn Pope Lite, “river of
12, Vay

306. &n Mac Alla, “the echo (lit. the cliff boy),” hill north of on Soypc
Mon.

307. Sopc on Esoain, “cornfield of the hill-front,” west of on Sop
M6) and north of the by-road running east through Daite Tus Deas.

308. Cpnei5 na Ceazicod, “crag of the rag (?),” north of the byroad.
Ceayitad may be a local variant of cesyvoéon, genitive of ceapoéa, “smithy.”

309. Cuppoé Mdipe Ni MAdrLLe, “moor of Maire Ni Mhiille,” east of on
Sopc Mop. Further east is—

310. Cupipaé Pope Lite, “ moor of Popc lite.”

311. Leic »’ Baile Tua, “flat rock of the north townland,” south of
the place where the lighthouse road crosses the stream of Gort Mor.

312. Cywogdn Roigledn, “rocky field of (...%),” north of on Sopc
Mop, east of Cnoc o’ Locsin. O'Reilly has “pordleod, darnel grass,
Lolium perenne.”

313. No Tamneéai, “ the grassy fields,” the land adjoining Popc Lite.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Family Names. 8 387

ISLANDS AND DISTRICTS NEAR CLARE ISLAND.

314. Scoill, Achill. @iledn Aclo, island of Achill.

315. Acaill Beas, Achillbeg.

316. Coppdn, Coppdn clo, the mainland peninsula east of Achill ;
coppdn, “a reaping-hook.”' A promontory at Larne, Co. Antrim, is similarly
named (“the Curran ”).

317. Umall, formerly called in English “the Owles,” barony of Burrish-
oole (= buipgeip Umorll, burgage of U.) known to Pésopoic Mac Tustait
as Umoll Ui Malle “ U. of O Maille.” The territory formerly included
the barony of Murrisk. :

318. Mupeors, barony of Murrisk. The Irish name, gen. Muiquyse, is
in common use.

319. Popdipce Cill o’ Soobsin, “parish of ener bar. Murrisk,
includes Clare Island.

320. Cataip PAppate (= Pdopiors), “ Patrick’s fortress,” Caher Island.

321. An Doite Deas, Ballybeg island, “ the little homestead.”

322. Inip Sesto, Inishdalla.’

323, Inip Tuipc, Inishturk, “ wild boar’s island.” In rapid pronunciation,
the name sounds like Imp Ourqie.

324, Ini Do Finn’, Inishbofin, “ white cow’s island.”* Properly 1mp bo
finne, but in Mayo a final short vowel is often dropped colloquially.

325. Init Cape’, Inishark, “Earc’s island,” for Inip Eopcs. Old Irish
irc, gen. Erce, Hreae, Hrea, a feminine name, probably of a goddess.

326. No Mooldin, “the round-topped rocks,” on Maoldn Deas, on
Maolén Mon, between Clare Island and Caher Island.

327. No Diollai, “the Bills,” sea-rocks about eight miles N.W. of Clare
Island.

Famity NAMEs.

The surnames of Clare Island present the clearest evidence of mixed ©
streams of immigration from various parts of Ireland, and ultimately from
various parts of the Continent. The following list of surnames was given
to me straight off by PAopoic Mac Tustart :—

“No MALLS, Clann Tustail, Mac Cdba, Muinneiq Floimnn, Clann
fie No Mapa, Clann the Fysoag, N’LABALLE, Muinneip Ounee,
Dpestnas, Munneip Rooms, Murnneip Muryut, Clann Siobtin,

1 But copy in the nomenclature of Clare Island means a headland, and in this sense may be the
basis of copy\n applied to a peninsula.

? There is a tendency to confusion between the palatal sounds of d and gin Mayo. inp Deala
may be the older form. See Onomasticon Goedelicum s.v. Inis Dele.

3««Tnsula vitulae albae,’’ Bede, Hist. Hecl., iv, 4.

3 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Mumnep Solléobsin, Doipesoors, Commnednorgs, Sgopat, Clann tiie
os Semmyurd, Mopdnors (aguy mopdn vaobea).”' To which were added
later :-—Dpronargs, Mopbsrpmg, Tas Rell, O Dpoodin, Diipicors.

To attempt to trace the genealogical origin of all these families would
here be too great’a labour. I propose to deal briefly with instances in regard
to which the information lies to hand.

No Millis: bearers of the surname 6 Mitte. The ordinary English
version of this name is “O’Malley,” but in Clare Island and not seldom on
the mainland, the usual version is “Melia” (rhyming with “ dahlia”).
“Mealy” is probably a variant. “Melia” exemplifies a very general custom
in the anglicization of Irish names, the substitution of é for a.2_ The MALlig
alone form about one fourth of the population of Clare Island. Their
origin and history are well attested.

Clann Tustail: the surname of this family is Mac Tuatait. One
householder gave me his name as Toads Mac Tustoail. My chief authority
for the local family names and place-names called himself édypo1c O
Cuatoil (as it sounded), but called the whole kindred Clann Tuostail.
(This variation of Mac to tac, and thence to Oc, is not rare in Connacht.
A young man once asked me to explain why his surname was O Cui in Irish
and Mac Hugh in the English version. O Cui = Moc dovds, and “Hugh”
is the accepted English equivalent of Aod. Another young man told me
that his surname was 6 Cuayicdin in Irish and Durkan in English. 0
Cuapicéin = Mac Ouapicdin. So bunéc, “an infant,’ must, I think, be
explained as bunmac.) There are four households of Clann Tusteil in
Clare Island; and the local belief, J was informed, is that they are a
branch of the Mé:LUé, taking their name and descent from one Cuatatl
O Malle. The Annals of Ulster record the death of a Tustol Uo
Maitle in 1316. Under 1413, they record that another Tustal Us Malle
took service in Ulster as a leader of mercenaries. After a year in that
occupation, he set out for home with his followers, who filled seven ships. A
storm arose, and they were carried away to the Scottish coast. Certain of

1“ And many of them,” a play on the word moran, ‘‘ many.’’ The variety of formulae here used
is not arbitrary, but represents established usage. A similar variety is found in early usage as
exemplified in the Genealogies and Annals.

2 Another W. Connacht surname, 6 m’Ulia, for which a literary form 6 maoiloia, of
questionable authenticity, is adopted, resembles ‘‘ Melia,’’ but has for its usual English equivalent
“Molloy.’”’ ‘‘ Molloy,’’ in this instance, is the borrowed English version, longer and more widely
in use, of the Meath surname 6 Maoltnuard. The transference of English equivalents from one
Irish surname to another often causes great difficulty in the tracing of family origins.

5 Maille (probably = Méilne = Mal < Maglos ‘‘prince’”’ + -inios), from whom his descendants
took the surname 0 Maille, cannot be placed earlier than c. 850, since the custom of forming
surnames like Ua Maille is not found before the beginning of the tenth century. His probable date
was 900-950, twelve generations before Domhnall Ruadh Ua Maille, ¢ 1337.

Clare Island Survey—Place-Names and Fumily Names. 3 39

the Mac Suibhne name, hereditary chiefs of mercenaries, who accompanied
Tuathal, were drowned “along with their people, both woman and man.”
Tuathal himself, his two sons, and their people, with difficulty got to land in
Scotland. The incidents are instructive, in view of the movements of people,
“both woman and man,” by sea and land in the fifteenth century. Clann
Tuathail are called in English “Toole.” “O datur ambiguus”; and the
western Clann Tuathail of Umhall are like to be mistaken for a branch of
the eastern Clann 'luathail of Ui Mail (Imaal, co. Wicklow) through the now
frequent change from Mac Tuathail to “Toole,” which, under favourable
circumstances, becomes “ O’Toole.”

Mac C&bs, “Mac Cabe.” There is only one family of the name in Clare
Island—that of the hotel-keeper. He is, I understand, a native of southern
Ulster. The Mac Cabas first appear in Irish history in the fourteenth century
as leaders of galloglachs, i.e. mercenaries of Norse-Hebridean origin, under
the Irish princes of Breffny and Oriel. They followed the profession of
condotttert for two centuries or more, their chiefs being known by the titles
of Constable of Oriel, Constable of Breffny, and Constable of the Two
Breffnys, Fermanagh, and Oriel. The tradition of their Norse origin is still
known in Hast Breffny (Co. Cavan). Distinctive Hebridean forenames, such
as Alan (Aleinn), Somhairle (Sumarli’$i), were formerly frequent in their
families.

Muinncip Elomn, surname 6 floinn, “Flynn.” Their origin would be
difficult to determine. There were at least three great families of the name,
one in Ulster, one in Connacht (district of Boyle, co. Roscommon), and one
in Munster. Three households in Clare Island.

Clann tic No Mayo, surname Moc Noe Moyo; old and literary form,
Mac Con Mara. A noted Thomond family. Two households in Clare
Island. One of the sea-caves or coves is named from them.

Clann Mic Fyrsoorgs, surname Mac Spreous (Mag Riadaigh ?
Mag Riada?), “Grady.” Compare the Ulster (West Scottish?) name,
Macready, Mecredy. By taking the form “ Grady,” this surname is likely to
be confused with the Munster “ O’Gradys,”’ properly O Gréda. On the other
hand, many of the latter family, especially in their ancient home, co. Clare,
have englished their name as Brady, which in turn is the normal English:
version of the South Ulster surname Mac Brddaigh.! The arbitrary process
of inventing English equivalents for Irish names, whether of persons or
places, tends to bring the history and meaning of the names into a welter of

1 A note to the Annals of Ulster (an. 434) derives this surname from ‘‘ dradach, thieyish’’! It is
from brddach, ‘‘spirited.’’ In like manner, brdddn beathadh, ‘breath of life,’’ has been misread
and misrendered, braddn beathadh, “‘ salmon of life * (copied in Dinneen’s Irish-English Dictionary).

8 40 ‘Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

confusion. The old song Conndae Mhuigheo, dating probably from the
seventeenth century, mentions Aodh 6 Griadaigh, “a colonel in Cliara,”
Clare Island. There are seven households of the name in the island at
present.

M'Labsillig, surname 6 Mool-fAbailt, colloquially © M'ldbhaill,
which takes in English the French-looking guise of “ Lavelle.” The family
of © Maol Fhabhaill in the eleventh and twelfth centuries were at the head
of Cenél Fergusa, a subsept of Cenél Eoghain. They ruled in Inishowen
(co. Donegal), where a promontory stronghold gave to their chief the title of
king of Carraic Brachaidhe (from Mrachide, an ancestor’s name)—
“Carrickabraghy.” Without direct evidence, [ would suggest that they may
have come to Umhall after the Cromwellian war, and settled there under
the O’Donnells of Newport, who were transplanted thither from Tir Conaill.

Muinneip Ourte, not native and probably not correctly named; in
English “Duffy,” the name of the lighthouse-keeper. “Duffy” usually
represents O Dubhthaigh.

Dpestnac, “Walsh.” One of the most widespread surnames in Ireland,
Sometimes englished “Branagh.” It means “ British,” ie. “ Welsh,” and
originated among the numerous Welshmen who formed the main fighting
strength of the ‘‘ Norman” invasion. (“ Wallace” or “ Wallis,” found in
various parts of Connacht, has the same signification. In-Irish it is Bhailis
or A Bhailis). One household in Clare Island.

Muimncip Rovers, surname O Rovasig, “Ruddy” or “Reddy.” Three
households.

Muinncip Munya, surname O Mutu, “ Murray.” The Irish name is

given as heard. I suppose the historical form should be O Muireadhaigh.
O Moireadha, from the ancient Mairid, is also possible.

Clann §iobtin, surname Mac Siobtin, “ Gibbons.” “ FitzGibbon” is
another equivalent. Of “Anglo-Norman” origin, “ Clann Ghiobiin of Umhall
Ui Mhaille” were settled west of Cruach Phadraic. Another branch has
given its name to “ Clongibbons” half-barony, co. Cork.t One household in
Clare Island.

Daipéooarg, surname Daipéso, “Barrett.” One of the chief families of the
“ Welshmen of Tirawley,” settled in Connacht under the Norman De Burghs
and FitzGeralds. Two households in Clare Island.

Coimnéanoig, surname 6 Connedin, “Cannon.” (“Cannon” also does
duty for another name of ancient celebrity, O Cananndin of Tir Conaill.) Two
households in Clare Island.

’ See ‘* Onomasticon Goedelicum,”’ s. vv. Clann Ghiobain and Umall.

Clare Island Survey—Piace- Names and Family Numes. 3 41

Scopat, “Scuffle,’ also “Schofield.” Iam ignorant of the origin of this
surname. One household.

Clann Wie se Hinywd, surname Mac 0’ Hrywd, “Winter.” The
English version is nearer the mark than usual. Mac an Gheimhridh (literary
form) means “ son of the winter.” I have not traced the surname. It probably
arises from a by-name, in which case it would represent a subdivision of some
other name. The full surname was perhaps Mac Mic an Gheimbridh, “son
(ie. descendant) of the Wintry Lad (one noted for campaigning or sailing
during winter),” just as the full form of Mag Uidhir “ Maguire” was
Mac Meig Uidhir, “son of the Sallow Lad.” Three households.

Mopdnais, surname ) Moydin, “ Moran.” This surname seems to have
absorbed another and distinct name, O Mughroin, the ending -din being often
displaced by the more familiar -ain. O Moghrain (Annals of Ulster, 1206)
is perhaps a transitional stage. Jour households.

Dypronaig, surname Dyroin, “Burns.” Broin is the genitive of Bran, and
should be preceded by O or Mae, but, if my information is correct, stands alone
as the surname. There may have been a local family with Bran for eponym.
At any rate, I know of no link that could connect the noted Leinster family
of O Broin, “ O'Byrne,” with the Connacht seaboard. Five householders in
Clare Island.

Mopboyineoé, surname. In English, “Gordon.” One household. The
key to this curious equation of names seems to be supplied by Mac Vurich in
the Book of Clanranald (Cameron, Reliquiae Celticae, i1., p. 184), who calls the
leader of the Gordon contingent under Montrose “ Morbhar [= mérmhaor |
Gordon mac Marcos Huntli,” i.e., Lord Gordon, son of the Marquess of Huntly.
Some descendant of this house may have come to Ireland as a Jacobite
refugee. Mr. John MacNeill, the musical-instrument maker, of Capel Street,
Dublin, told me that his family came to Ireland as refugees after Culloden.

Mas Reill, surname, “ MacGreal.” This name, as given in Irish, is the
colloquial form of the surname Mac Neill in Connacht and Ulster dialect.
Before vowels and liquids, Mac becomes Magin Irish, but not in Scottish Gaelic,
the g being attached to the following syllable. Thus Irish Mag Aodha
“Magee” contains the same elements as Scottish Mac Aoidh “Mac Kee,
Mac Kay.” In northern Irish, gn becomes g7, so that Mag Neill (Ma gnéill)
is pronounced Ma gréill in Antrim Irish asin Mayo Irish. Instances of this
surname in Connacht are found in the Annals of Ulster, under the years 1346,
1361, 1377. In two of these, Mac Neill, denoting the chief of the name, is
wrongly rendered “son of Niall” in the translation. It is evident from these
instances that Mac Neill was hereditary chief of galloglachs or Hebridean
swordsmen, Like the Mac Cébas and other galloglach chiefs, the Mac Neills

R.IA. PROG., VOL. XXXI. EF 3

3 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

were Hebridean and probably at least half Norse in origin.t One household
in Clare Island.

6 Dyoodin, surname, “ Salmon.”’ Broddn is the normal Connacht form of
braddn, “a salmon.” One of the coves in Clare Island is named from a
member of the family. The old form of the surname appears to have been
O Barddin. The family belonged to the Conmhaicne Réin (in part of
Leitrim and Longford counties). The name occurs twice in the Annals of
Ulster under date 1369; but the almost contemporary Book of Ballymote
(1616 3, 162 10) has the modern form Clann Bradain, Clann Bradan.

Diijicargs, surname & Diijica (for De Burca = De Burgo), “ Burke.” Of
Norman origin. One household.

In sum, of 71 families in Clare Island, about 25 belong to the Dal Cuinn
group, which dominated the northern half of Ireland from the fourth century
to the thirteenth. The oldest known home of this group was in the north of
Roscommon county. Five families, of which three were originally Welsh, are
descendant from colonists of the “Norman” invasion. At least two families
represent the Norse-Hebridean galloglach element, which flowed freely into
Treland after the detachment of the Hebrides from Norway in the thirteenth
century. The Gordon family is probably of Scottish origin, and of much later
immigration. Two families bear a Thomond surname. About one-half of
the surnames are thus of ultimately remote regional origin. It is not
unlikely that a large proportion of the remaining half, which have not been
traced, are no less exogenous. This, however, is to be noted, that the tracing
of families through their surnames and genealogical traditions and record is
in the main concerned only with the male line of descent.

29

t The Norse adopted the Irish name Niall (genitive Néill) in the form Njal. ‘The populations of
Barra and South Uist, the chief habitats of the Mac Neill family, are largely of Norse descent.

Clare Island Survey,

4
GAELIC PLANT AND ANIMAL NAMES,
AND ASSOCIATED FOLK-LORE,

By NATHANIEL COLGAN.

Read Fepruary 27. Published Aprit 12, 1911.

CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
1. Introduction, . : 3 . aw gl ty. Gaelic Animal Names—continued.
11. Gaelic Plant Names, : ; s (6) Land Animals, * : a <2
111. Some English Plant Names, . 6 KG v. Some English Animal Names, . 2 22
tv. Gaelic Animal Names: vi. Supplementary Notes, . : . 28
(a) Sea Animals, . E 5 6 Me vit. Index of Species, . , 6 2g

I. INTRODUCTION.

THE Gaelic names entered in the following lists were all found current more
or less widely amongst the country folk or fishermen of Clare Island and the
mainland shores of Clew Bay during the years 1909 and 1910. They were
all, without exception, collected “in the field,’ and were written down
phonetically as soon as the particular plant or animal species or genus to
which each name applies had been satisfactorily made out. Anyone who has
ever engaged in this fascinating branch of inquiry, or rather exploration,
knows what large demands it makes on one’s time and patience, and as the
writer could devote to the work only the scanty leisure saved from his
special line of research, the marine mollusca of the Clew Bay area, the
following lists can make no claim to completeness. They record actually
current Gaelic names for about 120 species of plants and animals; yet there
can be no doubt that much more remains to be done in this direction even
on Clare Island itself, where a visit in the spring season would certainly be
rewarded by the addition of several plant names.

Gaelic folk-speech is unquestionably copious in terms denoting natural
objects. But it is easy to overrate this copiousness, as some uncritical
enthusiasts have done; for it must be borne in mind that a very large
number of species of plants and animals, which the scientific observer
discriminates at a glance, are habitually lumped together by the Gaelic

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. A 4

4 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

peasant as they are by the peasant in all countries. His names are often
generic rather than specific; and whole groups of plants and animals with which
he has no immediate concern, the groups of the inconspicuous, the innoxious,
and the useless, are passed over by him unnoticed and unnamed. Thus the
plant and animal nomenclature of folk-speech must always fall short of the
copiousness of the finely—often only too finely—discriminative nomenclature
of science.

In dealing with Gaelic popular names of plants and animals perhaps the
most formidable difficulties to be overcome are orthographical and etymological,
difficulties of the closet rather than of the field. Having first of all made
sure of the particular plant or animal to which a given name is applied by
the common consent of “knowledgeable” persons born and reared in the
district, and having satisfied yourself that you fully apprehend the often obscure
sounds which make up the spoken name, you must then proceed to represent
these sounds in writing according to the recognized rules of Irish Gaelic
orthography. At once you are confronted with etymological problems, since
your efforts to arrive at a correct spelling of the name are well-nigh in-
separable from attempts to fix its precise meaning, and with many, perhaps
with a majority of Gaelic plant and animal names, this meaning is past finding
out. Herein lies a subtle temptation which one must constantly guard
against, the temptation to set up a hypothetical meaning and to strain the pro-
nunciation so as to make it square with the hypothesis, and so justify a
spelling conveying both sound andsense. Some intrepid attempts which have
been made by grave writers at a solution of the etymological problems
presented by Gaelic plant names remind one of nothing so much as Swift’s
famous derivation of ‘ostler’ from ‘oat-stealer. And this temptation to vitiate
the linguistic record works quite as powerfully in folk-speech as in literature.
The unlettered peasant is in all ages just as impatient of meaningless names
as is the student, and just as prone to force a meaning where the true
meaning has become obscured.

In preparing the following lists a severe curb has been placed on this
tendency to an unscientific use of the imagination, and as a result it will be
seen that no attempt is made even to so much as suggest a meaning for a large
number of the names given. In Gaelic folk-speech, as in folk-speech all the
world over, the origin and meaning of such names have become hopelessly
obscured by long ages of phonetic corruption. We must, in fact, accept them
as labels or marks of identification rather than descriptive or allusive terms.

Many popular names of plants and animals in Gaelic as in English folk-
speech are of very local application. In some cases, indeed, their extension
may be little more than parochial. The following lists do not furnish any

Clare Island Survey—Guelie Plant and Animal Names. 4 3

examples of such extreme localization in Gaelic nomenclature, yet they offer
some striking analogies in folk-speech to the phenomenon known in natural
history as discontinuous distribution. For instance, our Common Reed
(Arundo Phragmites), known in Clare Island as s1olcac, takes on the utterly
distinct name Coipgeaoc in Achillbeg, separated from the island by only
some 3 miles of sea-passage ; the Yellow Flag or Iris (Zris Pseud-Acorus), the
Sellipcyins of the island, becomes the Setlipcyoé of Cloghmore, near the
southern opening of Achill Sound, hardly 4 miles distant; while the Common
Periwinkle (Littorina littorea), known as Faoéds at Cloghmore, bears the
name, Faoédn in Clare Island. Yet, the Clare Island name, S1olcac, con-
nected with the definite species Arwndo Phragmites, crops up again and again
on the mainland, as in Kerry and Connemara, and the name Coipgeayac, which
fills its place on Achillbeg, is met within a variant form far south in Cork ; and
so on with the other examples of discontinuous distribution. In zoology and
and botany discontinuous distribution is held to be a proof of antiquity, and it
may well be that the same law holds good in popular Gaelic nomenclature.

As a consequence of this marked localization of folk-names of plants and
animals any collection dealing with a fairly extensive area must include a
large proportion of synonyms, using the word in its strict scientific sense; so
that the names will far exceed in number the objects named. Hach county,
to say nothing of smaller divisions of the area, will contribute its peculiar
forms or dialetic variants, and these brought together in one comprehensive
lexicon cannot fail to give rise to false conceptions of the copiousness of folk-
speech and of the discriminative capacity of the folk who develop and use it.
Thus a full collection of the Gaelic plant names of all Ireland, arranged
alphabetically without localities, might lead the unwary reader to imagine,
for instance, that the Connemara peasant had 500 plant names at his command,
while it would be nearer the truth to assume that the plant and animal
nomenclature of an intelligent Connemara man or Clave Islander would rarely
cover more than 100 species.

‘There seems to be as little reason to expect the occurrence of an endemic
or peculiar plant name in Clare Island as there is to hope for the discovery there
of an endemic plant species. Even if a truly endemic plant name should be
current in the island, the day of its recognition as such is yet far distant; for
our knowledge of the precise distribution in Ireland of the various Gaelic plant
names and their numerous dialectic forms is still sadly defective. When our
knowledge of these forms has been extended by the multiplication of local lists
such as those here given, we shall find ourselves better equipped for excursions
in etymology. A study of these variants may yield clues to guide us back

along the tortuous path of phonetic corruption to the original form and the
A2

44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

true meaning of many names long since sunk to the position of arbitrary
labels.

As for the distribution within Clare Island itself of the Gaelic names now
current there, a few may be said to be in universal use. Almost all of the
islanders, old and young, English speakers and bilinguists, speak of the
common Ribwort Plantain as SLan Lup; of the Ragweed as Dotsladn; of the
Yellow Flag as Sellipcpng ; of the Silverweed as Dliorcdn; of the Purple
Loosestrife as Cjieactaé; of the Periwinkle as Faocén. But many of the
Gaelic names are used side by side with the English names, the adult islanders
preferring the Gaelic, the younger the English. Some of the older people use
indifferently a Gaelic or an English name. For instance, one man near the
Abbey in speaking to me of the Common Elder hesitated between Cy1om and
Bore-tree ; and another, when asked the name of the Broad-leaved Dock, gave
me both Copos and Docken. A stranger to Clare Island who confines his
inquiries to the neighbourhood of the quay or harbour is liable to fall into the
error of supposing that Gaelic is a quite extinct language on the island. But
a few days spent in collecting native plant names in the remoter parts, towards
the north and west, will convince him that many of the islanders, and these not
always the really aged people, still speak the old tongue.

Discussions on Gaelic language and folk-lore too often proceed on the mis-
taken assumption that all things Gaelic are necessarily of a hoary antiquity ;
that we must seek for Gaelic origins—say, for instance, the origin and meaning
of plant and animal names—in the dim azure of the past. Implicit in this
assumption is the notion that Gaelic is a dead and fixed language, whereas the
fact is that it is still living, and displaying the usual signs of life and growth
in the evolution of uew words from its own resources and in the adoption with
modification of words from other languages—above all from English. So it is
quite possible that some of our more local Gaelic names of plants and
animals may be inventions of recent date. It may be, for instance, that
M41) Foos (Long Mary), the usual Gaelic name for the Heron on Clare
Island and the mainland shores of Clew Bay, is a recent coinage of some
local wit or playful gossoon, a coimage destined to perplex future philologers
when some generations of currency have blurred its outlines. Still it remains
undoubtedly true that the great mass of Gaelic plant and animal names, and
perhaps all of them now current throughout Gaelic Ireland and Scotland, are
of ancient origin.

The following list of plant names is peculiar in one respect, the almost
complete absence from it of Clare Island names for our common indigenous
trees and shrubs, such as the Alder, the Hawthorn, the Broom, the Spindle-
tree, the Holly, the Ash, the Birch, the Quicken-tree, the Hazel, and the

Clare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 5

Oak. The explanation is probably this. Some of the species, z.¢., the Alder,
the Broom, and the Spindle-tree, are altogether wanting in the island flora;
all the others are quite rare there, so much so that they enter but seldom, if at
all, into the thoughts of the island population as a whole. The Hazel, the
Birch, the Holly, and the Quicken-tree or Mountain Ash linger on in
sheltered hollows, as on the north-east of the island; but there is reason to
suppose that knowledge of their existence there is confined to the residents of
the townland of Ballytoohy More, in which they grow, and is hidden from
the ‘‘ untravelled ” population of those remote regions of the island lying some
two to three miles distant around and beyond the abbey. What is seldom
thought of is seldom spoken of: what is seldom spoken of tends to drop
altogether out of speech. It may be that further inquiry would have shown
me that the ancient and widespread Gaelic names for the Holly, the Hazel,
the Birch, and the Quicken-tree are still in use among the Ballytoohy men,
and that the absence of this group of names is, in part at least, rather
apparent than real. However that may be, there can be small doubt but that
the Gaelic names of trees are not generally current in the island.

In drawing up the lists, I have thought it advisable to touch brietly on
dialectic variations of the Gaelic names, especially the plant names, the variants
being drawn from desultory collections made in various parts of Ireland
within the last twenty years, and I have added short notes on the uses now made
of plants or animals in the Clew Bay area. I have also appended to each of the
two sections, on plants and on animals, a very short list of some English names
I found current in the area, enough perhaps to show that the study of such
names is full of interest from a distributional point of view. For instance,
the common use in Clare Island of the name Bore-tree for the Elder, of Whin
for Furze, and of ovtshot as an English equivalent for the Gaelic Cailleoé, the
bed alcove built out from the wall of the living room, would seem to point to
a northern English or Border element in the island population. And finally,
as a supplement to the whole, I have given as closely as possible in the words
of the narrator, some scraps of legend connected with the native fauna which I
chanced to meet with while collecting material for the lists. ‘The collecting
and recording of such naive folk-stories may to some appear a work of extreme
frivolity. Yet others, and I am convinced not a few, will prize these waifs and
strays of Clare Island tradition as survivals of surpassing interest, since they
carry us back to the primitive beliefs of a remote past, compared with which
the thirteenth-century abbey of the O’Malleys is but a thing of yesterday.

As for the arrangement of the material embodied in the lists, three schemes
suggested themselves; one purely scientific, where the botanical and zoological
binomial names are placed first and arranged in the sequence of some recognized

4 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

natural system; another, in which the English popular names come first in
alphabetical order; and a third, alphabetical like the second, but with the
Irish Gaelic names set first. The third scheme has been adopted here as the
most convenient for students of language and folk-lore, who are far more likely
to consult the lists than professed botanists and zoologists. For the benefit of
the more scientifically minded, an index of the Latin binomials has been
appended, and to cure the defect inseparable from an alphabetic arrange-
ment—the separation of different names or variants of names referring to
the same object—frequent cross-references have been given. The individual
entries are thus arranged :—(1) Irish Gaelic name ; (2) meaning, if ascertained ;
(3) scientific name ; (4) English popular name; (5) distribution of native name
in Clew Bay area ; (6) general remarks, including notes on the general distri-
bution of the name and its variants. Throughout the lists but scanty reference
has been made to the literature of the subject, so that the great bulk of the
matter here given 1s from sources hitherto unpublished. For a revision of
the Gaelic orthography of the names, and for some valuable suggestions as
to their derivation, I am indebted to the Rey. William Colgan, of Ballinlough,
Co. Roscommon.

I].—GarE.Lic PLANT NAMES.

Spisexo Luséyis, Silver of Rushes? Spzraea Ulmaria Linné, Meadow-sweet.—
On Clare Island and on the mainland shores of the bay, as at Belclare,
Achill Sound, and Mulranny; also general in Ireland from Donegal to
Kerry. Inthe island the root is used along with copperas to yield a
black dye; at Cloghmore, Achill Sound, for scouring milk churns as a
“ sweetener.”

Siceann, Ulex europeus Linné, Whin, Gorse, Furze.—Clare Island, where
the flowers are said to be used for producing a yellow dye. This nameis
general throughout Ireland, and its meaning is made clear by the Welsh
form, eithin (aithin), prickly.

Docapdn. Menyanthes trifoliata Linné, Bog Bean—The name is generally
used in Clare Island, but I have no note of its occurrence elsewhere in
Clew Bay, though I have it from Claremorris, Co. Mayo. Threlkeld gives
the variant JDocay14n for Connaught.

Dliopcdn. Potentilla Anserina Linné, Silver-weed.—General on the island,
also on the mainland, as at Roonah, Mulranny, and Achillbeg. This
name in one or other of its dialectic forms is widespread in Ireland. In
Kerry, in Connemara, and in Clare the form Dpropsldn is the
prevalent one; this is shortened to Dynope in Louth (Omeath) and
Dublin, and to Dynopedn on Lough Ree, Co. Longford. In Roscommon

Clare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 7

(Ballinlough) the Clare Island formis used, and in North Dublin the
form Dynoplos. The root is called DLucdn in Clare Island, where, as in
many other parts of Iveland and in Scotland, it is roasted and eaten by
boys.

Dogstup, Soft Plant. Senecio aquaticws Hudson, Marsh Ragwort.—This name is
applied in Clare Island and on Achillbeg to the early state of the
Marsh Ragwort when it shows only the rosette of succulent base-leaves
which are pounded and used as a poultice for sores. The plant in this
stage of growth is held to be quite a distinct species from the flowering
Marsh Ragwort, which along with the closely allied Common Ragwort
(S. Jacobaca) is known as Dotelén. According to one Clare Island
authority, an Irish speaker, the word Doslup denotes merely the pounded
leaves or poultice, and in this sense is often applied to the pounded leaves
of StLdn Luy as well as to the Marsh Ragwort,

Dolsdn wrack, ) Bagged or Bladder Wrack,

Doilsin wrack. Fucus vesiculosus Linné.—Both names, suggested by the
small pouches, pockets, or bladders borne by the plant, are applied at
Belclare, Clew Bay, to the common seaweed known in English as the
Bladder Wrack. “If you boil that Doitsin wrack in strong sea-water,
it’s a grand thing for rheumatism in the legs.” The English dialect word
wrack for sea-weed is in common use in this part of Clew Bay. See
Feamain oub.

Dotatén. ) Senecio Jacobaea Linné and

b. binde. J S. aguatieus Huds. Common Ragwort and Marsh Ragwort.—
This name Dotaldn, with or without the adjectival affix bude (yellow) is
universal in Clare Island and on the greater part of the mainland shores
of Clew Bay, and is widespread in Ireland in one or other of its variant
forms. The form Duaéetdn is used at Mulranny, and this with or without
the affix burde is the prevalent form in Kerry, in Connemara, and in
Donegal ; in Louth (Omeath) I have found the variants Duetcdn and
buatcepdn. The form Bollan is used in the Isle of Man.

A well-known fairy plant, doing duty in Irish legend for the witches’

broomstick and as a mark for buried gold. The name is perhaps connected

= with Duséertt (cowboy), the plant being the commonest pasture weed
in all Ireland. See Doglur.

Doéaldn bdn, White Bohalawn. Artemisia vulgaris Linné, Mugwort, Worm-
wood.—A common name for this species in Clare Island, and apparently
widespread in Ireland.

Dpdipce. Brassica alba Boissier and B. campestris Linné, White Mustard and

- —..Wild Turnip.—Clare Island; apparently a variant of Pyarpeac, the name

48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

commonly applied to these species almost throughout Ireland and closely
related to the Latin Brassica.

Cailleaé siuthaipe. See Siuthair.

Coppa tnlip. Lathyrus macrorrhizus Wimmers, Heath Pea.—General in
Clare Island. Sweet Knobs may be suggested as a rendering of the
Gaelic name, taken from the knobby liquorice-flavoured roots or tubers,
which are dug up and eaten by the children in Clare Island, as in many
other parts of Ireland and in Scotland. The Scotch Gaelic name Cormylie
or Cormeille (Honey-root) expresses the same idea as the Irish Gaelic
name.

Cappo tinlip dogs. Vicia Cracea Linné, Tufted Vetch——Clare Island ;
applied as a contemptuous term to this common vetch as lacking the
quality of the true Cayo milip.

Ceanabsn oub copaé, Black-footed Canavawn. Blechnum Spicant Roth,
Hard Fern—At Cloghmore, Achill Sound. The second component of the
name is obyiously descriptive ; the first, Ceanabdn, which is widespread
in Ireland as a name for the Cotton Sedge (Eriophorum), is probably
connected with the Gaelic candib, Latin cannabis, Arabic cannab,
French chanvre, and English canvas and hemp (see De Candolle, “ Origin
of Cultivated Plants”).

Ceatpama caopac, Sheep’s Quarter. Atriplex erecta Hudson, Orache,
Lamb’s Quarters.—Used in Clare Island and in Achillbeg, as in Kerry
and Connemara. Perhaps a translation into Irish of the English name.

Clubsan. Spergula arvensis Linné, Corn Spurrey.—Clare Island. Also used
in Co. Dublin and at Maam, Co. Galway.

Copds ppdroe, Big Road Leaf. Rumex obtusifolius Linné and R&R. erispus
Linné, Broad-leaved and Curled Dock.—Clare Island, Belclare, &c.,
general around Clew Bay, as it is almost throughout Ireland. In
Clare Island, as in Kerry, Louth, and Connemara, the compound
name Copég yyidvoe (Road or Street Dock) is generally applied to
Rk. obtusifolius, so commonly found growing in the neighbourhood of
dwellings, especially in the “street” or open yard in front of Irish
roadside homesteads.

Copdsgsé woher, Leafy Ware or Seaweed. Laminaria saccharina Linné.—
A compound Irish-English name used for the species at Cloghmore, Achill
Sound, but perhaps generic for the Laminarias. ‘I'he second component
is apparently connected with the English ware, seaweed, and occurs also
on the Dublin coast. In Kentish dialect seaweed is spoken of as waur.

Copds Pdopaig } Plantago major Linné, Way Bread,

Cro Psopars ) Plantain—In Clare Island the first of these names is

Olare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4& 9

sometimes applied to the rosette of broad base-leaves of this common
species, the second name being given to the mature plant with its. long
flowering or fruiting spike. The form of the first component in the
second name varies much in different parts of Ireland. From Kerry
and from Claremorris, Co. Mayo, I have the form Cy\uscé 7”) £01615, which is
simply Croaghpatrick, the famous “ Reek” of Westport. In Glen Inagh,
Connemara, I was given the name Dileds Cpusé PAopors, meaning |
the Croaghpatrick Leaf or Plant, and from Maam, Co. Galway, I have
got Copds Cyd PAoyia1g with the rendering, Leaf of St. Patrick’s Hut.
Threlkeld in his “Synopsis” (1735) gives Cpobs PAopwg, meaning
apparently St Patrick’s Palms (of the hand). Whatever may be the
true rendering of this first component, Cy\6 or Cy\u 6, one thing is certain,
that the plant is connected with St. Patrick.
In Clare Island the leaves are used as a poultice for sores.

Copplesés. Himanthalia lorea Lyngh., Sea-Thongs.—This name was given
me at Louisburgh Quay by a Rinvyle cuyyioée06y or canoe-man.

Copsey. Arundo Phragmites Linné, Common Reed.—Landing on Achill-
beg after crossing the Blind Sound from Cloghmore in August last, I
noticed this handsome marsh grass growing as a cultivated plant in a
fenced field. The owner of the crop told me it was Coips5eapac, and
that he manured it, and grew it for thatching. Threlkeld gives a
variant, cwisgirnah, as used in Cork—see siolcac.

Coy pronnars, Fox’s Paw. Fucus canaliculatus Linné.—This name was given
me at Louisburgh by the Rinvyle canoe-man already mentioned.

Cysodn. Arctium Lappa Linné, Burdock. General in Clare Island, also at
Cloghmore, Achill Sound. This plant affords a good illustration of the
peculiar sexual system which prevails in the folk botany of Gaelic
Ireland. A male (fiyeann) and a female (bsimeann, pronounced
bwinnan) cyeodn are well recognized both on Clare Island and on Achill
Sound: “That one there that has the big leaves on it like rhubarb has
acure in it. That’s the cydodn baineonn,” said my informant, pointing
to a- Burdock showing only the large root-leaves. “That other one
that throws the long leg is no good at all. hat’s the cj\&odn pipeann.”
The “long leg” of this male crawdhaun was the stiff fruiting stem. This
sexual system of Irish folk botany owes nothing to Linnaeus, and I
have never been able to grasp its abstruse principles.

Cyann caopcoimn, Berry Tree. Pyrus Aucuparia Ehrh., Quicken Tree, Mountain
Ash.—Curraun Achill; general in Ireland, with or without the prefix
Cyonn, and surviving even in Cornwall and Devonshire in the form heer
or care. In Co, Dublin it becomes guayreen, and in the Isle of Man ewirn.
A famous tree in Gaelic legend.

R.1.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI, B q

4 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cponn pniomts, Twisted or Bent Tree. Salix awrita Linné, Round-leaved
Willow.—Clare Island. See also Soilean.

Cyésécac, Wound (wort). Lythrum Salicaria Linné, Purple Loosestrife.—
General on Clare Island, and on the mainland shores of the bay; also in
Galway, Clare, and Kerry.

Cydban hue, Lrythraea Centawrium Linné, Centaury.—-Clare Island, where
the usual name, Oyéimiyie muipe (‘The Virgin Mary’s Ladder), current
in Donegal, Clare, and Galway, does not appear to be known,

Cpocsn. Juncus acutiflorus Ehrh., Jointed-leaved Rush.—Clare Island.

Oullitip Fertlean. Lonicera Periclymenum Linné, Woodbine, Honeysuckle.—
Cloghmore, Achill Sound. See feitleos.

Oypeds. Rubus fruticosus Linné, Blackberry, Bramble.—Clare Island, and
widespread in Ireland——Donegal, Connemara, Louth, Kerry, &c., often in
the shortened form Oyu; (dhrish). The roots are used in Clare Island
for producing a black dye.

Oubsn ceonn copac. Prunella vulgaris Linné, Self-heal.—General in Clare
Island. “They make a drink out of it called Cailleach’s Tay, that’s very
good for a weak heart.” See CTénasayyionti.

Feitleds ¢o01 cyionn, Sinew round the Tree? Lonicera Periclymenum Linné,
Woodbine.—Clare Island. Precisely the same form is used in Clare-
morris and in Galway; but the name is very frequently shortened to
feitLeds, in which form I found it in Inisheer, 8. Isles of Aran. ‘The
name is very probably derived from feit, a withe or sinew, in allusion to
the nature of the twining stems.

Feapban. Ranunculus repens Linné, Creeping Buttereup.—Clare Island and
Achill Sound. A widespread name in Gaelic Ireland, and suffering very
little dialectic change.

Feamoin.—A general term for the larger, leafy seaweeds, especially the Fuci
and Laminariae. No doubt connected with Feam, a tail. Clare Island,
Achill Sound, &e., and general in West Ireland.

Feamaoin oeos5, Red Fammin. Laminaria digitata Linné, Tangle.—Clare
Island, Achill Sound, &c. The chief material for kelp-making.

Feomain bude, Yellow Fammin, Fucus nodosus Linné, Knotted Fucus.—Clare
Island, Rinvyle, &¢., an appropriate name for this species in the autumn,
when the fruiting plants turn a bright yellow.

Feamoainn oub, Black Fammin. Fucus vesiculosus Linné, Bladder Wrack.—
Clare Island, Achill Sound, Rinvyle, &. The names Feamoaimn burde
and ~. oub are perhaps not fixed in their application to the species given
above, but vary in application with seasonable colour-variation in- the
plants. Mucus vesiculosus, yellow in the fruiting season, turns black when
wilted, See bolssn, wrack,

Clare Island Survey—Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 11

Fertosg Uist. Ramelina scopulorum Ach.—Clare Island. I am indebted to
Miss Knowles for this name of obscure meaning applied to a well-known
lichen, which is used in the island to produce a yellow or rather saffron
dye. See Scpo cloc,

Froeos Juncus effusus Linné, Soft Rush.—General in Clare Island. Also
used in Connemara.

Flt or Flic. Stellaria media Vill., Chickweed.—Clare Island. General in
Mayo and Galway. A name of very obscure sound in Gaelic. Given in
Threlkeld as Fluuh, and in Cameron as fliodh or fluth for West Scotland.
Perhaps connected with fli, moist or succulent.

Fotannén, Thistles in general.—Applied in Clare Island to the three
common species, Cnicus lanceolatus, C. arvensis, and C. palustris. A wide-
spread name in Ireland, occurring with little or no change in Mayo,
Galway, and Kerry. The names Feoéaodn and Oedpsodn, also widely
used in Ireland, are perhaps variants of Fotandn,

Fpsod Calluna vulgaris Linné and Erica cinerea Linné, Heath.—General
in Clare Island and round Clew Bay, as it is throughout West Ireland.
No attempt appears to be made in Gaelic Ireland to distinguish
these two species by name. The term Minfyiaoé, Kind or Soft Heath,
in common use in Clare Island, seemed to me at first to apply to a distinct
species, but further inquiry showed that it denotes merely the tender
young shoots of the heather which are eaten by cattle.

Fysod6s. Hinpetrum nigrum Linné, Crowberry.—This name or its variant,
Fyoocsn, is the common Irish Gaelic for the Bilberry (Vaceiniwm
Myrtillus); but this species is rare and probably seldom fruits in
Clare Island, and the name is applied to the Crowberry, the fruit of
Empetrum nigrum, which is found on the higher slopes of Croaghmore
and elsewhere. In Tyrone the Crowberry plant bears the name [y\so0c
ns Fpoeoéds, or Frocken Heath, as it may be rendered, using the Co.
Dublin word for the Bilberry.

Euopdn. Heracleum Sphondylium Linné, Cow-Parsnep.—Clare Island,
Belclare, and Roonah. The same form occurs in Roscommon; Sityidn
in Dublin and tapan in Kerry. See pléapsén.

Goll portneac, Foreign Fern ? Osmunda regalis Linné, Royal Fern.— General
in Clare Island. It is not easy to account for the use of the adjective
54, foreign, in connexion with so distinctly native a species as this is
in Ireland. In [ar Connaught the plant is called Roitneac salloa,
also meaning Foreign Fern,

Siolcac, <Arundo Phragmites Linné, Common Reed—General in Clare
Island, as it isin Kerry and in Connemara, See Coippeapac.

B2

4 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy

Siumoy.) Pinus sylvestris Linné, Scotch Fir—In general use in Clare Island,

Siur. } not for the living tree, which is not found there, but for the bog-
deal or relics of old forest, which are plentiful in cut-away bogs in
several places. The large stump of bog-deal is known in the island as
Coilleac siuthoipe or Fir Hag. It is a curious fact that the Spruce
Fir (Pinus Abies) bears in Lapland the native Lapp name giiesa, very
closely similar in sound to the Gaelic name for the allied Scotch Fir.
(See Linnaeus, “Flora Lapponica,” 2nd ed., p. 285.)

Slogep. Lyuisetum maximum Lamarck, Great Horsetail—General in Clare
Island, where the species is common. The name is perhaps connected
with the Gaelic for prattle or jingling sound in allusion to the rustle
made by the Horsetails as they are stirred by the breeze, or as one
walks through them.

Gliinesé oesps, Red Kneed-Plant. Polygonum Persicaria Linné.—Clare
Island, precisely as in Connemara and in Kerry.

Sponnluy. Senecio vulgaris Linné, Groundsel.—Clare Island. General in
Gaelic Ireland. Perhaps an Irish modification of the English
groundsel,

Siitensé ) Lithothamnion caleareum Aresch. and Inthophyllum fasciculatum -

Spunanae. j Fos].—The common name for the “ Coral ” about Inishlyre and
the Westport channel generally, where beds of both species occur. It is
used as a Heath-killer, lime being deficient in most of the drift islands of
Clew Bay, so that heather grows freely if permitted. Speaking of the
“coral” as it came up in our dredge off Inishlyre, a Rossmindle fisher-
man said: “It cuts the heath to pieces and clears it off the land.”

lint. Pinguicula vulgaris Linné, Butterwort.—Clare Island, where it is said
to poison geese. Perhaps connected with Leite or listed, sheep rot, the
plant growing in marshy ground, which induces the disease in sheep. In
Kerry I have found the form teié wipse in use.

lisé. Laminaria frond. —At Cloghmore, Achill Sound, 1910. A name of very
obscure sound, and perhaps generic for broad-leaved water-plants. It is
used as a component in Gaelic names for the Pondweed and the Water-
lily.

Lup mon, Great Plant. Digitalis purpurea Limné, Foxglove. See Méapiocdn.

Marve Méaspiscdn, Thimble Stick or Staff. Digitalis purpurea Linné, Fox-
glove.—This is the prevailing name in Clare Island for the flowering
plant of the Foxglove. The name Lury mop, so commonly given to the
plant in other parts of Ireland (I have found it in use in Donegal, Galway,
Clare, and Kerry), appears in the island to be applied only to the
immature state, with its conspicuous tuft of broad base-leaves. In this

Clare Island Survey—Gaelie Plant and Animal Names. 4 13

state it seems to be considered a distinct species. “It has a nature of its
own,” I was informed. A famous fairy plant in Ireland, as is shown by
many of its Gaelic names, as Meyumse price (the Pooka’s Fingers) in
Kerry, Meopacédn roe (Fairy Thimble) at Omeath, Sroean, &e.

Meéayocdn, Thimble——The Clare Island name for the Foxglove flower; the
name for the whole plant at Cloghmore as in other parts of Iveland.

Miliupoc. Zostera marina Linné, Grass Wrack.—Used at Bartra and
Belclare, Clew Bay. Dinneen (“Irish Dictionary,” p. 483) gives the name
Milpéodc, sweet grazing or grass, as used in Achill for a “marine weed
with a sweet root.” The Clew Bay Miliupaé is no doubt a variant of
this.

Min thope. Coniwm maculatum Linné, Hemlock.—General in Clare Island,
also used in Achillbeg. From Jar Connaught I have the form Muing
thas, apparently meaning Sea Mane. Threlkeld gives Muintheay and
Cameron muinmhear. The meaning is obscure, but the second com-
ponent is probably the Gaelic word for sea. In Ireland, at least, the
plant has a strong affection for seaside stations.

Mipimin oeops. Mentha hirsuta Hudson, Water Mint.—Clare Island.
General in Kerry.

Neancos. Urtica dioica Linné, Nettle.—General in Clare Island and on the
mainland shores of the bay. as it is almost throughout Gaelic Ireland in
one or other of its forms. In some parts of Kerry it becomes Lannctos.

Nesntds caoé, Blind Nyanthogue. Lamium purpureum Linné, Red Dead
Nettle.—Clare Island and Achill Sound; also in Connemara.

Noimin. Bellis perennis Linné, Daisy.—Clare Island, Bartra, Achill Sound,
Achillbeg, &c. Throughout Ireland, with little variation. No doubt
connected with Noin, noonday, and analogous in its origin to the common
English name Daisy (Day’s-eye).

Plespsin. Heracleum Sphondylivm Linné, Cow Parsnep.—Achill Sound.
A contraction of Sunnse pléapsén, pop-gun, for which the hollow stems
are used by boys.

Rortnesc., Pteris aquilina Linné, Bracken.—A generic name for the ferns,
but applied in Clare Island and round Clew Bay, as throughout Gaelic
Treland, to the Fern par excellence, the ubiquitous Bracken.

Roitneaé thoaoa jusd, Fox’s Fern. Athyrium Filiz-foemina Roth, Lady
Fern—At Cloghmore. In Kerry this fern is known by the name
Rortneré thaoyis, Dog Fern.

Rileds. Myrica Gale Linné, Bog Myrtle—General in Clare Island and on
Achill Sound. Widespread in Gaelic Iveland in varying dialectic forms,
Releos (Raylogue) in Kerry, Rroeos (Ridyogue) in Roscommon, &e.

4 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Ripeac. Himanthalia lorea Lyngb., and Chorda filum Linné.—Applied to
both species in Clare Island, to Chorda filum at Rossmindle and to
Himanthalia lorea at Cloghmore. See Scaoites.

Sol cuaé. Viola sylvatica Fries, Wood Violet.—Clare Island. My informant
at Ballytoohy, Clare Island, believed this Gaelic name to mean the
Cuckoo’s [Stocking] Heel, and said he had heard it so interpreted by old
people in the island. A correspondent from Co. Mayo suggests that the
name may mean the Heel of the Drinking-Horn, the shape of the spur of
the Violet resembling the base of the old Irish Cuaé or dvinking-cup.

Sailedn. Saltz awrita Linné, Round-leaved Willow.—Clare Island ; also used
in Jar Connaught. See Cpann pniomea.

Sdétne bo, Cow Sorrel. Ruwmex Acetosa Linné, Common Sorrel.—Clare Island.
I have from Kerry and Galway the name Sdima, simply, for this species.

Sétha caopac, Sheep’s Sorrel. Rumex Acetosella Linné.—General in Clare
Island as it is in Connemara.

Scaoilesé. Himanthalia lorea Lyngb.—The name is applied to Laminaria at
Cloghmore, to Himanthalia at Rinvyle. The word is derived from the verb
Scaoilim, to scatter or spread loosely, in allusion to the waving fronds.

Scyis cloé, Stone Seurt. Parmelia sazatilis Ach—General in Clare Island
as the name of this lichen, which is still used there to give a yellow
dye of better quality than Feitd6s Liat, which is also used for the same
purpose. In the Carna district, Galway, the name Scj\a cloé is given to
another Lichen, Ramalina scopulorum Ach., there also used as a yellow
dye (Brown, “ Ethnography of Carna and Mweenish,” R.I.A. Proc., 5rd Ser.,
vol. i., p. 523). See Feitos lise.

Sellipcjuns. Iris Pseud-Acorus Linné, Yellow Iris, Flag—General in Clare
Island, and on the mainland shores of the bay, as at Roonah, Murrisk,
Belclare, and Mulranny. Perhaps no Gaelic plant-name is so widely
spread or suffers so many dialectic changes as this does. In Kerry it
appears as 1Llipcpum, Selipcpum, or Oileaptjium ; in Louth (Omeath) it
becomes Solaycyum. Threlkeld gives Silliptoy, Wade the digammated
form Fealarptay and Feslapcyum, and it turns up in Cornwall in the
contracted form Laister. The root is used in Clare Island to produce a
black dye.

Selliycjuns wild, The Wild Shellistring. Sparganiwm ramosum Hudson,
Bur-reed.—Clare Island. In the Clew Bay area it is customary to
distinguish plants or animals of uncommon size and vigour by the
adjective “ wild.” The Bur-reed, resembling a very luxuriant and lofty
Selliycyuns (Yellow Ivis), was so distinguished for me by an old resident
of the island.

Clare Island Survey—Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 15

Selliptpoc. ris Pseud-Acorus Linné. This variant is used at Cloghmore,
Achill Sound.

Slén Lup, Health or Healing Plant. Plantago lanceolata, Ribwort Plantain.—
General in Clare Island and all round the mainland shores of the bay;
almost universal in Ireland. A well-known remedy for cuts and sores in
Treland and Scotland as in the Sikkhim Himalayas, where the plant occurs.
Hooker thus refers to it in his “ Himalayan Journals” :—“ At Tallum
[in the Tanga Valley, Sikkhim] I attended an old woman who dressed
her sores with Plantago (Planta) leaves, a very common Scotch remedy,
the ribs being drawn out from the leaf which is applied fresh; it is a
rather strong application.” In Clare Island the leaves are pounded up
to make a poultice, and, according to one informant, the leaves of this
species are for the purpose mixed with those of Copds Popors, the
root-leaves of Plantago major. See Note D.

Slot thopa, Sea Rod. Laminaria digitata Linné.—Applied to the thick
stems of the Tangle in Clare Island and on Achill Sound as it is in
Donegal, in the South Isles of Aran, and even in Co. Dublin, where the
shortened form Slots or Slocks is in use: one of the chief materials for
kelp-making.

Tenosopontcar. Prunella vulgaris Linné, Self-Heal.—This name was given
me for Prunella at Cloghmore, where the use of the plant in making a
tisane is well known. I cannot venture to suggest any rendering of the
Gaelic name ; but “ Garden tea’ was proposed by my informant.

TpMitnin. Cynosurus cristatus Linné, Dog’s-tail—Often used as a generic
term for a dry grass stem; but in Clare Island the cypditnin par excel-
lence is Dog’s-tail, whose wiry, leafless stems stand out so prominently in
the pastures at the approach of autumn. In Co. Dublin the Dog’s-tail
is called “Thrahneen grass.”

Thom. Sambucus nigra Linné, Elder.—Clare Island and almost throughout
Treland in one or other of its forms. In Louth and Longford it is
Tpomén, in Jar Connaught Thom, in Kerry Tpoum, and in the Scotch
Highlands Drwman.

Up plerbe Leucriwm Scorodonia Linné, Wood Sage.—Clare Island and at
Cloghmore, Achill Sound, where I found it grown in a garden as a cure
for coughs. The name is also used in Connemara and in Inishiar, Aran
Islands. In Inishiar the name was translated for me by an lrish speaker
as “ Fresh of the Mountain.” In some authorities the first component of
the name is written 1luboss, Yew, but no doubt erroneously, ag

- “Mountain Yew ”is a singularly inappropriate name for the plant,

4 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy

III. Some Eneuisnh Prant NAmMEs.

Bent or Bint.—Psamma arenaria R. & 8., Marram Grass. At Bartra, Clew
Bay ; also used for the same species in Co. Dublin, In English dialect
applied to this and to many other species.

Bore-tree.—Sambucus nigra Linné, Elder. In general use in Clare Island.
A common name in North English and Border dialect in Yorkshire,
Cumberland, Ayr, &e.

Brier.— Rubus fruticosus Linné, Blackberry, Bramble. General on the island
and round Clew Bay, as it is in Kerry, Sligo, and Dublin, in all of which
counties it appears to supplant the word Bramble in folk-speech.

Burdock.—Arctivm Lappa Linné. Clare Island; but used there quite rarely
in comparison with the Gaelic cjdodn.

Coral.—In general use round Westport Bay as a name for Lithothamnion
calewrewm.

Docken.—Rumex obtusifolius and Rk. crispus. Clare Island and Clew Bay
generally, the old plural form being used in the singular and a new
plural, Dockens, formed from it.

Fifes, Flutes.—Applied in Clare Island to the hollow stems of Angelica sylvestris.

Juniper.—The Crowhberry, Lnpetrum nigrum, is known by this name in
Clare Island.

May Flower.—Primula vulgaris Hudson, Primrose. This is the only name
T could find in use for the Common Primrose at Belclare and Murrisk on
Clew Bay.

Millgrass—The Grass Wrack, Zostera marina. Used at Belclare. A com-
pound Irish-English name meaning ‘Sweet Grass.’

Rush.—In use on Clare Island and Clew Bay for the Soft Rush (Juncus
effusus). At Mulranny I heard the old plural, rushen, used.

Thorn.— Applied to the Spear Thistle (Cnicws lanceolatus) near the abbey, Clare
Island.

Thristle.—This variant for thistle I heard used at Annagh Island, Clew Bay.
Tt is also used in Co, Dublin and in the Scotch Border counties.

Whin.—In frequent use in Clare Island and round Clew Bay for Ulex ewropaeus,
the word Furze, so common in East Ireland, being apparently unknown
in the Clew Bay area.

Wild Coral—Used in the Rossmindle district, southern Clew Bay, as a
distinctive name for Lithophyllum fasciculatum, the large roughly globular
form of “Coral.” See Wild Shellistring (p. 14) and Wild Bornyack

(p. 19).

Clare Islund Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 17

Yellow Wrack.—Used at Belclare, Clew Bay, as a name for Fucus nodosus,
the Knotted Fucus. Wrack is a common English dialect word for
seaweed.

TV. Gartic ANIMAL NAMES,

(a) Sea Animals (Mish, Molluses, Crustaceans, &¢.),

Dolloé, The Speckled (Fish). Zabrus maculatus Bl., Ballan Wrasse.—In
general use in Clare Island, where the fish is very common and as well
known by the name Gunner as by its appropriate Gaelic name. Much
fished for amongst the Laminaria off the rocks at low water, the lines
being provided with a crab-shell guard to prevent the hooks fouling in
the weed. The islanders speak of the fish as a good “kitchen” for use
with potatoes. See Note A.

Dajinesé. Patella vulgata Linné, Limpet.—General in Clare Island and
round the shores of Clew Bay ; also used in Co. Dublin in precisely the
same form. See Fisd bAyinesé, and Note B.

Dpoilesé. Tapes virgineus Linné.—Used at Belclare, Clew Bay.

Dyan. Pagellus centrodontus de la Roche, Common Sea Bream,—Used in
Clare Island.

Clussyin, Little Har. Pecten maximus and P. varius Linné, Scollop.—At
Rossmindle, Clew Bay, where it is applied to both species of Pecten, and
at Belclare, where it is used for P. varius only. See Muryineasc,

Coy. Ammodytes lanceolatus Les., Sand Hel.—Clare Island and Mulranny.
The word occurs as a component in place-names in both districts. The
remarkable shingle promontory, so conspicuous a feature in the island
shores about half a mile north of the quay, is named Kinacorra, the Sand
Eels’ Head, probably from its shape; and a deep sea hollow off the pier
at Mulvanny is known as Pollnoascoy 1, or the Hole of the Sand Eels.

Coppatnine. Syngnathus acus Linné, Greater Pipe-fish.—Used at Belclare
by English-speaking boatmen and pronounced corrawine. Perhaps a
corruption of Coy fiedoin, Wild Sand Eel. There is no sound in
Gaelic corresponding to the 7 in wine, but the Gaelic [100 is in Clare
Island corrupted to Fye by English-speaking islanders, e.g. in Fie
bAipinesé (Wild Bornyack), and possibly a similar corruption has
occurred with 410’0s1n in the present case.

Cypn6s.—A peculiar variant or corruption of Cy\ubds, applied to the Edible
Crab at Belclare.

Cyusodn.) Trigla gurnardus Linné, Grey Gurnard.—In general use in Clare

C. slay. Island.

Cphusodn deops. Trigla cuculus Linné, Red Gurnard.—Clare Island.

R,I,A. PROG,, VOL. XXXT, C 4

4 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cyubds. Cancer pagurus Linné, The Edible or Great Crab.—Clare Island,
Achill Sound, Cloghmore, &e. See Note A.

Cuon hoo. Lehinus esculentus Linné. Common Sea-Urchin.—Clavre Island ;
a name of very obscure meaning.

Donndnsc. Motella mustela Linné. Five-bearded Rockling.—Clare Island.
The name is perhaps connected with ‘oonn, brown, in allusion to the colour
of this common shore fish, often found between tide-marks on the island.

Omllicin. | Mytilus edulis Linné, Common Mussel.—General in Clare

Oublicin. Island. The name is applied especially to the dwarf form
incurva of the Common Mussel, which often covers flat half-tide reefs
with large sheets of densely packed blue-black shells. The name is no
doubt compounded of oub (black) and Leoc (genitive lice) a flat stone,
and may be rendered, Little Black Rock [shell].

Eapeon. Conger vulgaris Cuvier, Conger Hel—A general term for eel, often
applied to the Conger in Clare Island.

Foocésn. Littorina littorea Linné, Common Periwinkle.—In general use in
Clare Island not only for this species, but as a generic term in the widest
sense, including several scientific genera of Testaceous Gasteropods, such
as Purpura, Buccinum, Trochus, and Littorina. At Lake Tacumsin in
Wexford I met with the variant péocdn—see Faocos.

Foocésn oub, Black Fweecawn. Littorina littorea Linné. Applied to the
Common Periwinkle by a Rinvyle man at Louisburgh.

Faoédn Capoill, Horse Fweecawn. Purpura lapillus Linné, Dog Winkle.—
Used at Clare Island and at Rinvyle.

Fooéén ropoann, Iron Fweecawn. Buccinum undatwm Linné, Whelk.—
Used at Rossmindle, Clew Bay, the name being suggested no doubt by
the hardness of the shell—see Faocéds 194101mn.

Fooédn Mure, Virgin Mary’s Fweecawn. Zrochus wmbilicatus Montagu.—
Clare Island and Rinvyle. See Note C.

Faoces. Littorina littorea Linné,—At Cloghmore near the southern opening of
Achill Sound this name takes the place of the Clare Island Faoéén, and,
like it, is applied both specifically to the Common Periwinkle and
generically to other univalves.

Fooé6s thavaid, Dog Fweecoge. Purpura lapillus Linné, Dog Winkle.—
This is the Cloghmore substitute for the Clare Island Faoéén Gapourll.

Fooéos ispoinn, Iron Fweecoge. Buccinuwm undatum Linné, Whelk.—
Cloghmore, equivalent there to the Rossmindle Foocédn 194110n.

Fiosaé. <Acanthias vulgaris Risso, Piked Dog-fish_—Clare Island and Clogh-
more. In Clare Island i was told that this fish was sometimes eaten,
and that oil was formerly made of it for use with rush-lights and lamps.

Clare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 19

Fried béyinesé, Wild Bornyack. Patella vulgata Linné, Limpet.—In Clare
Island this name, corrupted by English-speaking natives to Fye Bornyack,
is applied to the large, smooth form of the Common Limpet which
inhabits rocks near low water where the heavy surf breaks. The word
“wild” here, like “dog” or “horse” in English popular names, is used to
- denote something coarse or strong. See Note B.

Frreangec. Seylliwm canicula Linné, Lesser Spotted Dog-fish_— Clare Island
and Cloghmore.

Sloomsé. Homarus vulgaris Edw. Common Lobster.—General in Clare
Island ; also at Cloghmore, Achill Sound.

Sliomsé hays, Sea Lobster. Palinurus vulgaris Latr., Spiny Lobster.—
General amongst the Clare Island fishermen.

Lodo no mban, Lady’s Fingers? Asterias rubens Linné, Common Star-
fish—Clare Island; general amongst the fishermen.

Mood mop, The Great Dog. Scylliwm catulus Turton, Large Spotted Dog-
fish.—Used in Clare Island.

Meoiteapedn (on).—In Clare Island this name is given to the Great or
Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus), when it has exuviated or cast its shell. In
this soft state it is held to be an excellent bait for fish. “ You'll catch
three with a wheescawn for every one you'll catch with a common crab,” I
was told by a fisherman. In Dinneen (“Irish Dictionary,” p. 465), the name
is entered as Fuipcedn; but the sound of the spoken word in Clare
Island is certainly thaoiteayedn, as here given, the word being perhaps
a derivative from maoite, softness. If this derivation and spelling be
correct, the name may be englished “Softy,”
to the object named.

Milyedn, Dainty or Sweet Bit. Anomia ephippiwm Linné.—At Belclare,

which is certainly appropriate

Clew Bay. In spite of its name, I could not find that this molluse was
ever eaten in the Clew Bay area; indeed it is set down as deleterious by
good authorities. The name is possibly ironical.

Mongaé, ) In Clare Island I found these names applied to Gadus pollachius

Monae. Linné, the Pollock. At Cloghmore they were applied to the Coal
Fish, Gadus virens Linné.

Muipinesé. Pecten maximus Linné, Great Scallop—vUsed at Rossmindle,
Clew Bay. See Cluoupin.

Popcdn. Cancer pagurus Linné, Great Crab, Edible Crab.—Applid to this
species in Clare Island; but also used there and throughout the Clew Bay
area as a generic term for the crabs.

Poptdn thooileann. Muia squinado Latr—Clare Island, Cloghmore, and
Rinvyle. I was at first inclined to adopt for this name the spelling

C2

4 20 ' Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Poypitsn fooileann, which precisely represents the sound of the name as
spoken. The meaning, Seagull Crab, is, however, singularly inappropriate,
and I am convinced that the spelling here adopted is the correct one, the
rendering being Mweelans Crab. The Mweelans are prominent naked
rocks or sea-stacks, lying some two miles south of Clare Island, and a
likely haunt for this deep-water crab.

Paptsn slop, Green Crab. Carcinas maenas Pennant, Common Shore or
Green Crab.—Clare Island, Cloghmore, and Rinvyle.

Poptdn roy1o1nn, Iron Crab. ANantho florida Leach.—Clare Island; an
appropriate name for this very hard-shelled crab, which is common
under stones at low water throughout the Clew Bay area.

Popcdn file. Portunus depurator Leach, Swimmer Crab.—General
amongst the Clare Island fishermen and probably applied to the Swimmer
Crabs generally. The second component of the name sounds precisely as
Sile (Sheila), a woman’s name, and may possibly have originated in the
island from some trivial circumstance, as popular names not infrequently
do.

Ribe pundn. Palaemon serratus Faby. or P. squilla Fabr., The Prawn.—
Clare Island. “It’s the Shrimp that lives in flashes by the sea,” a Clare
islander told me, “ flash ” here meaning pool, and “ shrimp ” being applied,
as itis generally in Iveland, to what is usually called prawn in England,
prawn in Ireland being applied to the Norway Lobster (Mephrops
norvegicus Leach). The name may perhaps be rendered Seal’s Whisker, in
allusion to the long, slender antennae of the shrimp.

Ruc. Raia batis Linné, The Skate.—General in Clare Island.

Runnoé Scomber scomber Linné. The Mackerel.—General in Clare Island.

Ron. Halichaerus grypus Fab., The Grey Seal.—Clare Island, Achill Sound,
&e., and general in West Ireland.

A favourite alliterative saw amongst the Clare Island fishermen is the
following, which includes the three species just mentioned. I could find
no Gaelic version of it. “The three swiftest things that swim in the sea
are the Rue, the Rone, and the Runnock.” The Skate when it comes to the
surface, as it does at times, is said by the fishermen to “travel along
the top of the water like a shot from a gun,” and the mackerel “is that
swift that it catches hold of a bait from a hooker doing its 8 miles an

hour,”

Smugoiplide pom. Seal’s Spit—Awrelia aurita Linné. Jelly-fish—A
very widespread name in Clare Island and round Clew Bay for this jelly-
fish, which at times appears there in vast numbers. The name is no
doubt generic for several common species of jelly-fish.

Clare Island Survey—Gachic Plant and Animal Names. 4 21

Scorsin. Buccinum uwndatwm Linné, Common Whelk.—Used at Belclare,
Clew Bay. See Fooédn 1041\01n0.

Teinne Seatdin. Noetiluca miliaris.—Clare Island. This expression, which
perhaps may be a general term for phosphorescence rather than a definite
name for the animal producing it, Mr. Praeger found in use amongst the
Clare Island fishermen for the brilliant light-flashes in the wake of a
boat, usually due to the animaleule, Noctiluca. In that wonderful farrago of
imaginative medicine, Keogh’s “ Zoologia Medicinalis Hibernica,” “ Tinny
Gallane,” is entered as the Gaelic name for the Glow-worm. The true
Glow-worm is not Irish, but we have in Ireland a luminous centipede,
Linotaenia crassipes, C. Koch, and this is probably Keogh’s Glow-worm.

(b.) Land Animals: Birds, Insects, and Mammals.

Durdeds Leone. Yellow Meadow [Bird]. Hmberiza citrinella Linné, Yellow-
hammer.—Clare Island.

Ciopos. Calathus cisteloides and its allies—A general name in Clare Island
and round Clew Bay for this narrow black beetle, which is common
under stones.—See Notes C. and D.

Chandos. Pyrrhocorax graculus Linné, The Chough.—Clare Island, where the
bird breeds in many places. Probably what is known to philologers as
an onomatopaeic word, imitative of the note of the bird.

Cajos5 bén, White Caurogue. Corvus cornix Linné, Hooded Crow.—Clare
Island.

Cusc. Cuculus canorus Linné, Cuckoo.—Clare Island.

Oo ovol. Applied in Clare Island to two species, Ocypus olens, a common

Deas oool. ) black beetle or chafer, and Lithobius forficatus, a red-brown
centipede. The black oosy1o ‘osol, known in English dialect as the
Devil’s Coach-horse, is an object of superstitious aversion in Clare
Island, as it is in Iveland generally. It is supposed to carry a virulent
poison in its pointed tail, which it erects in a threatening manner when
molested. ‘“There’s a black one and a red one too, because it’s just the
same moral,’ I was told by an islander who identified the centipede as
the “red one,’ which was the same “moral” (model) as the black one,
though to the uninitiated scientific observer they are utterly different in
character. The beetle and the centipede, in fact, agree in nothing but
their generally uncanny and vicious aspect. It is difficult to fix the
precise form of the first part of the Gaelic name as current in the Clew
Bay area. Il appears to fluctuate between oa, ois, and veoi5.—
See Note D.

Deons 5oblos5, Red Fork? Forficula auricularia, Karwig.—Clare Island.
The second component of the name appeared to be sounded as dhowlogue

4 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

rather than gowlogue; but it seems probable that the latter is the
correct form, the name being suggested by the conspicuous forked tail.

Opeolin. Troglodytes parvulus K. C. Koch, The Wren.—Clare Island.

Fooileann, Sea-gull—General in Clare Island, on Achill Sound, &c., as a
generic name for the gulls. I could not find current in the area any
distinctive Gaelic names for the different species of sea-gulls.

Fisc oub. Corvus corar Linné, The Raven.—Clare Island.

Slog, Motacilla melanope Pallas, Grey Wagtail, and MZ. Jugubris Temminck,
Pied Wagtail.—Used for the wagtails in Clare Island apparently as a
generic term.

Luc. Mus musculus Linné, Common Mouse.—Clare Island.

Lue fer, Grass Mouse. Mus sylvaticus Linné, Long-tailed Field Mouse.—
Clare Island.

Lué moy\, Great Mouse. Jus decwmanus Linné, Rat.—Clare Island, where I did
not hear the commoner name Lué Fyanncaé or French Mouse used,
though it is probably known in the island.

Meoso wypse, Water Dog. Sutra vulgaris, Otter.—Clare Island.

MA’ feos, Long Mary. Ardea cinerea Linné, Heron—Clare Island,
Belclare, and Rossmindle.

pyrescdn liet, Grey Crow. Corvus corniz Linné, Hooded Crow.—Clare
Island. See Cayog5 bén.

Pyumpesllan. Geotrupes stercorarius, Dung Beetle-—Clare Island. See
Note C.

Sproeos. Lrithacus rubecula Linné, Robin.—Clare Island.

V. Some EneiisH ANIMAL NAMES.

Bream bird.—Applied to the Terns in Clare Island.

Cobbler.—At Belclare used tor Cottus bubalis, a common shore fish.

Gunner.—Frequently applied to the Ballan Wrasse, Labrus maculatus, in Clare
Island.

Limpet.—In Clare Island sometimes used by the children, though the Gaelic
Daiinescé is much more frequently heard.

Nine Eyes.—Applied to the Gunnel or Butter-fish, Centronotus gunnellus Linné,
at Belclare, as it is in Co. Dublin.

Otter.—Used in Clare Island as well as the Gaelic name.

Scollop.—At Belelare for Pecten maximus.

Twelve Eyes.—This name is given to the Gunnel in Clare Island in lien of
the more widespread but less appropriate name, Nine Eyes.

Willy Wagtail_—Applied in Clare Island to the Grey Wagtail.

Wild Bornyack—The Clare Island name for the large form of Limpet
inhabiting exposed stations. See fied bésipneac.

Clare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 28

VI. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.
(A.) The Crab Shell as a hook-quard.

One of the difficulties to be overcome in fishing for the Gunner from the
rocks on the Clare Island coast is the tendency of the hook to foul amongst
the Laminaria or tangle fronds. A simple and effective remedy is found in
an ingenious application of the carapace of Cancer pagurus, the common
Edible Crab. The empty shell is cut into two across its shorter diameter,
leaving the dorsal and ventral plates united, and forming in front a smooth-
sided wedge. Then a hole is pierced in the centre of this wedge, and the
half-shell is strung on the fishing-line (with its wedge-shaped edge towards
the fisherman), and is fixed there about a foot above the hook. The baited
line with its smkers is then slung out well beyond the fringe of swaying
tangles, with the hollow of the crab-shell turned seawards, and its wedge end
landwards. When a fresh cast has to be made, the lne is drawn rapidly
through the weeds, the sharp, smooth-sided edge of the shell clears a passage
for the hooks, and these slip through before the opening has time to close.

There is probably a Gaelic name for this simple contrivance which is used
by all the Clare Island rock-fishers; but I failed to find it, or any English
name more distinctive than the “ shell.”

(B.) The fisd Barnes as a Rat-catcher.

The “Wild Bornyack ” is well known to catch rats in Clare Island, not,
of course, by out-running them, but in the following manner, as explained to
me by an old islander :—

“Of a soft evening them bornyacks do rise up and go travelling a bit over
the rocks, and the rat‘ll come up and slip in her tongue to lick the meat, and
the bornyack ll clap down its shell and catch her by the tongue. And I tell
you the power of man couldn’t loose the hold of the bornyack, and the rat is
caught there till the tide comes up and drowns her. I seen them myself
hanging there by the tongue and they dead.”

This account was confirmed by several Clare Island men. The capture of
a rat by a Limpet is also on record from the Scotch island of Dunstaffnage
(“ Cambridge Nat. Hist.,” vol. iii, p. 57).

(C.) The Origin of the Opereulwum.

While collecting names of animals and plants in Clare Island I several
times came across a legend connecting St. Patrick with the faoédn Muipe
(Fweecawn Wirré). It appeared in many forms, all with a strong family like-
ness, and though some of the narrators were inclined to associate the legend
with the common Faoédn (Fweecawu) or Periwinkle, the best authorities

4 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

agreed that the true Fweecawn Wirrée was Trochus umbilicatus. Amongst the
variants I found current I select the followimg as the most circumstantial. It
Was given me by a native islander, a boatman under forty years of age, and I
reproduce it here as closely as possible in his own words, without attempting
to modernize his grammar or to represent phonetically his western pronuncia-
tion. Though an Irish speaker, he gave me the legend in English :—

“One time the Jews were chasing St. Patrick all over Ireland to lll
him, and at last they caught him and buried him deep in the ground. And
then the Jews went off with themselves and came into a house to get their
supper. It was a cock they put into the pot, and, as they were sitting there
waiting for it to be cooked, says one of them :—‘I don’t know is there any
fear of the saint rising up again on us?” And another of them made answer
with a laugh :— Ay is there, just as much fear as there is of that cock there
in the pot rising up and crowing twelve times. Andloand behold you, the
words were hardly out of his mouth when up the cock rose in the pot and let
twelve crows out of him. And when the Jews heard that, it was real mad
they got, for well they knew by it that the saint had made a miracle
and rose up on them. So away they went to hunt for him; and the first
thing they met on the road was the Pyumpeallan (Primpellawn), and says
the Jews to the Primpellawn, ‘Did you see Patrick passing this way ?’
‘Ay did I, says the Primpellawn; ‘I seen him inoé’ (in-yai), meaning
yesterday, for you see the Primpellawn wasn’t wishing to give them Jews any
help at all, at all. So away they went; and the next thing they met was the
Ciap\65 (Keerogue) and he walking along the road ; and they up and axed the
Keerogue if he seen the saint. And the Keerogue made answer that he seen
the saint sure enough, and that it’s hiding himself in behind a Fweecawn he
was that was creeping over the rocks and putting a cap on the Fweecawn
when it drew back into its shell with him. So off them Jews set hot foot
down to the seashore to hunt for that Fweecawn with the saint in in it and the
cap on it. But it’s well St. Patrick knew what they were after; so what
does he do but put a cap on every one of them Fweecawns, and so sorrow
bit of them Jews could ever find the one he was hid in. And that’s how
them Fweecawns came to have caps on them, for ne’er a one of them had a
cap on it before that.”

A Rinvyle man I met at Louisburgh Quay gave me another version of the
legend, and illustrated his story by taking up a living specimen of Trochus

~ umbilicatus, and pointing out the operculum as the “cap.” This Fweecawn
he told me, never had a cap on it before, and it’s had one ever since. He
went further and told me that “ne’er another one of them Fweecawns ”
(using the word here in its wide generic sense) “has a cap on it at all.”

Clare Island Survey—Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 25

(D.) The Infamous Oasps ovsol.

Although the Das oool (Darra dheel) is a creature of ill fame through-
out the Clew Bay region, asit is, I believe, all over Ireland, I was unable to find
current in the district any legend accounting for its bad reputation, It is
generally held there to be highly poisonous; and in illustration of this, as
well as of the wonderful healing powers of Sloan Luy (Slawnloos), a Murrisk
man told me the following child’s tale well known in his neighbourhood :—

“ One day the Keerogue and the Darra dheel had a ereat fight, and at last
the Darra dheel got a grip of the Keerogue and turned up its tail and stung the
Keerogue and poisoned him, and left him for dead. But what does the
Keerogue do but crawl away till he comes across a Slawn-loos was growing in
the grass, and he bit a piece out of the Slawn-loos and chewed it up and
swallowed it, and he was cured on the spot.”

While collecting plant and animal names on Clare Island I was accustomed
to lay my difficulties of identification, etymology, and pronunciation before a
small council of islanders assembled at night in the inn kitchen at the harbour,
The men of light and leading here gathered together were usually able to
come to agreement on the problems presented to them; so one night I
brought in alive in a glass tube a specimen of what I considered to be the true
Darra dheel (Ocypus olens), and proposed to jay it on the table as an exhibit
for examination and discussion. The proposal caused a flutter; anxious eyes
were turned towards the door as if in contemplation of retreat, and when
the harmless beetle was gently shaken out of the tube on to the table one
bearded man, losing all control of his feelings, retired to the farthest corner of
the kitchen, crying out, “Oh, put it in the fire! Put it in the fire, I tell you.
That'll bring you a great advantage.” The more reckless spirits having
cautiously inspected the beetle froma safe distance pronounced it to be the true
Darra dheel. Only one esprit fort ventured to laugh at the fears of his brother
islanders, and when I returned the beetle to its glass tube a sigh of relief
passed round the kitchen.

For many interesting details as to the Darra dheel in Irish literature
see Note 9 of R. J. O’Duffy’s edition of Orde Cloinne Tipeann (Soe. Pres,
Ty. Lang.), and also Dr. Hyde’s “ Beside the Fire,” p. 18+.

(E.) Seal Metamorphosis.

Of the Clan Coneely seal legend, so well known in Connemara, I failed
to find any clear traces in Clare Island; but two other interesting stories
of seal_metamorphosis weregiven me by the islander whose version of the
Fweecawn Wirré legend is reproduced here in Note OC. I give these seal
legends as closely as possible in the narrator’s words.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, D 4

4 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

“A great many years ago, long before my time, the Clare Island men
used to go hunting the seals to make oil out of them. So one day four
men went off in a canoe beyond Achill Head there to look for seals in the
eaves. And when they came to a good cave, one of them landed with a
heavy stick, the butt-end of an oar it was, to see would there be any seals
in in it. And he hadn’t been long there when a big seal comes flopping
down the stones from the top of the cave, and made for the water. But
before he got in the man with the stick gave him three terrible blows on
the back, thinking to kill him. But he didn’t, and the sealswam away. And
then another seal came down from the top of the cave, and the man gave him
three welts of the stick, too, but he didn’t kill that seal either, and away it
swam after the first one. And then another one came flopping down, and
he got three terrible welts of the stick like the other two, but no more
was he killed, so the whole three got away on the man.

“Then he got back into the canoe, very angry with himself, and they
pulled away for another good cave, where they thought to find more seals.
But they hadn’t got far when a terrible storm rose up all of a sudden, and
no matter how hard they pulled they couldn’t make head against it, and it’s
far out to sea they was blown where they had never been before that. And
then the night came on on them and they far out there in the sea and killed
with the hard rowing, and they'd almost given up all hopes of seeing home
again when one of them seen a small light shining out far ahead of them. And
they pulled for it like mad, and at long last they got under the shelter of a
little island they never seen nor heard of before, and there sure enough was
the light shining in the window of a house.

“So they made the canoe fast and landed and went up ana rapped at the
door, and a woman opened it and axed them to come in and sit by the fire.
And it was making plasters the woman was when she let them in, and they
seen three men lying on the floor by the fire and their backs stripped. And
when the canoe men came over to the fire to warm themselves three terrible
wounds it was they seen on the backs of the three men was lying there.
And one of the canoe men, the one that landed with the big stick to kill the
seals in the cave, got a turn when he seen the wounds, and he called out:
‘The Lord be praised! and who done that on yous?’ And one of the men
on the floor made answer : ‘Twas you yourself done it not three hours ago
in the cave over there beyond Achill Head. And by that the cance men
knew it was the three seals was lying there with the cruel welts of the stick
on their backs, and they got afeard, as well they might. But the seal man
said: ‘Let this be a lesson to yous for all your lives; so go away home with
yourselves now, and let you not be laying hands on a seal any more.’ So

Clare Island Survey— Gaelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 27

they made a promise to him. and the storm went down, and he gave them the
bearings for Clare Island, for sorrow one of them knew where they were at
all, and they made off in the canoe and got safe home. And I can tell you
ne’er a one o’ them four ever laid hands on a seal again.”

Along with this legend I was given a very complete version of the Legend
of the Seal Wife, so well known in the Hebrides and in West Ireland. As
the Clare Island version appears to be fuller than any I have seen on record,
I venture to set it down here as closely as may be in the diction of the
narrator.

“Three Clare Island men went out seal-hunting in a canoe one day, and
when they’d got out to the island they were making for, one of them landed
in a cave to see would any seals be in in it, and the other three pulled away to
another cave to look for more seals. But by the time the canoe came
back to pick up the first man, the wind had rose up, and the sea was that
coarse they didn’t dare venture in with the canoe to take him off. They
tied a balk of wood to a rope to see would it float in the way he’d catch
hold of it and let himself be dragged out through the waves. But sorrow
a bit of good it was; for the water was that cross and contrary the balk
wouldn’t go in half far enough. So the end of it was the man in the cave
roared out: ‘Go away home with yous before the storm gets real bad
and leave me here for the night. For it’s not afeard I am at all to stay
here till yous come back for me.’

“So away they went and left him there all alone by himself, and he climbed
up into a skelp [cleft] of the rocks the way the high tide couldn’t catch
him. But it wasn’t long he’d been there when a big herd of seals came
swimming and splashing into the cave and got up and lay down on the
round stones on the floor, and he could see them without they seeing him,
for it’s well hid he was in in the skelp of the rock above them. And he
kept watching them; and when the night began to fall what does he see
but all the seals taking off their cuculs (Coéoll) and hanging them up on
the rocks. And the minute they took off the cuculs they all turned into
-men and women and began to talk to each other, the way you and me
is talking at this present. And when they got tired talking they all lay
down to sleep, the women seals lying up at the top of the cave by themselves
where the stones were dry, and the men seals lower down near the water.

“ And they slept there all night; and as soon as the light of morning came
‘creeping into the cave, the canoe man rose up softly in the skelp he was hiding
in, and put down his hand and pulled up one of the women’s cuculs and hid it
under him in the skelp. It wasn’t long till all the men and women woke up
and. went putting on their cuculs and swimming off into the sea as good seals

D2

4 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

as ever they were when they came in. But one of the women couldn't
find her eucul at all, and she went up and down the cave im a terrible state,
erying and calling to the others not to leave her there. But they wouldn’t
wait, and so they went off with themselves and left her there all alone by
herself.

“ By this time the sea had gone down, and the canoe came out again to take
the man away from the cave; so he got down out of the skelp with the cucul
hid close under his bawneen [white flannel vest], for well he knew the seal-
woman once she got hold of the cucul would slip it on and turn back into a
seal and swim off with herself. A real handsome woman she was, and after
speaking her fair and kindly, he took her into the canoe and brought her home
to the island, and they were married there by the priest. And they lived very
happy there, and had two children, and the husband took care to keep the
cucul hid in the thatch the way the wife wouldn’t see it.

“ But one day he was out fishing, and the wife was drying flax by the fire—
for at that time there was flax grown in the island—when the flax caught
fire and before she knew where she was the house was all in a blaze. So she
ran out with the children, and the thatch caught fire in a few minutes and
she got a queer smell coming from the thatch and she looked up and what did
she see there but her cucul, and it singeing with the fire. With that she made
a leap at the cucul and caught it, and ran down to the shore with it, and
slipped it on and made a seal of herself, and away she swam off with herself,
leaving the two children behind her.

“So the husband was left forlorn there with the children till one day a
neighbour came and told him how he’d seen his wife come up out of the sea
and throw off her cucul and walk up on the rocks and hug and kiss the
children were playing there, and ery as if her heart were breaking. ‘ And,’
says he, ‘if you go your way down now to the shore and hide till she comes
up again you've nothing to do only dart out and snap up the cucul, and you'll
have her back again with you.’ With that the husband goes down to the
shore and hides behind a rock nigh-hand where the children were sitting, and
sure enough a seal comes swimming up and throws off its cucul and he seen
at once ‘twas his wife that was in it,and she takes to hugging and kissing the
children as if she’d like to eat them. Then out he leaps and grabs at the
cucul; but he wasn’t smart enough, for she caught it up before he came near
it and on she claps it, and away with her into the sea. And the poor man
never seen sight or light of her after that. He was a man that lived over
there at the other end of the island, but I disremember his name.”

I was unable to discover the precise meaning attached by the Clare Islanders
to the word Cocolt, which so often recurs in these seal legends. All the

Clare Island Survey—Guelic Plant and Animal Names. 4 29

authorities agreed that the word had dropped out of the ordinary colloquial
Gaelic of the island, and survived there only in the seal legends. One man
believed the cucul was a cap, another thought it might be a cape, a third pre-
ferred to english it hood, and a fourth was inclined to extend its meaning to
the whole skin or vesture of the seal. Larminie, in his “ West Irish Folk
Tales, translates it “transforming cap”; and both MacDougall (“ Argyleshire
Folk and Hero Tales”) and Campbell of Islay (“ Popular Tales of the West
Highlands ”) render it “husk.” It is, no doubt, connected with the infant’s
caul to which sailors attach a superstitious value as a safeguard against

drowning.

VII. INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Page 5 Page Page
Acanthias vulgaris, . 18 | Cottus bubalis, - 22. Labrus maculatus, 3 17, 29
Ammodytes lanceolatus, . 17 | Cuculus canorus, . - 21 | L. digitata, . 10, 15
Anomia ephippium, . 19 | Cynosurus cristatus, . a | L. saccharina, 8
Arctium ‘Lappa, 9, 16 ; : | Lamium purpureum, 13
Ardea cinerea, . 22 | Digitalis purpurea, - 12 | Lathyrus macrorrhizus, 8
Artemisia vulgaris, . 9. . 7) | Linotaenia crassipes, 21
Arundo Phragmites, . 9, 11 eg iicnns eueullantins, 18 | Lithobius forficatus, . . . 21
Asterias rubens, 19 emaberiza cheney - + + 21 | Tithothamnion calcareum, 12, 16
Athyrium Filix-foemina, 13 Simipeierumn mega, 2 Hy He Lithophyllum fasciculatum,
; : : 5
Atriplex erecta, . . . . 8 Jelena MaMUyMMy Ue 12, 16
Aurelia aurita, 90 | Erica cinerea, . - 11 | Littorina littorea, 18
Erithacus aUuaRHe) 22'| Lonicera Periclymenum, . . 10
Bellis poral, 13 Erythraea Centaurium, . . 10 | 7 tre vulgaris, . 29
B Cave : ; Lythrum Salicaria, . 10
Me : Forficula auricularia, . . 21 u :
acer Ly + + + + © | Fucus nodosus, 10,17 ? ;
B. campestris, . 7 2 Maia squinado, . 19
‘i F. canaliculatus, - . - . 9 :
Buccinum undatum, . . 18,21 | |, 5 pa Motacilla melanope, 22
F. vesiculosus, . . . 7,10 3
M. lugubris, 22
Calathus esiloes, é > Mil Grins paineiney 19 Motella PASEO, 18
Calluna vulgaris, . - 11 Cue 19 Mentha hirsuta, . . . . 18
Cancer pagurus, 17, 18, 19 : : . oo | Menyanthes trifoliata, 6
; Geotrupes stercorarius, . . 22
Carcinus moenas, . . 20 Mus musculus, . 22
1 . a 5 Jey 98
Centronotus gunnellus, . 228 rralichaeria grypus, 20 | M. sylvaticus, 2 22
Chorda filum, . a irrerneleun Sphondylum, 11, 13 M. decumanus, « . 22
. a ry > ? 2
Cnicus arvensis, - 11 | Himanthalia lorea 9, 14 | Myrica Gale, se o &
2 + , . o
C. “BUREN so 6 0 WIIG | etrereny vulgaris, 19 | Mytilusedulis, . . . . . 18
C. palustris, 5 Wl
Conger vulgaris, 18 | Tris Pseud-acorus, . 14, 15 | Noctiluca miliaris, . . . . 21
Conium maculatum,. . . 13 .
Corvus corax, . . . . . 22 | Juncus acutiflorus, 10 | Ocypusolens, . . .. . 21
C, cornix, . 21,22 | J. effusus, 11 ; Osmunda regalis, . . elu

4 30

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS AND

Pagellus centrodontus,

Pulaemon serratus,
P. squilla, .
Palinurus vulgaris,
Parmelia saxatilis,
Patella vulgata,
Pecten maximus, .
1 VERNEL 5 oe oc
Pinus sylvestris, .

Pinguicula vulgaris, .

Plantago major,
P. lanceolata, .

Polygonum Persicaria, .
Portunus depurator, .
Potentilla Anserina, .

Prunella vulgaris,
Pteris Aquilina,
Purpura lapillus, .

Pyrrhocorax graculus,

Pyrus Aucuparia,

Page
o We
. 20
> 20)
> Hs)

= 10,

=

at

ee
mDwoan

wo @f rp

bo
i

we

oe

Raia batis, .

Ramelina scopulorum,

Ranunculus repens, .

Rubus fruticosus,.
Rumex Acetosa,
R. Acetosella, .
R. obtusifolius,

Salix aurita,

Sambucus nigra, .

Scomber scomber,
Scyllium canicula,
S. catulus, sic
Senecio vulgaris, .
S. aquaticus,

S. Jacobaea, . .

Sparganium ramosum,

Spergula arvensis,
Spiraea Ulmaria, .
Stellaria media, .

.

Page
. 20

4 ih, 1

o i)

. 10, 16

~ 14
. 14

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ANIMALS—continwed.
Syngnathus acus, . . . . 17

Tapes virgineus, , 9
Teucrium Scorodonia,. . . 15
Trigla gurnardus, . . . . 17
We GHOUWUNE, 6 6 ob 6 oo Li
Trochus umbilicatus, . . . 18
Troglodytes parvulsu, . . 22

Ulex europaeus,
Une CHO, 5 5 6 o 0 1B

\Wroe Crm, 595 6 o o
Viola sylvatica, . . . . 14

Xantho florida,

Zostera marina,

Clare Island Survey

oF
AGRICULTURE AND ITS HISTORY.

By JAMES WILSON, M.A.,

Professor of Agriculture in the Royal College of Science for Ireland.

Read Frexruany 27. Published May 3, 1911.

No account of the agriculture of any small or even of any large island could
be written without discussing that of the other places with which it may
have been in contact. Mnglish agriculture, for instance, although it is largely
the outcome of the system the English people brought with them to Britain,
cannot be fully described without reference to ancient Rome, to early Scandi-
navia and France, and to the Low Countries in the times of Elizabeth and
the Stuarts. The following paper will be found to contain less about
Clare Island and more about the mainlands of Ireland and Great Britain
than might ordinarily have been expected. But the circumstances here
are not ordinary. Clare Island could not have been treated as the Survey
scheme intended it should be, without reference to the mainlands; and, as no
systematic and searching history of Ivish or British Agriculture has yet been
written, it became necessary to deal with this part of the inquiry at some
length. What appears here must be regarded, therefore, as pioneer work
in a field which is largely unexplored; and some of the views brought
forward may have to be modified by further research. For instance: since
this paper was read, discussions with students of philology and archeology
have brought out divergent views as to the dates when certain crops may
have been cultivated by the Irish Celts ; and so that these views may stand
alongside those expressed in the paper they are put in as notes.

From the historical point of view, Clare Island by itself is well-nigh
_ sterile. The live stock of the island have been so changed by the importations
of the Congested Districts Board that the signs which would indicate those
of even five-and-twenty years ago are very few. And, such as they are, these
indicate that the stock of that time were themselves the descendants of
stock brought to the island after the sixteenth century to sweep out a still
earlier stock, In the same way, the system of farming has been changed in

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. A 5

5 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

some degree by the Congested Districts Board, and most signs of the earlier
systems have been obliterated. Thus, we are forced to depend very largely
upon what can be inferred from other places to which we believe Clare Island
may be comparable.

And at the very beginning we run into a crucial problem: How far were
the older Clare islanders true Celts, and how far were they modified in blood
and in economy and custom by the Norsemen? If we could eliminate the
Norsemen, which, on the west coast of Ireland, is very difficult to do, our
problem would be simplified in some degree. For then we could say that the
old Clare islanders had no other cow than the little black cow of Western
Europe and no other horse than the old Celtic pony till a few hundred years
ago. And we could also say that the probability of their ever having culti-
vated their fields on the two-field or three-field system typical of Teutonic
and old English agriculture was highly improbable.

Being unable to solve the problem as between Norseman and Celt, we can
only begin by giving a very incomplete account of the agriculture of the
Celts, and then indicate how far it might have been modified by contact with
the Norsemen and with other people who may have influenced the Clare
islanders since the Norsemen’s times.

Far enough back in the history of any nation, we come to a time when
that nation took to tilling the soil. That time, for the Celts in Britain, is
placed as far back as the fourth century before the Christian era by Pytheas,
who sailed the North Sea as far as Orkney in the time of Alexander the Great.
At one time many of Pytheas’s stories were deemed incredible; but so many
of them have turned out to be true that he is now treated with a higher
degree of respect. Strabo was one of the early unbelievers; but he admits
that Pytheas “appears to have reasoned correctly, that, people bordermg on
the frozen zone would be destitute of cultivated fruits, almost deprived of
domestic animals; that their food would consist of millet, herbs, fruits and
roots; and that where there was corn and honey they would make drink of
these.’ The construction of the original Greek indicates that, while the
herbs, fruits and roots were wild, the millet was cultivated.?

At the first attempt we should not guess millet to have been the first
grain cultivated by the Celts; but we have only to consider how great were
the facilities for isolation in those ancient times. Besides, Herodotus tells
us it was grown by the Callipidae, a tribe of Greek-Scythians, ‘and by the
Alazones; Maurikios tells that the Slavs were rich in products of the soil,
especially in millet; Hehn shows it to have been grown by the Aquitanians,

1 Bohn’s translation, book iy, chap. v, $ 4.
> Keyxpw 5 Kai aypiots Aaxavors Kal Kapmois Kal plCars rpepeabut.—Strabo, book iy, 201.

Clare Island Survey—A griculture and its History. 5 3

the Gauls, Thracians, and other northern races; and Schrader, remarking
upon its use in Switzerland and Scandinavia in the Stone Age, says it is
one of the oldest cultivated plants in Europe if not actually the first grain
cultivated.?

With the advent of the Romans in Western Europe, a change begins to
creep over the agriculture of the nations with which they come in contact.
Yet it would not be safe to assume either that this change was entirely due
to the Romans or that the whole of any nation was equally affected. It must
not be forgotten, for instance, that congestion may have been equally potent
with the introduction of new grain-crops in causing the Germans to abandon
the nomadic habit for their settled village and its peculiar system of agricul-
ture. Nor must it be imagined that the remote Northern Germans were as
far advanced in Caesar’s day as those immediately beyond the Rhine; or that
the rest of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain were in as high a state of civilization
as the Iceni or the other maritime tribes which had crossed over from the
country of the Belgae for plunder and war and, when the war was over, had
remained and begun to cultivate the land. The parts of a nation farther
from more highly civilized nations are usually more backward than those
that are nearer.

Bearing these considerations in mind, let us note first what we are told
of the Celts in Britain during the Roman occupation. From Caesar we learn
that “corn” was grown by the maritime Britons. On his first expedition he
found all the corn cut excepting in one place ;* and on his second he demanded
forty hostages from the Trinobantes and corn for his army.’ After his second
expedition, in which he marched from near Deal to St. Albans and presumably
knew the country he had passed through, Caesar says that the Britons were
innumerable, that they had houses much like those in Gaul and a large
number of cattle. The people of the interior, however, for the most part,
did not sow corn, but lived upon flesh and milk, and clothed themselves with
skins.’ Unfortunately, Caesar gives no indication of the kind of “corn”
cultivated; but the important inference can be drawn that, as yet, the Britons
of the interior at any rate were strangers to the use of flax and wool.

Strabo’s account, written about half a century later, is in close agreement
with Caesar’s. The products of Britain were “corn, cattle, gold, silver, and
iron, which things are brought thence, and also skins, and slaves, and dogs ”
well adapted to hunting.’ The manners of the people “were in part like

1 See Schrader’s Reallexicon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, 1901, pp. 11 and 374.

* Omni ex reliquis partibus demesso frumento pars una erat reliqua (Caesar, book iy, chap. 32).
* His Caesar imperat obsides quadraginta frumentumque exercitui (book v, chap. 20).

* Book v, chap. 12. ° Book y, chap. 14. 6 Strabo, book v, chap. iv, § 2, Bohn’s translation

A2

5 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

those of the Celts! insomuch that some of them, though possessing plenty
of milk, have not skill enough to make cheese, and are probably unacquainted
with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. .. . Forests are their cities,
for having enclosed an ample space with felled trees, they make themselves
huts therein, and lodge their cattle, though not for long continuance.”

Caesar’s two expeditions were but the preliminaries to the Roman conquest
of Britain, which was not completed till Agricola won the battle of Mons
Grampius, A.p.84. In the hundred and forty years after Caesar's first landing,
much of Roman civilization had been introduced to Britain: if not to the
country as a whole, certainly to the southern end of the island and more
especially to those parts within reach of the Roman network of cities and
garrisons with roadways to connect them. But how much of their system of
agriculture and how many of their crops were introduced by the Romans
cannot now be told with accuracy.

A passage in Tacitus may be read to mean that vines and even olives
were tried in Britain; but that, while they failed, the other usual farm-crops
grown by the Romans were successful: “ With the exception of the olive and
vine, and plants which usually grow in warmer climates, the soil will yield,
and even abundantly all ordinary produce. It ripens indeed slowly, but is
of rapid growth, the cause in each case being the same, namely, the excessive
moisture of the soil and of the atmosphere.”?

Some of the chief “ordinary produce” of the Romans were wheat, of which
they had several kinds, barley, beans, millet, and flax; while other crops
were lupines, lucerne, fenugreek, vetches, turnips, and radish. Whether all
these crops—excepting millet, of course—were introduced by the Romans
cannot now be told. We can only tell the crops grown in Britain after the
Romans had left it; but, before we can name with some approach to what
might be called approximate certainty the crops which the Celts took over
from the Romans, we must give some consideration to the agriculture of the
nations who came to Britain after the Romans had left.

These other nations lived beyond the Rhine in Caesar's time, and, accord-
ing to him, their civilization was at a stage very similar to that of the
Celts in Britain. Referring to the Sueyi, “by far the largest and most war-
like tribe among the Germans,” he says that among them there was no
private ownership of land; that they did not stay in one place longer than a
year; that they did not live much upon corn but mostly upon milk and
flesh ; that they were much engaged in hunting; and that, even in the coldest

‘ice. in Gaul. * Strabo, book iv, chap. y, § 2, Bohn’s translation,
° Agricola, chapter xii, Church and Brodribb’s translation.
4See Dickson’s Agriculture of the Ancients,

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 5

parts, they wore no clothing but skins which were so secant that a great part
of their bodies was exposed.’ And referring later to the Germans as a whole
he reiterates the same statement: “They do not care to till the land; and
the larger part of their food consists of milk, cheese and flesh. Nor has any-
one a determinate piece of land or boundaries of his own; but the counsellors
and headmen annually assign land in a position chosen by them to the tribes
and families living together for the time being, whom they compel to move
elsewhere next year.”*

A hundred and fifty years later the Germans had made a very consider-
able advance, due chiefly to two main causes, congestion and contact with
the Romans. At this later date they were seen by Tacitus, from whom we
shall make two quotations which refer doubtless to the more western tribes
and which, because their interpretation is disputed, we shall quote first of
all in the original Latin, and then translate freely for ourselves :—

Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem
inter se 1unctas sedes. Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut
nemus placuit. Vicos locant non in nostrum morem connexis et cohaerentibus
aedificiis ; suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis
remedium, sive inscitia aedificandi. Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut
tegularum usus; materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut
delectationem. *

Agri pro numero cultorum ab universis in vices occupantur, quos mox
inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur. Facilitatem partiendi camporum
spatia praestant. Arva per annos mutant, et superest ager.’

In the first of these passages the crucial word is “sedes” in the first
sentence, which is usually interpreted to mean “houses” or “dwellings.”
But this interpretation makes no clear distinction between *“sedes” in this
sentence and “domus” in the third, and assumes that Tacitus was repeating
himself—a most unlikely thing for him—in saying that each house stood
apart by itself. We must therefore look for some other interpretation of
“sedes” ; and, from the fact that in Caesar’s day the Germans lived in
companies or communities while, many years later, both in Germany and
England, they lived very much in the same way in separate villages dotted all
over the country, we come to the conclusion that Tacitus used “sedes ” here to
mean a collection of houses—a settlement—a meaning it carried in the plural.

' Gallic War, Bk. iv, chapteri. 2 Tbid., vi, chapter xxii.
3 Germania, chapter xvi. 4 Tbid., chapter xxvi,

5 6 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Thus the first passage becomes intelligible, and the two may be translated
as follows :—

It is well known the Germans have no cities. Nor can they bear even to
have their settlements close together, but establish them separately and apart,
as a spring, or a plain, or a wood has induced them. Nor do they build their
villages as we do, with the houses joined together; but everybody has an open

space round his house, either as a precaution against fire or because they

know not how to build. The use of even unhewn stones or tiles is unknown
among them; and, for all purposes, timber, undressed and without beauty
or attractiveness is used.

Fields proportionate to the size of the community are occupied in turn
and divided up among the inhabitants according to their worth. The extent
of the plains facilitates division. The tilled land is changed from year to
year, and abundance of untilled land is still left over.

These two disputed passages interpreted as above, chiefly in the light of
earlier and later history, show that the Germans—some of them at any rate—
of Tacitus’s time had ceased to be nomads, that they lived in villages which
preferably were well apart from each other, and that the houses in a village
were built separately. They also show that the land was divided up among
the members of a community and that the same piece of land was not
yet tilled year after year.

From other passages in Tacitus we learn other facts about the Germans.
Their food was still plain: wild fruit, fresh game and curdled milk; but the
women were now wearing linen,’ from which we may infer the introduction
of flax; and we infer the manufacture of wool and therefore the keeping
of sheep from the statements that the men wore woollen cloaks? and that
homicide was expiated by payments of cattle and sheep. Already the germ
of feudalism can be discerned in the bands of warriors which grew up within
the tribes to make their living by warfare and eventually to become supreme
over those who were not warriors.

But more interesting from our present point of view was the consumption
of a liquor which was made, according to Tacitus, from barley or corn—ew
hordeo aut frumento. From this it may not be absolutely safe to say that
the Germans were now growing barley; for Tacitus may have put it in as
most likely to account for the liquor they brewed, not knowing that millet

' Germania, xvii.

2 Tegumen omnibus sagum. bid., xvii.

3 Luitur enim etiam homicidium certo armentorum ac pecorum numero. Jbid., xxi.
4 Thid., xiii and xiy.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 57

might have been used for the purpose.t At the same time there is a
possibility that, if the Germans had any other grain than millet, it may have
been oats; for, after saying that the oat is the lowest of all kinds of ‘ corn’
and that barley degenerates into it, Pliny adds further that it takes the place
of ‘corn’ among the Germans since they sow it and have nothing else from
which to make porridge.”

In support of Pliny’s statement, it might be pointed out that the oat was
not an Aegypto-Semitic or Roman crop—at any rate no Roman agricultural
writer mentions it as such*—and, so, was unlikely to have reached Britain
through the Romans. But, since it was grown in Britain—especially towards
the north—in the Middle Ages, it was more likely to have come in either
through the Anglo-Saxons or the Norsemen, and therefore may have been
grown by the Germans in Pliny’s time.

This excursion into the early history of agriculture in Germany has been
necessary in order to get a clear view of that of England, and thence to get
some notion of its probable course in Ireland.

For many hundred years after Tacitus, Teutonic agriculture leaves no
written records; and such as are first met with are so meagre and scant that
they can be read only in the light of researches and literature dealing with
much more recent times. The long gap must be filled in from both ends.

It is impossible to read English agricultural literature of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries without beg impressed with the fact that at that
time there were two concurrent systems in England, viz. the “ Inclosed” and
the “Open Field” systems: the former comparatively new, and increasing ;
the latter uneconomic, wasteful, and old. All through the eighteenth century
and well into the nineteenth there was agitation against the old system, and
between “1710 when the first Inclosure Bill was passed in England” and
1849 over seven million acres of “Open Field” land were “ inclosed ” by
statute.*

A typical example of the open field system might be described as follows :—
The population lived all together in a village. Their houses stood separately
each in the midst of a small piece of ground, frequently called the “yard,” in
which were grown flax, cabbages, carrots, and sometimes a few other vegetables.
The land around the village was divided into three great tillage fields of nearly

™ Meyer’s Conversationslexikon says that the Crimean Tartars brew a beer from millet (Hirse) ;
and Sienkewicz, in one of his works, writes of people who lived north of tbe Caspian Sea two
hundred and fifty years ago drinking spirits distilled from millet.

*Primum omnium frumenti vitium avena est, et hordeum in eam degererat sic ut ipsa
frumenti sit instar, quippe cum Germaniae populi serant eam, neque alia pulte vivant (Nat. Hist.,
Book xviii. )

* See Professor John Wilson’s Farm Crops.

4 Porter’s Progress of the Nation, 1815, p. 157.

5 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

equal proportions, and these were subdivided again into acre, half-acre, quarter-
acre and even smaller plots. If a villager had altogether, say, twelve acres of
tillage land, he had approximately four acres in each of these great fields.
The villager’s acres did not lie side by side, but were scattered up and down
each field here and there in acre, half-acre and quarter-acre patches. Every
free villager, large and small, held all his tillage land in this “ mingle-mangle ”
fashion ; but he did not hold the same patches year after year; for there was
a reallotment at definite intervals, so that no man might hold a good patch—
or a bad patch—too long and that others might have a chance of it.

There being no fences, and the stubble being open to every villager for
grazing after harvest, it was necessary that every one should grow the same
kind of crop in the same field at the same time and that all should be
ploughing, sowing, reaping and harvesting together. The crops grown were
therefore such as were most suitable for the majority.

But although the villagers had three fields, they could crop only two of
them at a time. Their implements were so primitive that the land became
foul when two crops had been taken and, so, had to be ploughed again and
again the third year to get rid of the weeds. In this third or cleaning year,
which was called the fallow year, the land was ploughed usually four times
—in March, June, August, and September—and at the last ploughing was
sown with wheat. In the spring following the harvest the wheat stubble
was ploughed up, and beans or some other crop was sown. These other crops
were peas, barley and oats. Thus the general rotation was wheat the first
year, beans or other grain the second, and fallow the third; and, in any one
year, one of the great village fields was the “wheat”-field, another the “bean”-
field, and another the “ fallow ”-field.

In addition to the three great tillage fields, there were other fields lying
beyond them which were never ploughed. There was the meadow, in which
every tree villager had his allotted stripes, and there were usually the cow-
pasture, the bullock-pasture, and always the “common” pasture, on each of
which he had the right to graze a definite number of stock in proportion
to his acres in the tillage fields. Farther away was the “forest ” im which each
villager had his share of timber and firewood and in which his allotted
number of swine were tended by the common herd. The village flock of
sheep was herded on the stubbles in winter and on the “common” pasture
in summer.

Inferences may be drawn from the departures from type. The depar-
tures were of two kinds, namely as to the number of tillage fields and
as to the crops that were grown. All over England, as far north as
Yorkshire and Durham at least, the three-field type was common, and the

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its [listory. 59

main crops were wheat and beans; but barley was also sown in the “ bean”-
field and less frequently oats. But there was a much smaller number of
villages having only two fields, which were cropped one year and fallowed the
next. These villages, therefore, in any one year had only one “corn” field
and the fallow field. Evidence of the three-field system is found certainly as
far north as Aberdeenshire ;' but it is not clear that it was so prevalent in the
east of Scotland as in England. Besides, the kinds of crop grown in the
north were not the same as in the south. Wheat and beans dropped out
towards the north, and barley or bere, oats, and peas took their place. Judging
from the Aberdeenshire example, bere was the first crop after the fallow, and
oats and peas the next.

It is not clear which crops, if any, were peculiar to the two-field villages
either in England or Scotland.’

From the foregoing it is possible to make some suggestions as to when the
English adopted the three-field system and also as to when they took over
such crops as wheat, beans and peas from the Romans. It scarcely needs
pointing out that the English village with its three fields is a development
from the village of Tacitus. Take away from the later villages the lordship
and the somewhat unequal areas occupied by villagers, both of which were a
concomitant of feudalism, and we get back to a village which held an area of
land equal to the requirements of its people, among whom it was reallotted
periodically in about equal portions. Take away the denser population of the
Middle Ages, and we restore the possibility of choosing new land every year
and some being still left over. But why the third field? Had the English in
Germany been as confined as to space as they were afterwards in England,
and had they still grown only such crops as millet and oats or barley, they
would have required two fields: one in which their crop of the year was grow-
ing and another which was being tilled and cleaned for the next year’s crop.
But wheat when it was introduced could not be worked in with those other
crops. It had to be sown in autumn; its cultivation was different; and, since
all stubbles were grazed, it must be separated from the field in which the
other “ summer corns,” as they were called, were grown. Hence, if wheat and
one or more of the other crops were grown, a third field was necessary.

Seebohm was able to trace the three-field system back to the seventh
century, to the Laws of King Ine, “re-published by King Alfred as ‘The
Dooms of Ine’ who came to the throne a.p. 688.°° Can we take the

‘ See Keith’s Agriculture of Aberdeenshire.

2 The above description of the early agricultural systems is gathered from old agricultural books
and from such writers as Seebohm, Maine, Gomme, Maitland, and Vinogradotf.

3 English Village Community, p. 109.

R,I,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. B 5

5 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

system further back? Had the English come over from Germany with the
two-field system, there would have been more of it in later times, because
every change of system required a revolution from the previous—by no means
an easy matter, as was shown by the way the three-field system survived
till the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when it finally gave way at the
introduction of two new crops, namely, the turnip and red clover. Moreover,
the same three-field system lives on in Germany to the present day, and
there, under similar difficulties as to the lack of records, it has been traced
back by Hanssen to the year 771.1. It is not improbable, therefore, that the
three-field systems in Germany and England have the same origin: that is
that it was adopted in Germany before the English left. It might be argued
of course, that, given the same crops in England and Germany as a result of
contact with the Romans, two peoples so closely allied would probably grow
them in the same fashion. But the likeness is too close for that explanation.
Nor will this argument explain such coincidences as the German calling the
two crops of the three-field system “wintergetreide” and “sommergetreide,”
while the Englishman called them “ winter-corn” and summer-corn”; some
Englishmen speaking of the first three ploughings of the fallow as “een
fallow,’ “twy fallow,’ and “try fallow”;? and the German calling the
fallow the “brach” while the Scot in Scotland and in the North of Ireland
speaks of the light stubble furrow drawn in autumn as the “ brack-fur.”

In any case we have no more mention of millet in Britain in the Middle
Ages. We have oats and barley or bere, which may have come in from the
north of Europe, grown in the Germanic and Scandinavian parts of Scotland
and in England; and we have wheat, beans, peas and flax, which were
brought west by the Romans, grown in England and some of them at least in
the east of Scotland.

Before going on to consider the agriculture of the Celts, it will be well to
say how English agriculture branched off from the three-field system and
how it developed afterwards.

The change had begun before the Norman conquest: how long it would
be impossible to say. It was due to the assumption of lordship by the
military leaders, who, in the first instance, forced the non-combatant
villagers to supply them and their thanes and other military attendants with
produce from the village fields and to work such land as they seized for
themselves.

In the early days it is probable the lords and their thanes were still
members of the village community and shared the village land plot about

1 See Von der Goltz’s Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft, 1902, p. 77.

2

* See Mortimer’s Art of Husbandry, Bk. ii. ch. 3,

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 11

with the other villagers; but eventually they built themselves castles
and keeps outside the village and laid hold upon the unoccupied land
around them. Still the villagers worked their land for them and brought
them some part of the produce of their own fields; but gradually the
lords gathered additional labourers around them, chiefly captives in war
and their descendants, and with these they worked their lands.

Originally the lords or landowners as they came to be called worked
their tillage land like the villagers, in three fields'—a wheat-field, a bean-
field, and a fallow-field—but, later on, when more tillage produce was
required, a piece of land was broken up, cropped for five or six or even
more years in succession till it was exhausted, and then left alone to nature
to be clothed again gradually in weeds and pasture. When one piece was
exhausted another took its place.

Even before the Norman conquest, and much more afterwards, the religious
houses became landowners and worked their land like other land-owners.

With the rise of commerce in the Middle Ages and the consequent
discovery that gold was more powerful than men, the landowners took in
more and more of the waste land round their demesnes and either cultivated
it themselves or let it to farmers, who worked it on the system of cropping it
till it was exhausted and leaving it alone to recover in pasture. Ways of
improving its fertility were discovered, such as marling, sanding, and enclosing
sheep and cattle upon it, by which the period of cropping could be prolonged
and the pasture hastened forward.

Disputes with the villagers as to infringement of their rights and
boundaries, and frequent trespass by village and other stock, led to the land
reclaimed and worked in this way being fenced in, or, as it was called,
“inclosed,” in contradistinction to the village lands which were still unfenced
and were called “open.”

Thus, at the beginning of the Stuart period, there were two main systems
of agriculture in England: the village with its “open” fields and its three-
field system of tillage, and the landowners and farmers with their “inclosed ”
fields and their smaller crops, perhaps, but less awkward and therefore
less wasteful system of farming. If improvements were possible at all,
there was more chance of their being adopted by the landowners and
farmers than by the villagers: hence the great demand for “ inclosing,”
which began at latest in the seventeenth century and was carried by law
early in the eighteenth.

1 Land round the homestead was worked in this way in Aberdeenshire, in the eighteenth century.
It was called the ‘“‘infield,’’ the rest being called the ‘‘outfield.’’ See Keith’s Agriculture of
Aberdeenshire.

B2

5 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Although the first great step in the advancement of English agricul-
ture was not taken till near the end of the third decade of the eighteenth
century, the incidents which led up to it took place in the middle of the
seventeenth. These were the introduction from Flanders of two new crops,
turnips' and red clover, by Sir Richard Weston, in 1644 or 1645.* Their
cultivation did not spread, however, till a century later. Sainfoin and
lucerne were introduced from France* about the same time; but they also
made small progress. Rye-grass, which was introduced probably a few years
later, made somewhat better progress. In Plot’s Oxfordshire, published in
1677, we are told: ‘ They have lately sown ray-grass, or the Gramen lolia-
ceum, by which they improve any cold, sour, clay-weeping ground, for which
it is best, but good also for dry upland grounds, especially light, stony, or
sandy land, which is unfit for sainfoin. It was first sown in the Chiltern
parts of Oxfordshire, and since brought nearer Oxford by one Eustace, an
ingenious husbandman of Islip, who, though at first laughed at, has since
been followed even by those very persons who scorned his experiments.” *
Rye-grass eventually found its place in being sown down with the last grain-
erop taken by “inclosed” farmers before the land was left to nature.

The great step, however, was taken by Tull and Lord Townshend. Tull
showed that the yield of a crop could be increased greatly by thorough and
persistent cultivation : that is by cultivation not only before the crop was sown
but also while it was growing. But, in Tull’s day, field crops could not be
cultivated while growing, because they were sown broadcast ; and cultivation
would kill many plants. Tull then invented two machines: one to sow the
seed in drills or rows, and another to cultivate between them—the drill-
sowing machine and the horse-hoe.°

Since its introduction by Weston the turnip had been no great success,
chiefly because it had to be sown broadcast; but now the way to grow it
was seen to be in drills, like Jethro Tull’s wheat; and the first to
demonstrate this on a large scale, about 1730,° was Lord Townshend who had
been Prime Minister to King George the First. The turnip and the other
crop introduced eighty years before by Weston were now readily adopted as
field crops by the farmers of Norfolk, who in those days were the most
advanced in England.

The two new crops had far-reaching consequences, first upon the “inclosed ”

1 That is as a field crop. Turnips had been previously grown in gardens.

* Weston’s Discourse of the Husbandrie used in Brabant and Flanders, edited by Hartlib, 1645.
3 Blith’s English Improyer Improved, 1653.

*See Wilson’s Farm Crops, yol. ii., p. 203.

® See Tull’s Works, especially The Horse-Hoeing Husbandry, 1730.

® Wilson’s Farm Crop, yol. i., p. 268.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 18

and next upon the three-field or “open” systems. Hitherto the practice on
“inclosed” farms was to crop a field continuously for six or eight years till it
was exhausted. Now was adopted the four-course rotation, wheat, turnips,
barley, and clover, which had the advantage of producing plenty of winter-
food for stock, from which followed plenty of manure, and from which
followed the elimination of the old exhaustion and the need for leaving the
land to nature for a term of years. This four-course rotation, modified to
suit local conditions and lengthened by sowing down longer-lived grasses
with the clover, has been the groundwork of British tillage farming down to
the present day.

But the two new crops were disastrous to the three-field system. The
turnip seemed an ideal crop for the fallow, because the land could be
cleaned and tilled and a crop grown at the same time. But the turnip
could not be got out of the ground in time to prepare for and sow the
winter wheat. Nor could red clover be grown on the fallow, for then the
land could not be cleaned at all. So, as the “inclosed” farming grew better
and better, while the three-field farming stood still, the agitation for
“inelosing” the village fields grew stronger and stronger. At the present
day the old English villages and their three fields have all disappeared
excepting a very few, the most notable of which is perhaps Laxton in
Nottingham.

It need scarcely be stated that, although the three-field system was an
advance upon the earlier semi-nomadic system in which, while the people lived
in settled villages a new piece of land was tilled every year, it was a very
effective barrier to further progress. But it had one momentous result in
this that it made the Englishman a tillage farmer rather than a grazier.
For the very reason that his home was surrounded by tillage-fields, through
which he must pass before reaching the pastures and forest beyond, he
acquired, so to speak, the faculty “to plough and to sow and to reap and
to mow,” as if by a kind of hereditary instinct. But because of its rigid
framework and the inflexibility of its rules, the three-field system barred
any radical change in agricultural methods. Improvements, therefore, were
contined to the “ inclosed” farmers—a circumstance which led eventually, as
already stated, to the downfall of the three-field village system.

Only a few of the more important changes in British agriculture,
subsequent to those already mentioned, need be noted before passing on
to that of the Celts. The earliest improvements we read of were such
as were likely to have had their origin in the reclamation of waste and
untilled lands. These were draining, the application of marl and liming.
In Walter Blith’s “English Improver Improved,’ published in 1653,

5 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

“Drayning,” which was “taking away Superfluous and Venomous Water
which lieth in the Earth and much occasioneth Bogginess, Miriness, Rushes,
Flags, and other filth, and is indeed the cause of Barrenness in any Land of
this nature,” was very fully explained. It was to be done by tapping the
sources of the superfluous water with trenches which were then to be filled in
as follows :—“ Then thou must take good green Faggots, Willow, Alder, Elm,
or Thorn, and lay in the bottom of thy works, and then take the Turf thou
tookest up in the top of thy Trench, and Plant upon them with the green
Soard downwards, and then fill up thy works levell again.” Or “Take great
Pibble stones or Flint stones, and so fill up the bottom of thy Trench about
fifteen inches high, and take thy turf and plant it as aforesaid, being very fit
for the Trench, as it may joyn close as it is laid down.”

The inclosed system of farming made possible a great improvement in the
live stock of the country. The good could now be kept separate from the
bad, and good herds and flocks could be established. This led to a great
importation of larger and better farm stock of all kinds from the continent
of Europe, but especially from the Low Countries, in which, till well on
in the eighteenth century, the best agriculture was to be found. The
invention of gunpowder and the eventual disappearance of soldiers
in armour led to the old war-horse—the ‘great’ horse—being employed
instead of cattle in ploughing and other farm-work. Towards the end
of the eighteenth century several new crops were introduced; but these
induced no great change. They were swedes, mangels, and improved
varieties of oats and barley. One crop, however, must be mentioned,
not because it was so new, but because it had become a field crop and
was eventually of great importance in Ireland. The potato was intro-
duced to Europe in the sixteenth century ;’ but in England it was cultivated
only in gardens till early in the seventeenth century, at which time it became
a field crop first of all in Lancashire.

We are now in a position to approach the agriculture of the Celts. But
we must first of all consider the framework in which they had to work; for
just as the agriculture of the English village community was conditioned by
its peculiar constitution so also was that of the Celts by their tribal polity
which, for the lack of 1 modern example, is not easily reconstructed.

From Caesar’s description of the Celts we may extract so much as bears
upon our present problem. There were already two great classes in Gaul, the
ruling and the ruled, the gentle and the simple; and the rulers treated the
ruled like slaves: “ Among the Gauls there are two kinds of people enjoying

1 See Wilson’s Farm Crops.

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 15

any rank and position. For the common people are treated almost like
slaves, who may make no venture of their own and who are not taken
into consultation. Most of them, when pressed by debt or heavy tribute or
injustice from the stronger, give themselves up in servitude to the chiefs, to
whom they stand just as slaves do to their masters.”’

The rulers were subdivided in two sections, a military and a learned.
The power of the former varied with their wealth and pedigree, for the
greater these the greater the number of vassals and dependents at their
command.’ They corresponded with the kings and chiefs and their cousins of
later days. The learned class were also noble—eguites—but they were
exempt from military service and tribute. Their chief functions were to be
lawyers and law-makers, judges and teachers. Maine identifies them with
the Irish Brehons.®

Among the British Celts of later times we find a development from a
state of affairs similar to that described by Caesar as existing among the
Gauls. There are still chiefs and kings, learned men and common people,
and fugitive and broken men little better than slaves to the chiefs they
serve.

Whether in Ireland, Wales or Scotland, the outstanding features of
their civilization were based upon the tie of blood, and they entertained
a preference for grazing, scattered dwellings, and an itinerant and casual
tillage. The clan system and its bearing upon the land has been very
thoroughly investigated for Wales, where perhaps it suffered least from
external interference and, so, attained its highest complication.’ There were
three grades of Welshmen: the true-bred Welshmen, “strangers” who
were aspiring to that position, and the servile class. The power lay with the
true-bred Welsh, that is with the princes, chiefs, and men of family; but
most of all with the princes and chiefs. Indeed, long before the English
conquest of Wales, the chiefs had attained a power over their clans that was
In some ways perhaps equal with that of the Norman lords over the English
people ; for not only did they command the tribesmen in war but they also
received some part of the produce of their fields and pastures. Each tribe had
a larger or smaller area of country in its possession. Portions of the nature
of home farms were reserved by the chiefs, and the rest was distributed
among the tribesmen and the aspirant tribesmen. Lach tribesman was
entitled to four free acre strips of land (erwi),° to use of the waste in common,
and to the right of hunting. When a tribesman took up land, he did so

1 Gallic War, v1. 13. * Ibid., v1. 15. 3 Early History of Institutions, vol. ii,
+ See especially Seebohm’s English Village Community and Welsh Tribal System,
5 Tn earlier times fiye,

5 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

alongside his father ; and thus a number of relatives held contiguous holdings,
When congestion arose tribesmen could not get holdings alongside their
relatives without other tribesmen changing their holdings; but changes and
such movements as would rearrange the holdings of relatives beside each
other seem to have taken place frequently. Each tribesman’s homestead
was erected beside his land; and, so, the homesteads of a family and there-
fore of a tribe were stretched out in more or less regular rows along the
countryside in all probability four or five acres’ breadth away from each
other.

The “strangers,” that is descendants of men who had come into the
country but who could not be tribesmen till their mothers had been Welsh
for nine (sometimes four) generations, held land like the tribesmen; but in
their case there were no patriarchs or heads of families. Any stranger,
once he was grown to manhood, was equal to any other, much as the
English villagers were; but he was by no means equal to a Cymro. He
could not bear a soldier’s weapons, and hunting and horsemanship were
forbidden him. Nor could he be a scholar, a chief, or a bard till the chief of
the tribe he was attached to consented. The strangers as well as the tribes-
man contributed to the chiefs from their land, and they were liable to more
onerous demands in the way of labour and service. On military expeditions
they were the camp-followers to supply horses, make encampments, and see
to the commissariat. “They are to furnish pack-horses to the king for the
hosts, and they are to present the queen once every year with meat and
drink, and they are to support the dogs, the huntsmen, the falconers, and the
youths, all of them once every year.”! According to the Venedotian code of
laws, a body of about sixteen strangers (a maenol) had to contribute in
produce to their chief :—

“Tn WINTER.

“ A three-year-old swine, a vessel of butter 5 handbreadths in depth and
three in breadth, a vat full of bragot nine handbreadths in depth diagonally,
a thrave of oats of one band for provender, 26 loaves of the best bread grown
on the land... .

“Tx SUMMER,

“ A three-year-old wether, a dish of butter, 26 loaves, and a cheese of one
milking of all the cows in the trey” (} a maenol).

On the other hand, a contribution from a similar number of tribesmen

was

2? Quoted in Seebohm’s Tribal System in Wales from Ancient T.aws of Wales, i, 199,

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. Si lek

a cow or ox,a full vat of mead 9 handbreadths in its depth diagonally and
as much in breadth, seven thraves of oats of one band for provender, a
three-year-old swine, a salted flitch of 3 fingerbreadths in thickness, a vessel
of butter 5 handbreadths in depth, not heaped, and 3 in breadth.”

Of the servile class little is known excepting that they consisted chiefly
of deserters from other tribes, criminals, and their descendants. They were
people with no pedigree and therefore unlikely to get much mention in
any document. They were the property of the chiefs and higher tribes-
men and lived in huts or cubicles about their masters’ houses. They
performed the most menial services: they were horse-boys, errand-boys,
messengers, swine-herds, and so on; and, in the case of a chief with a home-
farm, they were his farm-labourers. Many of them had a garden in which
to grow food and vegetables.

It need scarcely be pointed out that, as each full tribesman and aspirant
had only about four acres of arable land, of which it is unlikely that more-
than two were under crop at one time, and, as the average crop, reckoned in
wheat, could scarcely have been more than ten or twelve bushels to the acre,”
the tribesmen must have depended very largely upon the produce of their
flocks and herds. Nor is it likely that their farming was good enough to
make wheat their vhief crop; while oats and, in some eases, barley, with less
trouble and care, would have yielded them an equivalent grain-supply.
Judging by the data collected in Seebohm’s books, oats were the chief grain-
crop. One or two quotations from Giraldus Cambrensis, a relative of
some of the men that came over to Ireland with Strongbow, who wrote
in the twelfth century, will show the case to have been as suggested :—
“In the months of May and April only the soil is once ploughed for oats,
and again in the summer a third time, and in winter for wheat. Almost
all the people live upon the produce of their herds, with oats, milk, cheese
and butter; eating flesh in larger proportions than bread.*.. .”

“The higher class go to battle mounted on swift and generous steeds,
which their country produces; but the greater part of the people fight
on foot, on account of the marshy nature and unevenness of the soil.*

“They neither inhabit towns, villages, nor castles, but lead a solitary
life in the woods, on the borders of which they do not erect sumptuous
palaces, nor lofty stone buildings, but content themselves with small huts
made of the boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour
and expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year. They have

Quoted in Seebohm’s ‘l'ribal System in Wales from Ancient Laws of Wales, i, 197.
2 See article ‘‘ Agriculture’’ in Science in Modern Life. vol. v, p. 8.
3 Giraldus Cambrensis, Bohn’s edn., p. 490. 4 Thid., vp. 491.

R.1.A. PROG., VOL. XXXI, Cc i)

5 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

neither orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both when given
to them. The greater part of their land is laid down in pasture; little is
cultivated, a very small quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a still
smaller is sown. They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their ploughs;
the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he falls down, is frequently
exposed to danger from the refractory oxen.’

“The nation is, aboveall others, addicted to the digging up of boundary
ditches, removing the limits, transferring landmarks, and extending their
territory by every possible means. So great is their disposition towards this
common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their hereditary right,
those lands which are held under lease, or at will, on condition of planting,
or by any other title, even although indemnity had been publicly secured on
oath to the tenant by the lord proprietor of the soil.’?

At this stage it may be remarked that it is doubtful how far improve-
ments in agricultural methods were possible under the Welsh or any other
tribal system. The Welsh were not indeed forced by congestion from pasture
to tillage before the Conquest forced individual ownership upon them; and
to that extent therefore a chance of showing whether their farming would
have improved was not given them. But, even if they had got the chance,
the conditions under which they lived rendered great agricultural develop-
ments impossible. Each tribe was ready to fly at every other, unless when
a number combined against a common enemy. Thus, security of tenure, one
of the first essentials to improvement, did not exist for many tribes. Nor,
because of frequent removals to fit in with the family system of inheritance,
did security of tenure and temptation to improvement exist for the individual
tribesmen. It may be remarked also that, at the present day, where tribal
systems or even village systems exist, agriculture is usually in a comparatively
backward condition.

As a mere matter of curiosity, let us quote a few random passages from
Leland’s Itinerary, written about 1536-39, to show how the old inclination
for pasture and the tribal setting out of holdings lingered on in Wales
long after the tribal system was broken down:—In Ventland “ The country
is also sumwhat montayneus, and welle replenished with woodes, also very
fertyle of corne, but men there study more to pastures the which be wel
inclosed.

“Cairarvonshire about the shore hath reasonable good corne, as abouth a
myle upland from the shore on to Cairayon. Then more upwarde be Eryri
Hills, and in them is very little corne, except otes in sum places, and a little

barle, but scantly rye.

1 Giraldus Cambrensis, p. 505. 2 [bid., p. 512,

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 19

“Tse Dulesse is good for corne as whete, rye, peason and benes.

“ There is no place yn al these commotes where the people dwelle vicatim
but al sparsim.”?

The polity of the Celts in Ireland had its origin in the same source as that
of the Celts in Wales. It was just another branch of the same tree, only it
lived till it was four or five centuries older, and probably, in consequence, was
somewhat different in the end of its days. From the point of view of our
present inquiry it may be suggested that time seems to have increased the
power of the Celtic chiefs in Ireland. Many of them armed their servile
class—fuidhirs as they were called—and through them not only attained a
greater ascendancy over the free tribesmen, but also acquired private owner-
ship in land. It was thus possible for agriculture to have made some advance
on the lands in the absolute possession of the chiefs, provided always that
there were no other circumstances to retard it.

But before coming closer to the Irish tribal system, it may be observed
that it had already survived at least two disintegrating attacks before it
finally succumbed to those of Elizabeth and James. The earlier was that of
the Norsemen.2 While the first of these were filibusters and plunderers
who were eager, as has been said frequently, to avenge upon Christianity the
terrible wrongs done to themselves and their religion by Charlemagne, the
later Norsemen came in with the intention of settling and holding the land,
just as they did in England and Scotland. But, although they raided and
ravaged it, divided it up into sections for purposes of government and taxation,*
and even gave Norse endings to the names of the four provinces—Leighinster,
Mumbhaster, Uladster, and Kunnakster‘—they were unable to hold the interior
permanently. Their interests lay in too many lands, and their strength was
dissipated in too many conquests at the same time. In Ireland the power of
the Norsemen was eventually confined to the cities they had built and to the
districts around them—Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Limerick, and so on—
and their energies were eventually turned to trade and commerce, by which
they became the intermediaries between the tribes of the interior and the
inhabitants of Britain and Europe. But it must not be forgotten that, just as
in the Highlands of Scotland, while only fragments of their language and civili-

1 These quotations are from oulmin Smith’s edition, published 1906.

2 Meaning roughly Ostmen, Danes, Norsemen, and Swedes, and the Saxons driven into Denmark
by Charlemagne.

5 «Tmar (and his sons) ordained kings and chiefs, stewards and bailiffs in every territory, and in
every chieftanry after that, and he levied the roya rent. Andsuch was the oppressiyeness of the tribute
and rent of the foreigners over all Erinn at large, and generally, that there was a king from them over
eyery territory, and a chief over chieftainry, and an abbot over every church, and a steward over
every village, and a soldier in every house.’’—Wars of the Gaedhil with the Gaill, p. 49.

* Halliday’s Scandinavian Antiquities of Dublin, p. 135.

C2

5 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

zation remain, the Norsemen left a very large share of their bone and sinew
to be mingled with the Celtic population. In evidence thereof we might cite
the physiognomy and build of the population in many parts of Ireland,
particularly on the “fingers” of Kerry and Cork; the presence until recent
years, especially near the Shannon and towards the north, and in spite of
severe competition, of many of the hornless breed of cattle which were
introduced by the Norsemen; the presence of a very unusual number of dun-
coloured horses (still exceedingly common in Norway) in the West of Ireland
as well as in the Highlands of Scotland; and the peculiar arrangement
of some villages to be seen, again, more especially in Kerry and west Cork.
To these might be added the likeness of the folk-tunes of Ireland to those
of the Highlands of Scotland and Scandinavia.?

The other disintegrating element affecting the Irish tribal system was
the Anglo-Norman invasion, the chief effect of which, from our present
point of view, was to divide Iveland into three parts for four hundred years.
The smallest part was the English Pale, whose boundaries were somewhat
uncertain and inconstant, but which was inhabited for the most part by English
settlers, who spoke English, who lived under English law, and whose feudal lord
was the King of England himself. After the invasion it was agreed between
King Henry II and Strongbow that while “ Dublin and all the other port towns,
with the lands adjoiming, should be handed over to the king. . . the earl and
his heirs should hold all other conquests of him and his heirs.”$

The largest part was that over which the Normans were made the
feudal lords under the king, namely the southern half of Ireland from
Louth to Galway, with the exception of the Pale. English settlers were
introduced to this part of the country, but never at once in very large
numbers; and, in time, they and their feudal lords adopted the speech
and some part of the customs and laws of the Irish. The third part was
all that was left to the north, which was always inhabited by people of
Irish race and speech, who lived under Irish laws and customs, with the
occasional exception of narrow strips of English and Scotch settlers on the
coasts of Antrim and Down.

It will be most convenient to consider the purely Celtic position first.
Just as in Wales, there were two main classes of people, the free and the non-
free, the tribesmen and the non-tribesmen, the landed and the landless. Of
the tribesmen there were many grades; but for our purpose they may be

1 See “‘ The Scandinavian Origin of the Hornless Cattle of the British Isles,’’ Scient. Proc.
Royal Dublin Society, 1909.

2In the summer of 1910 Professor Marstrander heard Irish songs sung to tunes like those of
Norway on the Blaskets.

° Bagwell’s Ireland under the Tudors, yol. i, p. 46.

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 21

divided into two, the nobles and the commons. From the nobles were drawn
the kings, princes, chiefs and leaders generally; while the commons were
the farmers. There were tribes and families, just as in Wales, and each
tribe, so long as it was not subject to another, controlled the land in its own
country. The land was of two kinds, tribal and non-tribal. Of the tribal
land a part was set aside for the chief) another for his successor (the tanist)
and the rest was divided among the tribesmen. These were grouped
together in families, whose binding and controlling functionary was the
oldest member, theoretically the great-grandfather of the youngest generation
of tribesmen. When a young tribesman became entitled to a farm, this had
to be found for him alongside his father’s and his brothers’. If all the land
beside his father’s and his brothers’ farms were already occupied by uncles
and cousins, then either the uncles and cousins or the fathers and brothers
had to move along a little so as to let the young tribesman into his proper
position. Thesame kind of movement took place when tribesmen died. So,
the family land was constantly expanding and contracting, the tribesmen
were frequently moving from one place to another, and no man was sure to
hold the same land for more than two or three years. Outside the farm
land, there was a common grazing in which all had their share.

The non-tribal land was all in the possession of the nobility. At what
stage or time private ownership in land arose it would be difficult to say;
but it was a natural development of the tribal system in Celtic Ireland and
Britain, just as feudalism was a natural development of the village or ‘ mark’
system in northern Europe. Congestion and the desire to possess other land
produced warfare ; warfare produced military leaders and their “companions ”;
and the military leaders made themselves private landowners. In time
ownership was not confined to the military, but was extended to others
who had done signal service of one kind or another. Joyce thus describes
the private landowners in Ireland: “Most of these were faiths, or nobles, of
the several ranks; and some were professional men, such as physicians
judges, poets, historians, artificers, &c., who had got their lands as stipends
for their professional services to the chief, and in whose families it often
remained for generations.”

The non-tribal land was worked in two ways. Hither the owner retained
it in his own hands and worked it by the non-free men who had come under
his power, or he let it to another kind of man, the bo-aire (cattle chief) who

1 The Irish chiefs did not succeed each other in strict heredity, but were chosen by the clan
from their nobility. When a chief died, the tanist stepped into his shoes, and a new tanist was
chosen.

? Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. i, p. 187.

5 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

was a commoner of somewhat better standing than the farmer tribesman.
‘The non-free people were of three classes, ... the Bothach!, the Sencleithe,
and the Fudir.1 The persons belonging to the first two were herdsmen,
labourers, squatters on waste lands, horse-boys, hangers on, and jobbers of
various kinds—all poor and dependent.’ . .. “A fudir was commonly a
stranger, a fugitive from some other territory, who had by some misdeed,
or for any other reason, broken with his tribe—who had become ‘kinwrecked,’
as they expressed it in Wales—and fled from his own chief to another who
permitted him to settle on a portion of the unappropriated commons land.”

The fudirs were of two kinds, a higher and a lower, a saer or free fudir
and a daer or bond fudir. The former were those who were “free from
crime, and who, coming voluntarily into the district, were able to get
moderately favourable terms when taking land from the chief,’* Some of
them, therefore, grew wealthy. But the latter—the daer fudirs—“were
escaped criminals, captives taken in battle or raids from other districts or
other countries, convicts respited from death, persons sentenced to fine and
unable to pay, purchased slaves, &c.”°

It was through the fudirs that the nobles enhanced and maintained their
position as landowners, and curtailed the powers of the ordinary tribesmen.
“The settlement of fudirs was disliked by the community and discouraged by
the Brehon law: for it curtailed the commons land; and while it tended to
lower the status of the tribe, it raised the power of the chief, who in cases of
dispute could bring all his fudirs into the field. Any social disturbance,
such as rebellion, civil war, &., in which many were driven from their homes
and beggared, tended to increase the number of the fudirs.’”

The bo-aires who rented non-tribal land were, like the farmers of tribal
land, the non-noble members of the tribe who, in one way or another, had
accumulated some wealth in cattle. They may also have held a share of
tribal land—whether they did so is not clear—but, if they did, they drew
their chief livelihood from pasturing cattle on privately owned land rented
from the nobles, as well as by lending out stock to the poorer farmers.’

But although we can now get some conception of the Brehon land system,
thanks chiefly to the patience and perseverance of O'Donovan and O’Curry,
it is not possible to descend to what might be called the finer agricultural

1 These names are still used in the north-east of Scotland to describe men of indifferent stature
and character in the one case and efficiency in the other.

2 Joyce, vol. i, p. 162. 3 Ibid., vol. i, p. 163. 4 Tbid., vol. i, p. 163.

5 Thid., vol. i, p. 164. ® Tbid., vol. i, p. 164.

7'The aboye statement as to the system of land-tenure is drawn chiefly from O’ Donovan and
O’Curry’s introduction and notes to the Brehon Laws, and from Maine, Seebohm, and Joyce, as
well as from Spenser and Davies.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 28

details. That part of the work has not yet been subjected to close research ;
and so we are limited to general statements, some of which can carry no more
than inferential value. We cannot say, with even approximate accuracy
what proportion of the land, tribal or non-tribal, was tilled; how much the
spade was used and how much the plough; how many stones of grain were
sown and how many harvested; how many stock were kept or how many
stones of beef or gallons of milk were produced to the acre. We can only
state what the times were likely to have allowed and how much it was
possible for the Brehon framework to contain, and then check our statements
by such contemporary references as can be found to the point.

At the time the Brehon laws were still operative in the northern half of
Treland—say, till 1600—the following field-crops were common in western
Europe :—wheat, oats, barley and bere, rye, beans, and peas; while flax was
grown widely in small patches.* Beans and peas are not mentioned in
Brehon Ireland. But, if we assume that the translators have got the true
English equivalents, and that the dates at which the old Irish words were in
use are truly fixed, then, judging from “The Vision of Mac Conglinne,” the
rest of the crops mentioned above were known in Ireland in the twelfth

* Nore sy Mr. E. C. R. Axmstrone, National Museum, Dublin :—

The Royal Irish Academy’s collection contains a number of bronze sickles found in various parts
of Ireland. In shape they vary from a short angular impiement with a slightly curved blade
63 inches long, and a socket an inch and a half high to a curved diminutive bronze representation of
the modern iron reaping-hook 7 inches round the convex edge. All the sickles in the R.I.A.
collection have a socket for the insertion of the handle, but recently a mould for a sickle has been
found in Co. Antrim, which is not socketed, and resembles the examples found on the Continent. It
may certainly be dated at 1000 n.c. The other might be two centuries later. Sir John Evans
(‘Ancient Bronze Implements,” 1881, p. 194) suys:—‘‘ Sickles are the only undoubtedly agricultural
implements in bronze with which we are acquainted in this country. Already in the Stone Period
the cultivation of cereals for food appears to have been practised.”” In ‘* Ancient Stone Implements,”’
2nd edition, 1897, p. 358, the same author says: ‘‘ 1 am inclined to think that these curved flint
knives may not impossibly have supplied the place of sickles or reaping-hooks, whether for cutting
grass to serve as provender or bedding, or for removing the ears of corn from the straw. We know
that amongst the inhabitants 0: the Swiss Lake-dwellings some who were unacquainted with the use
of metals had already several domesticated animals, and cultivated more than one kind of cereal ;
and it is not unfair to infer the same was the case in Britain.”’

* Nore By Prorressor Cart ManrsrranpDrEr :—

The question as to the kinds of grains cultivated by the Celtic race in the British Isles in early
times, can only be settled un linguistic and archaeological grounds, where there is a lack of literary
tradition. Celtic archaeology is still in its infancy, still awaiting the master-mind capable of compre-
hending and utilizing the many branches necessary to one who would investigate the history of
West and Middle Europe in prehistoric times. And as to the literary tradition, it takes us, here as
elsewhere, back to comparatively recent times only. Nor does philology invariably provide a
reliable base for investigation, partly owing to the scarcity of the material, and partly because of its
unreliability or lack of verification, as for instance where the name of a grain has merely the support
of a grammarian. Moreover almost all Gaelic names of grains are unconnected not aly with
Britannic, but with all the related Indo-European tongues.

Comparatively Old-Ivish sources furnish the following names of barley, rye, and various kinds of
wheat and oats :—

5 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

century, together with several others, including one for which the English
equivalent is unknown :—“The eight kinds of grain thou must not spare,
O Mac Conglinne, wheresoever they are offered thee, viz., rye (secul), wild-
oats (serudn), beare (maclan) buckwheat (riadan), wheat (cruithnecht), barley

Wuear: eruthnecht, the name extant to the present day.
tuirenn.
dag .i. cruthnecht, Cormac (an old grammarian).
A special sort of wheat is called s~ada@n (-an, not -dn as proved by the Book of
Leinster, 150a2), glossed by eruithnecht ruadh ‘‘ved wheat’’ by the grammarian
O’ Davoren (cp. with the same meaning dervg-chruithnecht in the Félire Oengusso),
and identified by him with maol-chruithnecht, which latter certainly expresses the
same as eruithnecht maol, Brehon Laws, v, 222, 223.
Oats: corce, still extant.
mailan wilchi (sic leg.), Thesaurus Paleohibernicus, ii, 48, 26 (Philargyrus), which is
probably identical with Middle-Irish mdelan, which Kuno Meyer in his edition of
Aislinge Meic Conglinne—I do not know on what authority—renders by ‘ beare.’
serbhan. For the meaning of this rare word we have to depend on the scholia of the
grammarians. O’Clery assigns to it the meaning coirce ‘ oats,’ whilst the grammarian
of H. 3. 18 throws out the suggestion ‘a certain kind of grain, probably oats’
(p. 637d). serban disappeared early from the spoken language.

Baxter: eorna, the usual word from earliest times and still extant.

Rye: secal, mod. seagal, still in use.

The meaning of fidbach is quite uncertain. Originally it probably indicated a wild plant, for it
cannot be disassociated from the u-stem jidu ‘a wood.’

Of all these names corce only seems common throughout Celtic, corresponding to Welsh ceirch,
Corn. keirch Cruthnecht and dag ave quite unaccounted for; the similarity in sound between
cruthnecht and Cruthne ‘ Pictland,’ Cruthnech ‘ Pictish, a Pict’ is remarkable, and the possibility of
an original meaning ‘Pictish grain’ must receive consideration. Connexion between eorna and
Sanskrit yava ‘ grain, esp. barley,’ Gr. ea, horsefodder, in Homer, is extremely doubtful. Neither is
the comparison of ¢uixenn with Armenian covean conyincing. Somewhat sounder is the comparison
of corce with the synonymous North-Germanic hagran- (Finnish loanword kakra): the former points
to *kor/io, the latter to ~kokron-. Secal originates from Lat. secale, usually regarded as a Gaulish
loanword. Of the remaining names, rwadan and maelan (both -dn) are derivatives of the adjectives
ruad ‘ved’ and mdel‘ bald.’ Likewise serban is in some way relative to serd ‘bitter, acrid, sour,’
although I am not clear as to its precise bearing. The final an is probably long as in ruadan. I
should lay no stress on the doubtful occurrence in the Annals of Ulster, anno 650.

From the above we may conclude that wheat, oats, barley, and rye were familiar to the inhabi-
tants of ancient Ireland as is further proved by numerous references in earlier and later texts. For the
question in hand it is of the utmost importance that we should fix definitely the age of the recognized
names of grains. The undoubted connection of Irish corce: Welsh ceirch, proves the familiarity of
the Celts with the cultivation of oats before crossing the Channel at the beginning of the Iron Age.
Similarly such words as cruthnecht, tuirenn, corna must date back to prehistoric times, as they are
quite isolated in Irish—had they been borrowed in the historic period their source would have been
traceable. I consider it highly probable that the Celts when leaving the Continent were familiar not
only with oats, but also with at least wheat and barley. It is quite unlikely that the advanced Celtic
race in Middle and West Europe should have been ignorant of these cereals, grown by neighbouring
tribes all around them. Wheat and barley are well known from the Swiss lake-dwellings, dating
from the Stone Age; the latter is also known from Italian and Scandinavian finds of the same
period. Rye was, according to Pliny, cultivated by the Taurini in the Alps, and the common
Germanic-Slayonic name for it proves its high antiquity in North, Middle, and East Europe. The
Germans, according to the same author, also cultivated oats, and archeological finds date from the
bronze age. We have too long entertained the idea of prehistoric Europe as portioned off by
insurmountable barriers permitting of no communication. Later research reveals more and more how
multitudinous were the streams of culture which inundated Europe from the east and south.

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 26

(corna) fidbach, oats (corca).”' Flax is not mentioned directly, but someone
is described as “putting a linen apron about him,” and there is a reference
to rye: “I advanced vehemently ... like ..a deer to the cropping of
winter-rye (gemshecoil) in the month of June.”*

Before the evidence from “MacConglinne” can be accepted, however, a
number of points have to be considered, of which these might be mentioned
as suggestive :—

(i) Is the mention of buckwheat by the author of such a work as
“MacConglinne” proof that buckwheat was grown in Ireland in the twelfth
century? Or is even the circumstantial reference to rye proof that rye was
grown? Buckwheat is grown in western Europe, most of all, perhaps, in
Brittany, whence, if it had been grown there long, it might have come to
Ireland. But does any other early author mention it in Ireland? Rye was
not grown by the early Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans. It spread from
eastern Europe, and is first mentioned among the Latins by Pliny‘ as having
been grown by the Taurini. They called it asia, but Pliny called it secale.
Do the Latin name secale and the Celtic names, segu/ in Irish, seca/ in Breton,
and cekela or zekhalea in Basque indicate (a) that the Celts brought rye
westward with them from Central Europe, (0) that they got it through Roman
channels in later times, or (¢) that they got it in medieval times and gave it
the Latin name ?°

(ii) Is the translator justified in identifying serwdén, a sourish grain, with
wild oats; maelan, a sweetish grain, with bere; and rzaddn, a reddish grain,
with buckwheat? What is usually known as the wild oat, Avena fatua, is
not worth gathering. Another inferior oat, Avena strigosa, was cultivated till
the eighteenth century in Scotland and the north of Ireland, and is still found
in some parts as a cornfield weed. This oat may be meant; but it is not sour.
Buckwheat is not reddish : it is rather brownish.

(iii) Did erwithnecht, wheat, mean the same grain ten or fifteen hundred
years ago that it means now? ‘The word originally meant ‘ the Picts, whence
it came to mean the Pictish corn.’ If Pytheas is to be trusted at all, the
Pictish corn was millet (kéyypoc¢). Can cruathnecht have been transferred
at some time from the one grain to the other ? ‘Corn’ to a southern Englishman
is wheat, to a Scotsman oats, to an American maize. In view of the fact that
there is frequent reference to “red wheat” in Irish, it ought to be mentioned
that one variety of millet, Panicum sanguinewm, has reddish grain: much
redder than the grain of the modern “red” wheat.

1 Dr. Kuno Meyer’s translation, p. 98. 2 Tbid., p. 62. 3 Tbid., p. 84.
- 4 xviii, 141. 5 See De Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants.
® This is on the authority of Professor Marstrander.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. D 5

5 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The settlement of such questions as these and others they may suggest
must be left in the combined hands of future philologists, historians, archeo-
logists, botanists, and agriculturists. Meantime we can at least say which
were the chief crops and products under the Brehon system.

One of the features of the Brehon system was the farmer’s insecurity of
tenure of the cultivable land. He was sure of such land; but, because of the
changes arising through accessions and deaths, he was not sure how long he
would hold the same piece. He was in similar uncertainty as to the site of
his dwelling which, in consequence, was built with a view to temporary
oceupation. Some tribes seem to have arranged for a biennial or triennial
re-allotment; but even this is a short tenure. Add to this the frequent inter-
tribal aggressions and contests, and it can be seen that the conditions necessary
for wide and careful tillage did not exist. Land naturally dry and suitable
might have been tilled and sown with grain; but the essentials necessary to
the increase of such land, viz., drainage and reclamation, could not be
undertaken with great hope. At the same time, the possibility of having to
moye frequently from one farm to another was all in favour of crops using
the ground for a short time only and against such a crop as wheat which had
to be ploughed for and sown the one year and harvested the next. Conse-
quently, where crops were grown at all, we can look only for oats and barley,
but especially for oats, since that crop can thrive better in land indifferently
drained and tilled. But,above all, we must look for grazing and herding as
the mainstay of the people’s existence.

And so we find it. Indeed, it is very doubtful whether the northern or
Brehon half of Ireland had made much material advance since Strongbow’s
invasion. This we find on the authority of Sir John Davies, James the First’s
Attorney-General for Ireland, who lived in the country from 1603 till 1616,
was elected Member of Parliament for Fermanagh in 1612, and was Speaker of
the Irish House of Commons from 1613 to 1615. Carrying out his duties, he
“ visited all the provinces of that kingdom in sundry journeys and circuits” ;
and it fell to him to take part in ending the Brehon customs and settling on
the spot which lands were to be given to the Irish in Ulster and which to
James's “planters” from England and Scotland.

For a description of Ireland in Strongbow’s time we are indebted to
Giraldus Cambrensis, whom we have already quoted as to Wales. He came
to Ireland with Henry’s son John, afterwards King John; and from his
description we may make such quotation as is necessary to give some

idea of the agriculture of the country as he saw it:—“The Irish are a rude
people, subsisting on the produce of their cattle only... . This nation...

lead the same life their fathers did in the woods and open pastures, neither

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 27

willing to abandon their old habits or learn anything new. They, therefore,
only make patches of tillage ; their pastures are short of herbage; cultivation
is very rare, and there is scarcely any land sown.”?

Four hundred years later, in his longest tract, dealing with the country
as a whole, Davies tells us that he had considered, among other things, “ what
were the true causes .. . why the manners of the mere (7c. unmixed) Irish
are so little altered since the days of King Henry the Second, as appeareth
by the description made by Giraldus Cambrensis.’”’ In his letter to Salisbury
on the plantation of Ulster he justifies the “planting” of Englishmen and
Scotsmen alongside the Irish by saymg of these last: “ If themselves were
suffered to possess the whole country, as their septs have done for many
hundred of years past, they would never, to the end of the world, build
houses, make townships or villages, or manure’ or improve the land as it ought
to be”; and he also says that in Cavan “the habitations of the people are
so wild and transitory as there is not one fixed village in all this county.”

No doubt there were variations in different parts of the country ; but, on
the whole, the proportion of tilled land to grass was very small.° In the Brehon
laws, we find oats and barley indicated with some frequency, but wheat seldom ;
and, more than likely, it was grown only in the south. The Brehon laws
ran in the south as well as in the north, although intermittently. The plough
and the spade were both in use; and, while we read of farmers combining’
to supply oxen to haul a plough,® we also find that “all over the north, at the
beginning of the seventeenth century, the plough was tied to the horse’s tail.”
Fynes Moryson tells us “the wild Irish do not thresh their oats, but burn
them from the straw.” The quern was in common use for grinding grain.

With regard to stock, a few points only need be mentioned. Many of
the wealthier men—chiefs and rich bo-aires—were in the habit of letting out
cattle to the poorer. The cattle were grazed chiefly on the commons; but a
farmer might graze them on his cultivable land if he pleased, so long as he
kept them away from his neighbours’ corn. There were tribesmen who
wandered about with their stock, renting land from landowners for shori
periods.!! There were also tribes who had grazings to which they migrated
in early summer and returned to their winter quarters in autumn.”

1 Bohn’s edition, p. 124. 2 Ireland under Elizabeth and James the First, ed. Morley, p. 218.
3 i.e. cultivate. + Treland under Elizabeth and James, p. 387.

> Ibid., p. 374. § Bonn’s englische Kolonisation in Irland, yol. i, p. 82.

7 Ancient Laws of Ireland, ii, 359. 8 Four oxen usually hauled the plough.

® Quoted by Bonn from Barnaby Rich. The same practice is spoken to not only by Arthur
Young (1775-78), but also by Wakefield (1812).

10 Treland under Elizabeth and James, p. 427.

1 Ancient Laws, iii, p. 131, and Bonn i, 47. 2 Thid., i, p. 133.

5 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Such having been the state of affairs in the north till the beginning of
the seventeenth century, we can now turn to the south; and in dealing
with the south, as indeed with the whole country, one fact above all others
must be kept well in mind, namely, that the Norman “conquest” was not
really a conquest,’ but an invasion. It was the beginning of a long contest
between Normans and English united with feudal law and custom on the one
hand and Irish united with Brehon law and custom on the other.

Dermot MacMurrough, the Brehon King of Leinster, having been deposed
by his own people, asked Henry the Second’s help to bring about his
restoration. Henry himself could not take part, but he gave Dermot leave to
contract for help within his English dominions: in return for which Dermot
“did homage and took an oath of fealty” :? a transaction which probably had
not the same meaning to Henry as to Dermot. Dermot received the
co-operation of Richard de Clare, afterwards called Strongbow, who, in
turn, enlisted in the venture a number of Normans, mostly descendants of
a Welsh princess, Nesta, some of them descendants of Henry the First and
therefore cousins in some degree to Henry the Second. Strongbow’s reward
was to be “the hand of Dermot’s only daughter and the succession to his
kingdom.”* Here, again, it is possible Dermot and Strongbow had different
ideas in their minds, for Dermot’s kingship was not hereditary but elective
according to Brehon law.

In two years, 1169-70, the Normans had captured Wexford, Dublin and
Waterford, overrun the surrounding country, and restored Dermot; and
Strongbow had been married to Dermot’s daughter. Their success was so
great that Henry saw the possibility of the Normans forestalling him by
setting up another Norman kingdom in Ireland ; and he requested Strongbow
to come back and meet him in England. Strongbow “succeeded, after much
altercation, by the address and mediation of Hervey, in appeasing the king’s
displeasure.‘ But “the earl made his peace with the king upon the terms of
renewing his oath of fealty, surrendering to him Dublin and the adjacent
cantred, with the towns on the sea-coast and all the fortresses; and
submitting to hold the rest of his conquests to him and his heirs of the king
and his heirs.”

Thus was feudal law first set up in Ireland. The king became the
immediate lord of the cities and the country round Dublin, that is of the
people best able to pay him tribute, chiefly Ostmen or Danes, and overlord
of Strongbow and the other Normans, while they became lords of all they

‘The ‘* conquest of Ireland in the twelfth century’ is an utter misnomer: Richey’s Shovt
History of the Irish People, p. 143.
* Richey, p. 144. 5Ibid., p. 145. * Giraldus Cambrensis. ® Richey, p. 143.

Clare Island Survey —Agriculture und its History. 5 29

might conquer and hold. That meant that the king became first owner of all
the land; and, while he let that over which he was immediate lord either for
knight-service or for payments in money or in kind, he let the rest to the
Norman lords upon their oath of fealty; and they in turn were expected to
sublet the land they held for knight-service or for direct payment. Primo-
geniture and the usual incidents of feudal law, such as wardship, escheat, fines
and relief followed in consequence ; and the Brehon law was annulled.

But in Ireland feudalism lacked one essential feature which elsewhere
was its mainstay. When the conqueror divided up England among his
Norman lords and knights, he retained a number of manors as his own,
and, in after-days, the knights and soldiers living on those manors were used
effectively in keeping the lords and barons true to their overlord, the king.
In Ireland, on the other hand, the king retained only the Dublin district,
which was altogether too small to keep the Norman lords in check ; and, if he
had to use force, he “had to rely upon such of the great feudal vassals as
might remain loyal... The invariable result of this policy was to kindle
a civil war and excite personal feuds in the attempt to maintain order.”?
Another Irish feature was that the Norman lords themselves, partly because
their original feudal retainers were too few, partly because they found Irish
soldiers cheaper, and partly for other reasons, fell away from feudalism and
adopted such of the Brehon laws and customs as were to their interest. At
the same time their retainers and their descendants who remained in Ireland
were absorbed in the Irish population.

Thus it was that only the country under the immediate eye of the
king’s deputy, the Pale, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably but were
never confined to an area much less than that represented by the present
counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare and Meath, was the only part of Ireland
in which feudal laws and customs continued to prevail.

It is not easy now to say for certain how the English worked the land
within the pale, because the problem has not yet been fully investigated, but,
from circumstances which will now be quoted, it can be inferred that the
system was approximately that of England during the Middle Ages.

Sir John Davies tells us that “when the English Pale was first planted
all the natives were clearly expelled, so as not one Irish family had so much
as an acre of freehold in all the five counties of the Pale.”? The incomers
were English, knowing the English system of agriculture only and likely to
establish no other. That system had originated and grown from the old
English village as a nucleus, but separate farms, demesne farms, manor

1 Richey, p. 171. * Letter to Salisbury im lreland under Elizabeth and James, p. 389.

5 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

farms, had been set up near the castle or the priory outside the village land
even before the conquest.

In Ireland, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the castle of the lord
or the knight was the apparent and necessary nucleus, with the cottages of
the lower retainers and workmen in the vicinity and the homesteads of the
rent-paying tenants each in the midst of its own farm of land. Some of
these collections of houses and homesteads would naturally become villages.
At any rate, “the English pale was planted with towns and villages.”!
Gomme cites the case of Kells and inclines to the opinion that the Danes
turned six tribal homesteads with their land into a Danish village which the
English afterwards took over.’ It is difficult to believe, however, that the
early Celtic homesteads were sufficiently definite to have been so adopted by
the Danes.

In any case the essential point for us is to know which crops were
grown by the English. No definite references to the crops grown within
the Pale can be found; but Bonn cites several to show that some of the
Normans without the restricted Pale cropped their land on the three-field
system and, therefore, grew wheat, as well as barley or oats. “Agriculture had
improved and the three-field system had taken the place of the Celtic grass
system in many places.”

For instance, the Earl of Gloucester had 4 carucates of land, that is from
400 to 480 acres, at Callan, of which 154 were wheat, 142 oats, the rest
fallow ; and at Dunfert there were 64 carucates, of which 4 were in wheat
and oats, while the rest was fallow. But to judge from its prevalence in
Arthur Young’s time, and remembering that, if it had not taken root before the
seventeenth century, it was unlikely to have been planted at all, the three-field
system was common within the Pale. Bonn points out that in Young’s time
Louth, Meath, Kildare, Carlow, King’s County, Queen’s County and Kilkenny
were the centres of grain-growing, and that in these counties the three-field
system was frequent.’ For Edward the First’s wars, grain was requisitioned
from Ireland. In 1296-97 sixteen grain ships carried 4,500 quarters of grain
from Drogheda, Dublin, Waterford and Youghal to Gascony, and for Edward’s
Scotch wars 8000 quarters of wheat, 10,000 of oats, and 2,000 of malt, and 500
head of oxen, 1,000 fat swine, and 20,000 fish were furnished by Ireland.’ In
addition, it should be noted that, for the Scotch wars, a considerable quantity
of grain was brought over from England to be milled within the Pale.’

' Carew ss., lili, p. Xvi. * The Village Community, p. 153.
3 Englische Kolonisation in Irland, i, p. 144.
4 Tbid., i, p. 118. 5 Tbid., ii, p. 248. 5 Tbid., i, p. 144.

7 The Wardrobe Accounts of Edward I (Liber Garderobe), pub. Soc. Antiquaries, 1787, pp. 271
et seq.

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 31

Outside the Pale in the South of Ireland were the two races, separate at
first but eventually amalgamated. Southward from the Pale “the colonists
occupied, in a narrow line, portions of the King’s and Queen’s Counties,
and Carlow; they held the counties of Kilkenny and Wexford, and the
eastern part of Munster; they occupied Limerick and the adjoining districts,
and their castles extended to the mouth of the Shannon. In Connaught, the
territories of the De Burgos stretched from Galway northward and eastward
over the plain portion of Connaught.”! The colonists were few, and, with their
settlements flanked by the Celtic population on several sides, sometimes well
nigh surrounded, and an entire lack of sustained support from the English

29)

headquarters, they were frequently hard pushed to maintain their position.
Left to themselves as they were, the colonists struggled for a while; but
Edward Bruce’s invasion early in the fourteenth century crippled the English
power in Ireland and hastened the amalgamation of the Normans and their
adherents with the Irish people. Naturally there resulted some kind of
compromise between the Feudal and the Brehon laws and customs. The
Normans retained primogeniture, so far, at any rate, as they themselves were
concerned, and it is probable they also retained the hold of feudal lords upon
the descendants of the original English and their land, if not also upon the
Irish, excepting that, in their case, the letting of farms among the common
tribesmen may still have been regulated by the Brehon laws.

All this, however, has been neglected by historians; and we can only
say, from our present point of view, that the English introduced the cultiva-
tion of wheat on some scale to the south of Ireland, and that, although the
reversion to tribal customs and the inter-tribal fighting which naturally
followed may have hindered its extension, it is unlikely that so valuable a crop
would be subject to anything approaching complete decline. We are not
astonished, therefore, to find an export of wheat and other grain in addition
to such things as hides and skins, cheese and butter, salt beef and fish, which
were exported from the south of Ireland during the Middle Ages.’

The foundations for the modern development of Ivish agriculture were
laid in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the planters and under-
takers of Elizabeth and James the First. The advance made since those
days could not be represented diagrammatically by a continuous straight
line. Social and political differences, and the great catastrophe of the
nineteenth century, have caused the line to bend and sag again and again ;
but, on the whole, lost ground has usually been regained and the general
direction of the line has been upward in the main. It might be asserted that,

1 Richey, p. 173. * For details see Mrs. Green’s Making of Ireland and its Undoing.

5 32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

had the Norman-English and the Irish been left alone, they might have laid a
surer foundation: but before they could have done so, some of them would
have had to set up a strong central government, which would have put an end
to intertribal rivalry and strife, and the Brehon laws would have had to be
modified. So far as we know no tribal system in the world’s history, Aryan
or other, has been conducive to agricultural advance.

The planters of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries generally followed
the direction taken by the Normans. They sat down im the flat lands in
the north and in the south, and estates were granted all over the central
plain from the Pale to Galway. For example, in the south: “The estate
of the Southern Geraldines having been confiscated, and the population almost
destroyed, an English plantation in Munster followed, as of course. In
Munster 574,628 acres were forfeited to the Crown. . . . This tract of land
was portioned out into seigniories of 12,000, 8,000, 6,000, and 4,000 acres each.
The undertakers, that is, the grantees who should undertake the planting of
a territory, were to have estates in fee-farm, at a rent of £33 6s. 8d. for estates
of 12,000 acres, to be doubled after the expiration of three years. Every
undertaker of 12,000 acres was bound to plant 86 families; to retain for his
own family 1,500 acres; for one chief farmer, 400 acres ; for two good farmers,
600 acres; for two other farmers, 400 acres; for fourteen freeholders (300
each), 4,200 acres; for forty copyholders(100 each), 4,000 acres ; for twenty
cottages and labourers, 800 acres.

“Some undertakers obtained more than one seignory. Sir Walter Raleigh
secured 42,000 acres in Cork and Waterford.”?

Later, in the north, “the lands to be planted were divided into three
proportions, the greatest, of 2,000 English acres, the middle, of 1,500, and the
least, of 1,000 each.”* . . . “The King granted estates to all, to be held by
them and their heirs. The undertakers of 2,000 acres held of him in capite ;
those of 1,500, by knight’s service, as of the Castle of Dublin; and those of
1,000 in common socage. The first were, in four years, obliged to build a
castle and a bawn; the second, in two years, a strong stone and brick house
and bawn ; and the last a bawn; timber for that purpose, as well as for their
tenants’ houses, being assigned them out of the King’s woods. The first were
obliged to plant on their lands, within three years, forty-eight able men
eighteen years old or upwards, born in England, or the inland parts of Scotland,
to be reduced to twenty families; to keep a demesne of 600 acres on their
hands; to have four fee-farmers on a hundred and twenty acres each; six

1! Richey’s Short History, p. 543.
? Quoted in Richey, p, 602, from Carte’s Life of Ormond.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 33

leaseholders on a hundred acres each; and on the rest eight families of
husbandmen, artificers, and cottagers.”!

The incomers were English and Scotch, chietly of the landowning and farming
classes. ‘They had left a country which had already made considerable advance
in agriculture—England had done so,at any rate. They had been accustomed
to the three-field system or to the more modern system of inclosed fields, on
which various crops were grown for shorter or longer periods and were then
left down to pasture. They knew about reclamation and draining and some
of the methods then in vogue to improve or keep up the fertility of the land.
Their first move, therefore, was to apply their previous knowledge and experience
to Irish land. How they did this and how necessary it was can be shown
by some quotations from Gerard Boate’s “Ireland’s Natural History,” published
by Hartlib in 1652 Boate himself had not been in Iveland, but he “got
information from his brother Arnold who lived in Ireland and from other
English in Ireland.”

Describing the soils of Ireland and their fertility, Boate says: “There be
indeed some countries in Ireland, where the ground underneath being nothing
but stones, and the good mold upon it but very thin, it is nevertheless fruitful
in corn and bringeth sweet grass in great plenty, so as sheep and other cattell
do wonderfull wel thrive there; which kind of land is very common in the
County of Galloway, and in some other Counties of Connaught, as also in
sundry parts of other Provinces. But the reason thereof is in those parts,
because the stone whereon the mould doth lye so thinly, is not Free-stone,
or any such cold material, but Lime-stone, which doth so warm the ground,
and giveth it so much strength that what it wants in depth, is thereby
recompensed.”*

Yet draining was necessary ; for, “except in the case now by us declared,
neither corn nor grass will grow kindly, where the ground, though otherwise
good, is not deep enough, as also where it hath a bad crust underneath.
From whence it commeth that in many places, where the grass doth grow
very thick and high, the same nevertheless is so unfit for the food of beasts,
that cows and sheep will hardly touch it (especially if they have been kept
in better pastures first) except that by extreme famine they be compelled
thereto; and that by reason of the coarseness and sowerness of the grass
caused by the standing still of the water, the which through the unfitness of
the neather crust, finding not a free passage downwards, maketh cold tho
good mold, and the crop and grass degenerate from its naturall goodness.

1 Quoted in Richey, p. 603, from Carte.
2 This book was republished in Dublin in ‘ A Qollection of Tracts and Treatises,’’ 1860.
5 Dictionary of National Biography.
4 Treland’s Natural History, original edition, p. 85.
R.I.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI. EK 5

5 354 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

“For the same reason the land in many paris, where otherwise the soil in
it self would be fit enough to produce good Wheat or Barley, will hardly bear
anything else but Oais or Rye, and that none of the best.”

He tells that draining of the bogs was first begun by the English: “So

that it may easily be comprehended, that whoso could dram the water, and-

for the future prevent. the gathering thereoi,might reduce most of the Bogs
in Ireland to firm land, and preserve them in that condition. But this hath
never been known io the Irish, or if it was, they never went about it, but to
the contrarie let more and more of their good land grow boggy.!

“But as the Irish have been extreme careless in this,so the English . . - .
have set their industry at work for to remedy it, and having considered the
nature oi the Bogs, and how possible it was to reduce many of them unto
good land, did some yeares since begin to goe about it all over the land, and
that with very good success.”

Then, having remarked that, but for the rebellion, many more bogs would
have been drained, he describes the process: “This draining of the Bogs
was performed in the manner following. On that side of the Bog where the
ground was somewhat sloaping, they cut a broad deep Trench, beginning
it in the firm ground, and advancing it unto the entrance of the Bog, into
which Trench the water would sink out of the next parts of the Bogs in great
abundance and that many times so suddenly, as if a great sluice had been
opened, so as the labourers were constrained to run out of it with all speed
lest the force of the water should overwhelm and carry them away. Some part
of the Bog being by this meanes grown reasonable dry within a short space of
time, opportunity thereby was ministred to advance the Trench further into
the Bog; and so by little and little they went on with it untill at last they
carryed it quite across the Bog, from the one side to the other: And having
done this, they made a great many lesser Trenches out of the main one, on
both sides of the same: the which bringing the water from all the parts of
the Bog unto the main Trench, did in a little while empty the Bog of all
its superfious moysture, and turn it into good and firm ground.”

With regard to liming and marling, two new things, he says: “The
English living in Queens-county in Leinster having seen that in sundry parts
of England and Wales, especially in Pembrokeshire, Lime was used by the
inhabitants for the manuring and inriching of their grounds, began some years
since to practise the same, and found themselves so well thereby, that in a
short time the use thereof grew very common amongst them, so as many of
them ever after used no other kind of dung.*” . ..

1 Treland’s Natural History, original edition, p. 113.
2 Ibid., p. 114. 2 [bid., p. 116. 4 Ibid., p. 96.

at ams —_

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 35

“Time is much used in the province of Munster, as in other parts of
Ireland, so far to manure the ground withall, where the sea-sand likewise is
greatly used to the same end, not only in places lying on the seaside, but even
ten, twelve, and fifteen miles into the land, whether it is carried in some
places by boats, and in others upon carts, the charges being sufficiently recom-
pensed by the profit comming from it. For they used it for the most part only
upon very poor land, consisting of cold clay, and that above half a foot deep :
which land having been three or four times plowed and harrowed (in the same
manner as is usual to be done with fallow) the sand is strawed all over very
thinly, a little before the sowing time: the which being done, that land
bringeth very good corn of all sorts, not only Rye and Oates, but even Barley
and Wheat, three yeares one after another; and having lyen the fourth year
fallow, for many years after it produceth very clean and sweet grass; whereas
formerly, and before it was thus manured, it produceth nothing but moss,
heath, and short low furze: which herbs are fired upon the ground, and the
ground stubbed, before it is plowed the first time.”

Still more interesting is Boate’s reference to marl and marling, a practice
at its height towards the end of the eighteenth century and still in vogue in
some parts of Ireland. Of marl, Boate says :—

“Tt hath from antient times been greatly used for manuring of land both
in France and England. ... The same also is stil very usual in sundry parts
of England, being of an incomparable Goodness: The which caused the
English, who, out of some of those places where Marle was used were come to
live in Ireland, to make diligent search for it, and that with good success at
last ; it having been found out by them within these few years, m severall
places ; first in the Kings-county, not far from the Shanon, where being of a
gray colour, it is digged out of the Bog: And in the County of Wexford, where
the use of it was grown very common before this Rebellion, especially in the
parts lying near the sea; where it stood them in very good steed, the land of
itself being nothing fruitfull. For although the ground (for the most part)
is a good black earth, yet the same being but one foot deep, and having under-
neath a crust of stiff yellow clay of half a foot, is thereby greatly impaired in
its own goodness. In this depth of a foot anda half next under the clay,
lyeth the Marle, the which reacheth so far downwards, that yet no where they
are come to the bottom of it. It is of a blew colour, and very fat (which as
in other ground, so in this, is chiefly perceived when it is wet), but brittle and
dusty when it is dry °

“The marle is layed upon the land, in heaps by some before it is plowed,
by others after, many letting it lye several moneths ere they plow it again,

1 Treland’s Natural History, original edition, p. 99. 2 Tbid., p. 101.

H 2

5 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

that the Rain may divide and mixe it; the Sun, Moon, and Air mellow and
incorporate it with the earth. One thousand Cart-loads goeth to one English
acre of ground...

“The good usage of the Marled-land, to keep it in heart for ever after,
doth consist, in the opinion and practise of some, in letting it ly Fallow at
convenient times, but the ordinary manner, commonly practised by the
inhabitants of the County Wexford, and counted the best by them, is, that
having sowed it five or six years together, with the richest sorts of Corn, to
wit Wheat and Barley (especially that sort which in some parts of England,
and generally in Ireland, is peculiarly called Bear, being a much richer grain
than the ordinary Barley) it being afterwards turned to pasture, whereunto it
is very fit, for as much as it bringeth very sweet grass in great abundance:
For the Marle is also used on Meddows at the first, with very good success,
improving the same wonderfully. If the Marled-land be thus used, and by
turns kept under Corn, and Grass, it keeps its fruitfulness for ever.”’. . .

“ Where the land of it self is better and richer, there after Marling, Wheat
and other Corn may be sowed, not only for ten years together, but longer.’ ...

“The Province of Connaught (by what hath been discovered) is much more
plentifull in Marle, than is Leinster, as in other Counties, so in those of
Roscoman, Slego, and Galloway, almost in every part of it. It is there of
three several colours, some being white as chalk, other gray, and some black;
but none blew, as that in the County of Wexford. It lyeth nothing deep
under the upper-ground, or surface of the earth, commonly not above half a
foot ; but its own depth is so great, that never any body digged to the bottom
of it.

“The land which they intend to Marle in this Province, is commonly plowed
in the beginning of May, and lying five or six weeks (untill it be sufficiently
dryed and mellowed by the Sun and Wind) they harrow it, and then having
brought the Marle upon it, five or six weeks after it is plowed again and a third
time about September: After which third plowing they sow it with Wheat or
Barley, whereof they have a very rich crop the next year.‘

“Land marled in that manner as we have said, may be sowed ten or
twelve yeares together ; the first eight or nine with Wheat, and Bear, or Barley,
and the remaining three or four years with Oates, afterwards the land is turned
to pasture, and having served some years in that kind, it may be Marled anew,
and made as good for corn as at first.’ . . .

“In Connaught they scarce lay the fourth part of the quantity of Marle
on the ground of what they doe in the County of Wexford.”

1 Treland’s Natural History, original edition, p. 101. * Ibid., p. 102. $ Ibid., p. 103.
4 Tbid., p. 103. 5 Thid., p. 104. ® Thid., p. 105.

Clare Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 37

These quotations show not only how the English planters set about
reclaiming and improving the land; but also that they adopted generally
the system of farming that was common upon “inclosed” farms in Britain.
But it must not be assumed that, although they introduced many improve-
ments, the planters turned Ireland from a grazing to a tillage country. Tillage
was increased very considerably, but it was only on the original Norman line
of route down from the Pale through Carlow, Wexford, Kilkenny, and Queen’s
County, and on to Tipperary and parts of Limerick and Cork that it became
outstanding. Improved methods were eventually introduced beyond the
Shannon ; but the main industry of that part of the country has always been
the raising and grazing of sheep and cattle.

The plantations in the north were different in one or two essential points.
Reclamation there was harder, for it had to be begun at the beginning; the
planters, who were chiefly from Scotland and the north of England, got
smaller estates ;' and oats were the crop by far most widely grown. Barley
and bere were grown, but very little wheat, if any at all.

Having begun by reclaiming and improving the land, the planters next
imported stock from England. If they were goimg to farm as they had
been accustomed, bigger and stronger cattle to breed bullocks for the
plough, for one thing, were a pressing necessity. The cattle in Ireland up
to the time of the plantations were nearly all of the little black Celtic race
now represented by the Kerries. There was a hornless ingredient, brought
in by the Norsemen ; but there is no strong proof that there were others. The
Normans were not the men to introduce cattle. The early colonists may
have brought some over; but, in their day, there was no special inducement,
because the cattle in England and Wales were not, as a rule, larger than
those in Ireland. England herself had begun to import the larger kinds
of cattle from Holland and Flanders not so very long before the times of the
Trish plantations; and it was only about that time that the value of the larger-
sized bullocks for ploughs and waggons became known. Of the planters’
importations there are now no details to be found. That they had begun
before 1580 might be inferred from a letter of that date, in which Sir Nicholas
White, the Master of the Rolls, says: “The native cattle were black” ;? and
that some numbers were being brought in by 1611 may be inferred from a
Government regulation of that date: “For 2000 acres, and so rateably
the undertaker for the first year may carry 20 cows, 2 bulls, and 20 young
store cattle; 100 ewes and 6 rams; 20 mares, horses, and colts; and as many

1 Did the comparative poyerty of the northern landowners throw a larger share of the work of
reclamation upon the tenants, and did this lead eventually to the Ulster tenant right custom ?
* Housman and Sinclair’s History of the Devon Breed of Cattle, Ist edn., p. 21.

5 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

swine as he will (not exceeding 10). But so many were brought in, or so
many of the kind brought in were bred from, that, by the middle of the
eighteenth century, nearly all the cattle im the low-lying and more fertile
parts of the country were Longhorns or Longhorn crosses—the breed of the
English midlands and north-west. Cattle were brought to the south from the
south of England, and perhaps also to the north from Scotland; but these
were in no great number.”

In the same way a new race of sheep was brought into Ireland, and these
spread over practically the same area as the Longhorn cattle. Their
descendants, the Roseommons, unlike the Longhorn cattle, still survive in
the country, although their territory is now smaller than it once was.

The history of the horse in Ireland is, so far, only conjectural. The Celtic
pony was in the island in very early times. There is high probability that the
Norsemen brought in horses as well as cattle. The Norman horses were
larger and stronger than those in the country before them,and, to judge from the
Bayeux tapestry, contained many of the features of the Suffolk Punch and
the older Hackneys of the east of England.* The horses brought in by the
planters would approximate to the Norman horse, excepting that they would
have a cross of the “Great War Horse” of the Middle Ages. © In the eighteenth
century, probably also in the seventeenth, the kind of horse that produced the
taodern thoroughbred came to Ireland in considerable numbers.

The next changes in Irish agriculture might be expected to have crept in
about the middle of the eighteenth century, shortly after Tull’s and
Townshend’s work had begun to tell in England. But the general result
of that work was scarcely the same in Ireland asin Britain. The two new
crops, turnips and red clover, arrived in the eighteenth century; but “the new
husbandry,” as it was called, was not adopted widely for many years. It meant
not only the abandonment of the fallow and the “ inclosed ” system of eropping,
and the growing of two new crops, but it meant also the adoption of drill eulti-
vation, new and more complicated machinery, and greater care and attention
to the details of cultivation. The four-course system, modified frequently to
suit local conditions—as, for stance, by sowing grass-seeds along with the
clover and leaving that crop down for several years—spread widely and
quickly in Britain and had reached as far north as Morayshire by the time

! Trish State Papers, 1611-14, p. 43.

2See ‘*The Origin of the Dexter-Kerry Breed of Cattle”? and ‘The Scandinavian Origin
of the Hornless Cattle of the British Isles,’’ Sci. Proc., Royal Dublin Society.

3 The data on this question haye already been collected by the writer of this paper, but have
not yet been published.

4 Question: Is what is now called the ‘Old Irish Draught’-horse related to the Norman
horse *

Clure Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 39

Arthur Young came to Ireland; but that writer saw it only in one or two
places in Ireland. He mentions that Lord Shelbourne, at Rathan, in Queen’s
County, had a Norfolk bailiff “who brought with him a plowman, plough,
harrow and tackle” ;1 he describes Mr. Bushe’s farming at Kilfaine, in Kil-
kenny, and says “this is the Norfolk husbandry ”;* and at Castle Martyr, in
Cork, he found a man who had adopted it only to give it up again: “Lord
Shannon’s expression of this mode to me was excellent, £ read myself into
at and worked myself out of it. He tried it with wheat, horse and hand-hoeing
it perfectly, and got a very fine crop; an unexceptionable one for the mode,
but the practice was not equal to the common way, while the expense,
trouble, and attention, were endless, so that he was convinced, even by his
success, that it could not be a beneficial mode of culture. For turneps also
he prefers very much the broad-cast mode, and never began the drill method
but as an ease of hoeing.”*

But all over Ireland, in Young’s time, and even in Wakefield’s time, the
rotations were generally copies or modifications either of the old three-field
system or of the “inclosed ” systems of cropping in England or Scotland. A
few samples from Young will indicate this. Let us take the Pale counties
first :—

At Luttrell’s Town, Co. Dublin, the rotation was fallow, wheat, oats ;
but “sometimes 1 Fallow. 2 Wheat. 3 Oats. 4 Clover. 5 Wheat. 6 Oats.
They plough four times for wheat,’ on clover but once, feed their clover the
year through. - No sain-fome. Many potatoes in the ridgeway 7 feet broad,
and the furrows 34.”6

At Celbridge, Co. Kildare: Fallow, wheat, oats, oats. “A little barley is
cultivated. They plough three or four times for wheat. Turneps were sown
in fields 30 years ago, but left off on account of the poor stealing them.”

At Slane, Co. Meath: Fallow, wheat, barley or oats, oats. “Also 1 Fallow,
2 wheat, 3 barley, 4 oats, 5 clover, for Two years, 6 Barley.”*

At Athy, Co. Kildare, “the common course of crops” was “1 Fallow.
2 Wheat, yielding 7 to 9 barrels. 3 Barley, 15 barrels. 4 Oats, 15 to 20.
5 Left for grass.” ®

From Athy to Carlow, “the courses are: 1 Fallow. 2 Wheat, yielding 5 or
6 barrels. Also 1 Fallow. 2 Wheat. 3 Oats, and grass seeds, or left to turf
itself,°

In Louth: 1 Fallow, 2 Wheat, 3 Oats, 4 Barley, 5 Oats, 6 “Grass seeds
sown, or left waste to turf itself.”!

1 Tour in Ireland, Hutton’s edition, vol. i, p. 65. * Tbid., p. 79. ° Ibid., p. 323.
4 Now called Woodlands. ~ 5 i.e. they plough the fallow four times.
6 Young, Hutton’s edition, vol. i, p. 22. 7 Ibid., vol. i, p. 27. 8 Thid., vol. i, p: 37.

9 Tbid., i, p. 71. 10 Tbid., i, p. 71. 11 Jbid., i, p. 113,

5 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In these counties the more advanced farmers were growing turnips, some-
times sown broadcast, sometimes in drills. The width between the drills
varied from 12 inches to 3 feet. Some of the land was being hollow- or
underdrained. Beans and peas were grown here and there, especially in
Wexford. Flax was grown everywhere: “Every farmer has a little flax
from a rood to an acre, and all the cottages a spot, if they have any land,
they go through the whole process themselves, and spin and weave it.”?
Potatoes were equally common, and were the chief food of the poorer people.
They generally cultivated them in ridges or beds; but some farmers had
begun to cultivate them in drills.

Outside the Pale less wheat was grown, and there was a greater tendency
to growing the same kind of crop year after year till the land was exhausted.
Fallows were less common, and so also were turnips and clover.

Armagh: “ Within 4 miles of Market-hill, the course: 1. Oats. 2. Oats.
3. Oats. 4 Oats. 5 Oats, and then leave it to the rubbish, which comes up
for 3 or 4 years: some potatoes, and after it flax.” Among the
“jnanufacturers,’ as Young called them, that is farmers of 10 to 15 acres
who made the best part of their living by growing flax and working it into
yarn and cloth, the rotations were such as these: Potatoes, flax, oats, “and
let it then lay for pasture,”* or Potatoes, bere, flax, oats‘ or “ Potatoes, flax,
oats, oats, “and then leave it to grass itself.”°

About Lesly Hull, Co. Antrim: Potatoes, flax or barley, oats, oats, and
“weeds for 2 years called a lay.”

At Newtown-Limmavaddy, Co. Derry: Potatoes, barley, oats, oats, flax, “lay
2 or 3 years, some sow grasses, clover &c.,” oats, oats.’

At Castle Caldwell, Co. Fermanagh: Potatoes, potatoes, barley or flax,
oats, oats, oats, “lay out for grass.”*

At Ballynoch in Cavan, “The course of crops is: 1 Potatoes. 2 Potatoes
3 Bere. 4 Barley or Oats. 5 Oats. 6 Lay out for weeds, four or five years.”

Strokestown, Co. Roscommon: Potatoes, potatoes, flax, barley, oats, “ Lay
out for 6 or 7 years. None of them sow grass seeds.”

Drummoland, Co. Clare: Potatoes, bere, wheat, oats, oats, oats and “ lay
it out for grass ” and Beans, bere, barley, wheat, oats, oats, oats “lay it out, or
beans again.”

Tipperary: Turnips, fallow, wheat, oats, oats, oats, oats, oats, oats, “lay
it out. !*

1 This quotation refers to Slane; but Young refers similarly to flax in many places.

? Young, i, p. 116. 3 Thid.,i, p- 120. 4 Thid., i, p. 124. 5 [bid., i, p. 126.
8 Ibid., i, p. 159. 7 Tbid., i, p. 165. 8 Jbid., i, p. 188. 9 Tbid., i, p. 213.
10 Tbid., i, p. 216. 11 Tbid., i, p. 285. 2 Thid., i, p. 390.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History, 5 41

Annesgrove, Co. Cork : Potatoes, wheat or bere, oats, oats, oats, “leave it for
three or four years.”!

Arbella, Co. Kerry: Potatoes, potatoes, wheat or barley, oats, oats, oats,
oats, “lay it out, and not a blade of grass comes for three or four years.”

There are occasional references to hollow draining, turnips and clover.
At Annsgrove “neither pease, beans, nor rape in the country, but turneps and
clover are creeping in among gentlemen.”* Rundale and changedale were
common. At Annsgrove “The poor people in general occupy from 10 to 15
acres ; but the most common way is hiring in partnership in rundale; and
they have changedale also."* In some parts rape was grown, and there is a
reference to the seed being pressed for oil: “It is pressed for oil at the mills
of Six Mile Bridge and Scariff, near Killaloe; but the greatest part is bought
up by the merchants of Limerick for exportation for Holland. ... The rape
cakes are all exported to England for manure.”

Perhaps the most fateful of all the crops ever brought into Ireland is the
potato. Sir Walter Raleigh is generally credited with having introduced it
about the end of the sixteenth century, and the circumstantial story of his
gardener who sent in the fruit instead uf the tubers to be cooked is well
known. But Raleigh has rivals. The Spanish Armada, for a wonder, was
not one; but tradition supplied him with others, “one of the most probable
of which ” was “a trading vessel on her return from a transatlantic voyage... .
wrecked on the Galway coast,” while more reliable authorities mention “a sea
captain, John Hawkins, who had brought it® with him from Santa Fé” in
1545.7

There is no great need, however, to decide exactly when the potato came
to Ireland or by whom it was brought; but, if Raleigh was its original
introducer, then its cultivation must have spread through the country with
marvellous rapidity ; for by the middle of the seventeenth century it had
taken a very important place in the national food-supply.

Indeed, it might be said that the introduction of the potato was one o
the many turning points in Irish history. It came in early in the Plantation
times and its value was discovered by those who had been transplanted
before the transplantings were well over. Without this discovery the people
would have been coerced into the employment of the planters. But, with
the run of some rough grazing and an acre of hillside or bog on the outskirts
of the planter’s farm, that is with the cow in summer and the potato in
winter, they could so far maintain themselves and their families that, until

1 Young,i, p. 297. 2 Ibid.,i,p.367. 3 Thid.,i,p.297. 4 Tbid.,i, p.299. > Ibid., i, p. 286.
6 This may haye been the sweet potato. 7 Wilson’s Farm Crops, ii, p. 18.
R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. F 5

5 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the days of congestion at any rate, employment with the planter was by no
means an absolute, or, at any rate, a constant necessity. At the same time
it forced, or, at any rate, accustomed, the farmer to that casual and uncertain
labour living outside his boundaries and beyond his control which has had,
and still has, so much to say to the inefficiency of Irish agriculture.

A few quotations set down in chronological order will show how
widely and how quickly the potato came into cultivation in the seventeenth
century, while a glance back at the rotations quoted from Arthur Young
will show that, in his day, the potato was a comparatively unimportant crop
with the larger farmers. It had not yet become an article of commerce. It
was the crop of the people: the anchor that held them to the soil.

1649-53. Cole: In England potatoes “have been planted in many of our
gardens, where they decay rather than increase; but the soyle of Ireland
doth so well agree with them, that they grow there so plentifully that there
be whole fields overrun with them, as I have been informed by divers souldiers
which come from thence.”!

1654. General Fleetwood, in a letter to Secretary Thurloe, speaks of
“The condition of Ireland being to live much upon their potatoe-gardens.’?

1672. A Writer (Dr. Beale ?) in the “ Philosophical Transactions” of 1672,
after referring to a dearth in London in 1629-30, says: “ But potadoes were
a relief to Ireland in their last famine; they did yield meat and drink.”

1672. Sir William Petty : “Six out of every eight of the Irish feed chiefly
on milk and potatoes.” “The diet of these people is Milk, sweet and sower,
thick and thin, which also is their drink in Summer-time ; in Winter, Small-
Beer or Water. But Tobacco taken in short Pipes, seldom burnt, seems the
pleasure of their Lives, together with Sneezing, inasmuch that 2 of their
Expence in Food, is Tobacco. Their Food is Bread in Cakes, whereof a Penny
serves a Week for each; Potatoes from August till May, Muscles, Cockles,
and Oysters, nere the Sea; Eggs, and Butter made very rancid by keeping in
Bogs.”*

Referring to their “lazing,” Petty says :—

“For what need they to Work, who can content themselves with Potato’s,
whereof the Labour of one Man can feed forty.”°

“There being every where store of Fish and Fowle; the ground yielding
excellent Roots (and particularly that bread-like root Potatoes).’””

1699. LEM Ugi Ob 8 The potato “has thrived very well and to good purpose,

u @uereda in a paper iy Sir ‘William Wilde in the Benacenbinay GE the Royal Irish Academy, vol. yi,
from Cole’s ‘‘ Adam out of Eden,’’ published 1657.

2 Thurloe Papers, ii, p. 602. 5 Quoted from Wilde’s paper.

* Political Anatomy, in Hull’s edition of Petty’s Economic Writings, page 156.

5 Thid., p. 191. 6 Ibid., p. 201, 7 Ibid., p. 273,

Clure Island Survey— Agriculture and its History. 5 43

for in their succeeding wars, when all the corn above ground was destroyed,
this supported them; for the soldiers unless they dug up all the ground
where they grew, and almost sifted it, could not extirpate it.”

1699. John Dunton: “ Behind one of their cabins lies the garden, a piece
of ground sometimes of half an acre, or an acre; and in this is the turf-stack,
their corn, perhaps two or three hundred sheaves of oats, and as much pease ;
the rest of the ground is full of their dearly beloved potatoes, and a few
cabbages, which the solitary calf of the family, that is here pent from its
dam, never suffers to Gome to perfection.”

Having brought this rough sketch down to comparatively recent times, we
may now return to Clare Island. Unfortunately, the island itself affords very
few data from which a history could be written. Practically the oldest sure
and reliable foundation is to be found in the early Ordnance Survey maps,
published about 1840. On the six-inch map the island is dotted with fifteen or
twenty little hamlets lying round the eastern and southern slopes near the
junction of the mountain and the arable land at a considerable distance from
the sea. What were these hamlets, and why were they so placed? The
scattered clustering of the houses and the irregularity of the small fields near
the hamlets, with no sign of any attempt to set-off the land in rundale or
stripes or squares, carries one back to early Celtic times, in which the plough
was not thought of. But it may be that Clare Island is a comparatively
modern settlement, in which the need for a plough did not arise in the minds
of the settlers. If they had been pushed out from somewhere on the main-
land even as late as the first plantations, it must not be assumed they would
have carried ploughs along with them.

The story of Queen Granuaile, however, prescribes an earlier date than
the one just suggested, although the peculiar inland position of the hamlets
becomes a disturbing element. Had the settlement taken place long before
Elizabeth’s time, the people must have relied to some extent upon the
sea for a food-supply ; or, if they were not originally a fishing people, their
natural increase must have driven them downwards towards the shore. To
explain the case, it might even be suggested either that the people were driven
inwards as a protection against the Norsemen or other sea-rovers, or that the
chiefs had appropriated the land near the shore and driven the people up
towards the mountains. Still more plausible it might be that a planter had
acquired the low-lying land and allowed the people to exist along his
boundary, or that, on the advent of the potato, the people had deserted the
sea and built their hamlets on spots that would be equally convenient to the

1 Quoted by Wilde trom Haughton’s ‘‘ Husbandry and Trade Improved.”
* Errors and Life of Jolin Dunton, vol. ii, p. 606.

P2

5 44 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

arable and the mountain land ; but we have no criteria by which any one of
these suggestions may be tested.

And no assistance can be got from the people themselves. There they are,
an English-speaking population, with little knowledge of their own history
further back than the famine and none as to their ancestors of two or three
hundred or even a hundred years ago. That they must have spun and woven
their own wool for many and many a year cannot be doubted. They do so
still, for there are two weavers on the island; and carding, spinning, thickening,
and finishing are done at home. But there is now no sign of growing flax and
- manufacturing linen. They musi have lived to some extent on their catile,
sheep, and swine; they must have carried stuff up and down the hill-sides
upon their ponies’ backs; they must have grown patches of potatoes and oats
and barley ; and they must have ground their own grain, and perhaps even
made some malt, before the American “yellow meal “ came in just after the
famine. There are traces of a water-mill on the stream that runs into the
sea at Portlea; and Mr. McCabe, the hotel-keeper on the island, writes that “the
people used their own hand-mills and ground their own corn up to 1870.”

Reduced in numbers by the famine and by the emigration to which
agricultural and pastoral land has been subject since the invention of the
railway and the steamboat and the introduction of machinery into agricultural
production, the people have each now a larger share of the island) Having
a market on the mainland they now find it convenient to raise stock and to
exchange these for manufactured goods in return. At the same time they
add to their income by taking part in the autumn herring and mackerel fishing,
by lobster fishing, in which about three-fourths of the islanders engage, and
by burning kelp, of which about thirty tons* are exported annually. For
kelp-burning as well as for manuring the land, sea-weed is collected in the
coves and bays from November to February and cut from the rocks during
March, April, and May.

Twenty years ago the Congested Districts Board rearranged the holdings
on a large part of the island. The mountain land was fenced in by a stone
wall: and the low-lying land was split up so that each farmer had all his
land together. In some parts, especially along the southern side, a farm strip
runs from the mountain down to the sea. Each farmer has from fifteen to
twenty acres of arable ground down below and a right of grazing for so many
cattle or sheep upon the mountain.

If we take one farm with seventeen acres-below, we shall see how the
farmer works. Oi these seventeen acres he tills about three. This area is

2 Indian meal. * Formerly, when kelp was dearer, much more was burnt.

Clare Island Survey—Agriculture and its History. 5 45

divided in two halves; and each half grows oats and potatoes year about for
eight or ten years. At the end of that time a new patch is broken up and the
patch that has been tilled is left down to pasture. Till recently it was the
custom to let the patch sow itself; but now mixtures of grass and clover seeds
are sometimes sown down. The remaining fourteen acres are grazed by the
farmer’s cows and calves and by the pony, if he have one.

Here and there some barley and a small quantity of rye are also grown;
there are a few patches of turnips; and recently mangels have been tried.
This, of course, means drill cultivation.

The land is manured as follows:—The stubble or grass intended for
potatoes is heavily manured with seaweed in November, and again in spring.'
Ridges from six to ten feet wide are then marked out; and two or three feet of
a trench is dug out between them: the dug-out soil being thrown on the
ridges to cover the manure. When the potatoes are planted, dung is also
added; and, when they appear above the ground, a little more soil from the
trench is spread over them.

This farmer’s stock is usually two cows; two calves which are sold when
they are from fifteen to eighteen months old; thirty sheep; a pony mare
which rears a foal nearly every year; and one or two pigs. Indian meal is
bought to fatten the pigs.

His annual export is approximately as follows :—

2 yearling cattle, value. ell) & ©
12 sheep, et P See a 0)
2 pigs, ae A , 2 O ©
1 foal, ns : 5 & 1d @
60 lbs. of wool, es 5 > Lid @

Mr. Kilgallon, who was instructor in agriculture on the island till recently,
estimates the annual total export of agricultural produce as follows :—

45 one-year-old cattle, value . £225 0 0
55 two-year-old cattle, _,, 5 a @ @
25 three-year-old cattle, ,, , 235 © @
5 Cows, . ee OF OO
300 sheep, = » 10 @ ©
120 pigs, . 540 0 0
26 horse foals, ss > ii © @
Wool? FY 5 1 ©

£1822 0 0
! The seaweed thus used is about three times as much as the quantity of farm-yard manure.
* An equal quantity is kept in the island to be woven into cloth.

5 46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

To this has to be added about £250 from the fishing and about £105
from the kelp-burning. ; :

At the same time Mr. Kilgallon says that there are usually imported
annually about twenty young calves, five rams, one or two cows and occasionally
a bull; as well as seed potatoes, oats, rye, mangels, turnips, and grasses, chiefly
perennial rye-grass, and red clover. Young pigs are also imported.

It ought to be mentioned that very little can now be learned from the
live stock on theisland. They are now what the male stock brought in by
the Congested Districts Board have made them. A few of the cattle show
that there is Longhorn blood in them, and from this we might infer that the
old island stock was swamped by Longhorns imported from the mainland in the
eighteenth, perhaps the nineteenth, century; but for the most part they show
strong traces of the recently imported Galloways. The sheep show faint
indications of an older breed somewhat similar in character to the modern
Welsh; but the ponies are indistinguishable from the Connemara pony of the
mainland. j

For the assistance of others engaged in the Survey of Clare Island the
following may be set down as approximately the dates for the introduction to
Ireland of the plants and animals referred to :—

Oats: near the beginning of the Christian era. Barley: about the time of
the Roman invasion of Britain. Rye: either the same date as for the oat or
as late as the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Wheat: anywhere from the
time the Romans were in Britain till the twelfth or thirteenth century,
but most probably after Strongbow’s invasion. Potatoes: the end of the
sixteenth century. Turnips: the eighteenth century. Red Clover: ditto.
Ineerne: ditto. Sainfoin: ditto. Italian Rye Grass: ditto. Swedes: 1790.
Mangels: 1790. Hornless Cattle: the ninth century. Longhorns: the seven-
teenth century. Fed Cattle from the south of England: the seventeenth
century. Shorthorns: 1760. Herefords: 1760. Aberdeen-Angus: 1840. Long-
woolled Sheep: the seventeenth century.

The writer of this paper wishes to express his deep indebtedness and
thanks to the following gentlemen for invaluable suggestions and criticisms :
Dr. L. C. Purser, F.1.c.D., and Professor J. |. Beare, F.1.c.D.; Mr. A. E. Quekett,
M.A. (Oxon.); and Professor Carl Marstrander, of the School of Irish Learning.

He has also to express his sincere thanks to Messrs. M‘Cabe and Kilgallon,
of Clare Island, for information about the island in the present day, and,
above all, to the librarians and attendants in the National Library of Ireland,
for their constant and unfailing courtesy and kindness.

Clare Island Survey.

6
CLIMATOLOGY.

By W. J. LYONS.
Puates I-II.
Read January 12. Published Fesrvary 23, 1914.

JTNTRODUCTION.

THE scientific survey of Clare Island and district has resulted in a collection
of knowledge as to the flora and fauna of a particular area which is probably
unique. The full significance of the work will only appear when the facts
that have been established are co-ordinated and correlated and interpreted
broadly with reference to such subjects as ecology, dispersal, and geographical
distribution. In any attempt towards such correlation the conditions of
climate which obtain over the area in question will claim attention and
reliable knowledge as to such conditions must be available.

The present report is intended accordingly to serve as an appendix to the
biological memoirs on Clare Island. It cannot claim to be a contribution to
meteorological science. With this point in view it was considered to be more
satisfactory to base the report on the comparatively few and poor records
available for the district than to attempt to draw doubtful conclusions from
a study of what might be regarded as the meteorological factors in operation
over the area.

The following elements of climate are considered :—

1. Winds. 4, Humidity.
2. Barometric Pressure. 5. Rainfall.
3, Air Temperature. 6. Sunshine.

The author begs to acknowledge here the assistance he received in the
preparation of the report from the Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction for Ireland, the Board of Irish Lights, the Meteorological Office,
London, and the British Rainfall Organization.

1. WINDs.

The present report on the winds of Clare Island is based on the light-
keeper’s observations as officially recorded in the Weather Journals of the
Clare Island lighthouse. The Weather Journals placed at our disposal were
such as to give a satisfactory record for not more than 17 years, viz. 1894

R,J,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. A 6

6 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

to 1910 inclusive. The observations which are made at noon, 4 p.m., 8 p.m.,
midnight, 4 a.m., and 8 am., give the direction to sixteen points, and the
intensity on the Beaufort scale. The accuracy of these observations, notwith-
standing the official instruction that the liightkeeper “should be prepared to
swear to it in a Court of Justice at any time,” is unfortunately from the
scientific standpoint not very satisfactory. No instruments were used in
making the observations ; and of course the personal equation in its fullest
sense must have played an important part. This was made evident in many
ways in the course of the study of the records; thus, for example, as regards
observations on direction, we find, on summarizing the six daily returns for
the month of June extending over seventeen years, the following numbers
for the sixteen points of the compass :—

N. NNE. NE. | ENE. E. ESE. SE. SSE. 8.
489 6 145 4 291 29 151 18 283
SSW. | SW. | WSW.| W. WNW.| NW. | NNW. | Calm.

36 429 53 | 536 47 414 59 60

It will be seen that the main points N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW were
unduly favoured by the observer at the expense of the intermediate directions.
A corresponding lack of discrimination was found in the records of the
intensity of the wind according to the Beaufort scale.

This scale, it might here be pointed out, represents, by numbers from
0 to 12, the intensities of winds from a calm toa hurricane. The following
table gives the description and velocity of wind corresponding to the Beaufort
number as recently’ decided and accepted by meteorological authorities :—

Beaufort Number. | Description of Wind. | V¢!0¢ity in miles

per hour.
0 | Calm. | Less than 1.
1 Light air. 1-3
2 | Slight breeze. ay
3 Gentle breeze. 8-12
4 Moderate breeze. 13-18
5 Fresh breeze. 19-24
6 Strong breeze. 25-31
7 High wind. 32-38
8 Gale. 39-46
9 Strong gale. 47-54
10 Whole gale. 55-63
1l Storm. 64-75
12 Hurricane. Above 75.

1 See Meteorological Office Handbook for Observers.

Clare Island Survey— Climatology. 6 3

In the analysis of the lghthouse records we have considered wind
direction from only eight points; and we have divided the intensities into
three grades, viz. :—

Beaufort number. Description. Velocity in miles
per hour.

0 to 3 inclusive. Calm to gentle breeze. me Ontoml zee

CD one x Moderate breeze to high wind. 13 to 38

G55, 12 AD Gale to hurricane. Above 39

With those broad divisions it is reasonable to regard the observations as
quite satisfactory for our purpose.

The study of the wind records was conducted with the following objects
in view :— F

(a) To determine for each month the relative frequencies of the winds
from the eight main points.

(0) To determine for each month the relative frequencies of each grade of
intensity of the wind in each of the eight directions.

(c) ‘'o consider in general and for each month whether winds of any
particular intensity (i.e. light, moderate, or strong) were more
frequent by day (8 am., noon, 4 p.m.) than by night (8 p.m,
midnight, 4 a.m.).

(¢d) To consider whether in passing from day to night there was evidence
of any general tendency for winds to change in intensity or in
direction.

The reduction of the observations was effected in the following way.
The six records for each day of each month were transferred from the
weather journals, and entered so as to distinguish between day and night
observations, and to classify the intensity in one of the three grades already
specified. The records were in the first place referred to the sixteen points
as regards direction; then the number of occurrences of wind from an
intermediate point—eg. ENE.—was divided equally between the two corre-
sponding main points NE. and E. In attempting to reduce the occurrence-
frequencies to percentages in a uniform way, it was noted that the four
months with thirty-one days gave 6 x 31 x 17 or 3162 records in all, whereas
the months of thirty days gave only 6x 30x17 or 3060 records. The
numbers for these latter months were in each case increased in the ratio of
3162 to 3060, so as to bring all the months to a common value for
comparison.

A2

6 4

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,

TaBLE 1.—The Frequency of Occurrence of Winds in Percentages for

JANUARY, .

FEeprvary, .

Marcu, .
APRIL, .
May, | |
JUNE, ; |

The accompanying tabular statements (Tables I and
month the percentage-frequency of occurrence of winds
degrees of intensity for each of the eight main directions.

Light,

Moderate, .

Strong,

each Month.

Light,

Moderate, .|

Strong,

Light,

Moderate, i

Strong,

Light,

Moderate, i |

Strong,

Light,

Moderate, i

Strong,

Light,

Moderate, 4

Strong,

II) give for each
of each of three
The same results

Clare Island Survey—Chimatology.

TaBLeE Il.—TZhe Frequency of Occurrence of Winds in Percentages for

JULY,

AvuGust,

SEPTEMBER, .

OcroBER,

NovEMBER, -

DECEMBER,

each Month.

— N. | NE. | E. SE. Ss. | SW.| W. | NW. | Calm.
f Light, 0 7 2 6 2 4 9 12 8 2
. Moderate, . 5 1 2 1 6 11 12 10 —_—
\ Strong, — — = = = as a =
12 3 8 3 10 20 24 18 2
Light, 6 2 5 2 by 4) 9 5 1
Moderate, 5 2 3 2 5 12 15 11 —
Strong, — = — = = = 1 1 =
11 4 8 4 10 20 25 17 1
Light, | a 3 9 5 5 8 7 3 1
Moderate, . 4 1 5 5 U 8 12 8 —
Strong, — ae ee = = = 1 1 _
11 4 14 10 12 16 20 12 1
(| Light, | 5 3 7 4 3 5 4 Qo] =
; Moderate, . 7 4 11 5 6 9 12 9 —
| Strong, — == = = = aes 2 9 —
12 7 18 9 G) 14 18 13 0
Light, 4 4 7 4 4 4 3 2 =
Moderate, . 5 3 8 4 8 10 14 ll —
Strong, 1 == = = = = 9 2 =m
10 7 15 8 12 14 19 15 0
Light, 2 1 5 3 3 4 3 1 i
Moderate, . 4 2 8 7 10 13 14 ii —_—
Strong, — — — — — 1 3 4 —
6 3 13 10 13 18 20 16 1

are represented graphically in Plates I and II; but in this case the storms or
strong winds are not separately represented on account of their rare
Such winds are in the plates added to and considered with the

occurrence.

6 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

winds of Class II as moderate. It will be seen on inspection that the length
of the thick portion of the radial line, as measured from the inner circle,
represents the percentage-frequency of the moderate and strong winds, and

the

length of the thin line measured from the end of the thick one represents

the percentage-frequency of the light winds.

The Freq

TABLE III.

uency of Oceurrence of Winds of different Intensity as Percentages for each Month.

l Nl l |
Jan. fe Mar. Apr. | May. | Jun. | Jul. | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. Dec. | Annual.

|

Light,

Moderate,

Strong,

]

| lee

mi | a 31 35 |

70 | 60 | 65 62 | as | 44
| |

9 8 4 3 1

Conclusions.

A study of the tables and graphs will show that :—

1. The most prevalent winds are those from the W., SW., and NW.

2. The SW. is particularly prevalent in January and February.

The N. is particularly prevalent in May and June.
The E. is particularly prevalent in May, September, and November.

3. The wind is more frequently moderate than light, except in the months
of May, June, and July. (See Table III.)

4. Moderate and strong winds are particularly prevalent in January
and December.

5. Strong winds or storms occur most frequently in January, February,
and December. They are rare in June and July, in which months
also the light winds are more prevalent than the moderate (see
Conclusions, section 3).

6. Calms are rarely recorded in October and November.

. Strong winds or storms are most frequently from the NW. in January
and December, and from the W. in January, February, March,
April, October, November, and December. They usually occur from
the S. only in February, and from the N. only in November.

I

It has been mentioned previously that an investigation into these wind

Clare Island Survey— Climatology. 6 7

records was made for the purpose of determining if strong winds are more
or less frequently recorded by night than by day, and if any evidence existed
to show a general tendency towards a change in intensity or in direction of
the wind in passing from day to night. A definite decision on these points
would be of considerable meteorological importance, and would also be of
general interest. It seems that popular opinion is inclined to the view that
the wind drops in intensity towards the evening, and yet that severe storms
are more frequent at night.

The following tables, which embody the results of our analysis of Clare
Island records, would seem slightly to support the latter view, but not to
justify the former. It is, moreover, evident that there is no very striking
difference between day and night as regards the prevalence of strong winds;
nor is there evidence of any marked tendency of the wind to change in
direction or in intensity at nightfall, The results are, however, sufficiently
significant to merit consideration.

TABLE IV.

The Percentage-Frequency for each Month and for the Year of Winds of different Intensity

by Day and by Night.

_ Jan. | Feb. Mar. i] Apr. | May. | Jun.
| | |
| a | ipa
Day, 11| 35] 4 || 16] 30] 4]/15|32| 8 |18|31| 1] 25 24] 1] 28} 22| 0
| |
Night, 10 | 38 5 || 16 | 29 5 | 16 | 31 3 |] 17 | 31 2 |) 26 | 24 | 1 | 28 22 0
| | I
— Jul. Aug | Sep Oct Noy Dec
| |
I. | |
Day, 26 | 24 0 | 21 | 28 1 || 24 | 25 1 | 18 30 | P| er ty ee 2 || 12 | 34 4
} |
Night, 26 | 24| 0 || 22 | 27) 1 || 28} 26) 1 |] 17 | 31 | 2/16] 31] 3/11] 34] 5
| pee
7 i ;
L.|M.|S b, |at. | st M./ S. || L.|M.|S fie s L. |M.| 8S

Light. Moderate. Strong.
Annual Day, 19-2 28-8 2-0
Night, 18-9 28-8 2°3

Table IV shows the percentage-frequencies of the winds of each of the
three grades of intensity for the day and the night periods for each month.
The light and moderate winds are practically equally distributed over day
and night. The strong winds were found in the case of each month (excepting

6 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

July, when they were equal) to have occurred more frequently by night than
by day; but the difference was such as not to always appear in the small
numbers that expressed, as a percentage, the frequencies of such winds.

A study of the changes in intensity between 12 noon and 12 midnight,
each day, gave the results expressed as percentages shown in Table V.

TABLE VY.

Cases of Change of Intensity between 12 noon and 12 midnight.

Percentage.
¥ - t
January, .- : 25 35 40
February, . 5 27 31 42
March, A : 29 36 35
April, Ras 25 39 36
May, - : 31 31 38
June, ci F 30 40 30
July, eer 25 42 33
August, . ; 27 39 34
September, . 31 38 31
October, . : 25 38 37
November, . ¢ 25 37 38
December, . 3 26 31 43
12) 326 "437 “437 1200
Annual, : . 297 "37 : 36 100

y Means fal? in in¢ensity.
uN rh 5,
— ,, nochange in intensity.

It will be seen that no change in intensity occurs, on an average, in about
37 per cent. of cases. The changes are, on the whole, more frequently in the
form of an increase in intensity towards night, especially in the winter
months, January, February, November, and December.

The changes in direction of the wind in passing from noon to midnight
were studied next and are represented in Table VI. No change is recorded
in 50 per cent. of cases on an annual average, and of the changes,
28 per cent. are clockwise, and 22 per cent. anti-clockwise. A change in
direction occurs most frequently in February, March, and December. The
excess of clockwise changes over anti-clockwise changes is most marked in
January, February, and September,

—_

a

Clare Island Survey—Chinatology. 6 9

TaBLe VI.

Table showing Percentage-Frequency of Change of Direction, irrespective of

Intensity, between 12 noon and 12 midnight.

Vall waaay

January, . : 28 52 20
February, . 3 82 46 22
March, : : 30 48 22
April, zit 25 52 23
May, 0 0 22 55 23
June, : : 25 55 20
July, . 0 24 53 23
August, : . 29 49 22
September, . c 29 53 18
October, .- 6 29 49 22
November, . 5 27 50 23
December, . : 30 43 27
Annual, 9 F 330 605 268 1200
Summary, . 280/85 50°/, 22°], 100
N
vy Means W E clockwise on this diagram.
SS)
— Means no change or calms.
N
iy Means W L E counter-clockwise on this diagram.
S

The well-known effects of land- and sea-breezes are not manifest in the
above summaries. This may be accounted for easily by the fact that the
prevailing winds are westerly, and, as such, would obscure any sea-breeze
effect by day which would have the same direction. The land-breeze at
night, on the other hand, would scarcely become evident in direct opposition
to the prevailing wind from the west. We have seen that these prevailing

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. B 6

6 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

winds are usually of moderate intensity; and it is well known that the land-
breeze at night is usually gentle as compared with the sea-breeze by day.
Tt is interesting to note that Table VI represents the summer months to
be those in which changes in direction of wind least frequently occur, and in
which the changes that do occur are almost as much in one direction as the
other. In these summer months the land- and sea-breezes should be most
marked.

In concluding the report on the winds the author would point out that
the very laborious analysis of the records was done by Mr. James Lowry,
B.SC. (LOND.), AR.C.S1., who exercised the greatest care and exceptional
ingenuity in the work.

2. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.

The numbers in Table VII refer to Blacksod, and were obtained from the
manuscript copies of the monthly summaries for that station. The mean
values for Clare Island would in the case of each month be slighily in excess
of those for Blacksod. The monthly means are characterized by the low
values for December, January, and February, and by the high values for
May aud June as compared with those for Dublin and other stations in
approximately the same latitude in the British Isles.

3. AIR TEMPERATURE.

In the absence of any satisfactory temperature records for Clare Island it
was found necessary to refer for the present report to the very complete
records of Blacksod. Blacksod is a Telegraphic Normal Climatological
station. The results set out in the accompanying tables were obtained from
manuscript copies of monthly summaries which were kindly lent to me by
the Director of the Meteorological Office, London. The summaries for
Blacksod could lay claim to such a high degree of accuracy and reliability,
and the proximity to Clare Island is such, that it was decided to give in
detail in this report the temperature statistics for Blacksod rather than
attempt a general and problematical deduction of the corresponding values
for Clare Island. This decision was further justified by a study of the
Temperature Charts of the British Isles. The mean monthly isotherms,
with certain exceptions, have such a form as to suggest that the mean values
for Clare Island differ but slightly from those of Blacksod. These differences

' See Meteorological Atlas of the British Isles (Official Publication of the Meteorological Office,
No. 53).

—

6 11

y — Climatology.

Clare Island Surve

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‘(SOYOUT) MUASSMA | OVMAWOUVE,

TA Wavy,

6 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

may be approximately estimated from the Isothermal Charts, and lead to the
following rough corrections to be applied to the mean monthly temperature
for Blacksod so as to give the corresponding values for Clare Island :—

January, : 5 0:0° F. July, . : ’ 0:0° F.
February, . . = 02 August, : : 0-0
March, R : 0:0 September, . > a Ord
April, . . 5 hl October, . F 0:0
May, . : S02 November, . 5 = OP
June, . : 5 se OPI December, . : 0:0

The differences for the means of maximum and minimum and the values
of absolute maximum and minimum would not necessarily be of the same
order.

In consideration of the general scope of the work of the survey of Clare
Island the temperature statistics considered were the following :—

A. ‘he mean monthly temperature.
The highest and lowest values recorded for the monthly means and
the years when such extreme values occurred.

B. The mean monthly maximum temperature.
The highest and lowest values recorded for the mean monthly maxi-
mum and the years when such occurred.
C. The mean monthly minimum temperature.
The highest and lowest values recorded for the mean monthly mini-
mum and the years when such occurred.
D. The highest and lowest values of the absolute maximum temperature
for each month and the years when such were recorded.

E. ‘Ihe lowest and highest values of the absolute minimum temperature
for each month and the years when such were recorded.

The mean values were taken for a period of thirty-five years from 1871
to 1905. The Blacksod records did not extend over all this period, but the
values were worked up by comparison with the stations of Ardrossan and
Valencia.

The highest and lowest values in each case were taken over a period
extending up to 1910 inclusive.

The results are given in Table VIII.

3

6 1

Clare Island Survey— Climatology.

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‘TILA “1aVvL

6 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

General Conclusions and Remarks.

August is the warmest month as regards the mean temperature and the
mean maximum and mean minimum. January is the coldest except in respect
of the mean minimum temperature, which falls in February. The temperature
curyes for the years are remarkable for their flatness, indicating a small range
of temperature-variation, especially over the months December, January,
February, and March, and over the summer months June, July, and August.

The difference between the mean minimum and mean maximum is small,
and is nearly constant from month to month. The highest temperature
recorded is 82°0°F. in June, 1887, and the lowest is 20:0°F. in January,
1894,

4. HuMIpIry.

The data presented in Table IX were compiled from the manuscript
copies of the monthly summaries of Blacksod. The means of the dry-bulb
and wet-bulb thermometers refer to readings taken at 8 a.m. for a period of
thirty-five years (1871-1905). The Blacksod records began in 1899 ; but the
means were estimated and “ weighted” in the usual manner by reference to
suitable stations. The values for dew-point and percentage-humidity were
calculated by means of Glaisher’s factors. The employment in these calcula-
tions of the differences between the monthly means of the dry-bulb and wet-
bulb temperatures, instead of the monthly means of the differences, is
unsatisfactory. It is, however, recognized by the Meteorological Office; and,
following the rule in such cases, the percentages are only given in whole
numbers. The annual humidity percentages for Valencia, and Markree
Castle (Co. Sligo), are given for comparison. The values in these two cases
refer to observations made at 9 a.m., and are based on a twenty-five years’
record (1881-1905).

TABLE IX.

| Jan. Feb. | Mar. Apr.| May| June} July | Aug.|Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.

Annual

eer es

|

42°7 42-5 | 43-3 46°6 | 51-2 | 56°3 | 57°8 | 58-0 | 55:4 | 49-7 45-8 | 43-4 | 49-4

Mean Dry-Bulb,

Mean Wet-Bulb, | 41-3 | 40-9 | 41-6 | 44°5 | 48-4 | 53°3 | 55-5 | 5-4 | 52°9 | 46°9 | 48-9 | 41°56 | 47-1

Difference, 14] 1°6 | 1-8 271) 2:8) 3:0) 2:5) 2-6) 2:5) 2:8 iG) }) iets) |) 728)
Dew-Point, . | 39°6 | 39°0 | 89-4 | 42-1 | 4075 | 50-5 | 53-0 | 58-1 | 50-5 | 43-9 | 41-7 | 39-2 |) —
ee || | 4 | ial

Hetcentesea Neg esi esol) 4s 80s\ 81 || S45] saul ceaminsOm|esoiies wie

Humidity, § | | | | |
|
Blacksod Point, . - Mean Annual Humidity = 83-0 °/,
Valencia, 6 é 10 = 84:5 ,,

Markree Castle, Sligo, . ah a Salen oo

Clare Island Survey— Chimatology. 6 15

The decrease in humidity in passing from January to May, and the
subsequent increase, are in accordance with observations at other stations.
The variation from June to December is, however, remarkable for the slow
rate of increase. The pronounced drop in humidity in October is most
unusual and inexplicable, and seems open to question. It would appear,
however, that the Blacksod humidity does not increase as rapidly in passing
through autumn to winter as does the humidity of such stations as Valencia
and Markree Castle. It is stated that fogs are unusual on the north-west
coast of Ireland; and this might be connected with the lower autumn
humidity.

5. RAINFALL.

For the purpose of studying the rainfall of Clare Island and district
reference was made to—

(az) The manuscript copies of the monthly summaries for Blacksod, which
were supplied by the Meteorological Office.

(6) Appendix III to the Weekly Weather Report, 1906.

(c) The volumes of “ British Rainfall.”

(Z) Records of gauges kept in Clare Island, 1910-1912.

The monthly summaries contained the mean monthly rainfall and mean
number of rain-days per month for Blacksod, based on a twenty-five year
period (1886-1910). The Blacksod observations extended only from 1899-
1910, but were “weighted” by comparison with the values for Crossmolina
and Enniscoe, which were given in “British Rainfall.” The highest and
lowest values for each month’s rainfall, and the corresponding years of
occurrence, were also given, as well as similar information for the number of
rain-days. (See Table XI.)

In Appendix III to the Weekly Weather Report, 1906, there are given in
Table II the average rainfall and average number of rain-days for each
month, and of the whole year, for a large number of stations in the British
Isles, including Blacksod, Markree Castle (Co. Sligo), and Valencia. The
values are estimated for a thirty-five-year period (1871-1905)... “ British
Rainfall,” 1911, contains the values of the total rainfall for that year at the
following important stations :—Blacksod, Westport, Dugort, Crossmolina,
Cong, as well as three returns for Clare Island.

1 In the case of stations with shorter records, e.g. Blacksod Point, the averages were weighted
in the usual way, ‘by comparing the observed fall with that for a corresponding period at a
neighbouring station, possessing records for thirty-five years, and assuming that, in the long run,
the amounts recorded at the two stations bear a constant percentage relation to one another (see

Hann, ‘ Lehrbuch der Meteorologie,’ ed. 1906, p. 245).’’—Extract from notes to Weekly Weather
Report, 1906.

6 16 Proceedings of the Reyal Irish Academy.

In June, 1910, rain-gauges were fitted up at three places on Clare Island,
viz. at the lighthouse, in charge of the lightkeeper, Mr. P. Duffy, at the
Abbey, in charge of Mr. A. M‘Greal, and near the hotel in charge of Mr. J.J.
M‘Cabe, who also attended to a recording rain-gauge. The gauges which
were lent from the Royal College of Science for Ireland, by kind permission of
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, had unfortunately
to be removed after two years. The returns for the year 1911 were, however,
very complete and of particular significance for the fact that over that part of
Ireland the rainfall in 1911 was very nearly normal. In support of this
view we find that the Blacksod total for 1911 was 49:36 inches, which closely
agrees with the mean annual rainfall (1871-1905). The 1911 total for
Westport was 46°67, the mean annual being 46:20. At Markree Castle (Gp.
Sligo) and at Cong the figures for 1911 differ by less than one per cent. from
the mean annual values.

The following table furnishes some important data as to the annual
averages and space-distribution of rainfall over the district under considera-

tion :—
TABLE X.
| Average
ey. | Mean Nambowot | 1911.
Station. Annual Renee l
Rainfall. per ae | Rainfall. Rain-days.
| |
Blacksod Point, . : 48°93 | 263 | 49°36 186
Markree Castle, . : 4201 | 248 — —
Valencia, . . 4 56°45 248 — —
Westport, . : ; 46°20 — 46°67 200
Dugort, ; ; : — | — 67°89 218
Crossmolina, : : 52°87 | —_— _ —
Clare Island Hotel, 3 — — 47-74 217
», Abbey, 5 —_— — 49°98 226
” ” |

Lighthouse, _ _ [eine 43-02 170 (2)

The numbers in the above table must be studied with due consideration
of the limited accuracy of all rainfall observations, and of the numerous
sources of error, personal and otherwise. The values for Clare Island
lighthouse are undoubtedly too low. Small falls were frequently ignored 5
and the daily returns in other cases were very much at variance with the
indications of the self-recording gauge at the hotel. It seems safe and

Clare Island Survey— Climatology. 6 17

reasonable to conclude, however, that the rainfall at the Abbey is highest,
and that at the lighthouse lowest; and that the low-lying district near the
hotel is representative of the mean for the whole island. Those results are
in accordance with the known effects on rainfall of exposure to wind and of
configuration.

The average number of rain-days per annum for Blacksod is the highest
quoted in the Appendix to the Weekly Weather Report, 1906, out of
119 stations in the British Isles. Clare Island, Westport, and district would
appear to approximate to, if not actually to be in excess of, Blacksod in the
frequency of rain. As regards amount of rainfall, however, Clare Island is
probably below Blacksod. The rainfall over the sea is generally supposed to
be less than over the land: and the well-known effect of mountains on
rainfall would not generally appear over Clare Island. It is, however, marked
in the returns from Dugort and Crossmolina.

The monthly variation and general conditions as regards means and
extremes of rainfall will be best studied by reference to the numbers for
Blacksod Point contained in Table XI.

The most striking feature of the above table is the second part referring
to the frequency of rain in this district. The very high annual average of 266
is found to accompany the high average for practically every month. The
driest months, May and June, on an average have more wet than dry days; and
in the case of the wet months, December and January, we find the average
number of wet days in each to be twenty-six. The highest values include
several instances where every day in the month had a record of rain, and in
the case of the year 1898 only on sixty days did no rain fall. The frequency
of rain in this area is, however, perhaps, best emphasized in the numbers giving
the lowest number of rain-days recorded in the twenty-five years from 1886
to 1910. January, March, October, and December never show less than half
of the days with some rain, and the lowest number of rain-days for a year is
213 in 1896. A comparison of Blacksod and Valencia shows a parallel
variation from month to month as regards annual rainfall and average
number of rain-days. But, whereas the Valencia rainfall is for every month
higher than that of Blacksod, the number of rain-days for the latter is always
greater except in June and September, when they are equal.

The mean monthly variation during the year for Blacksod may be regarded
as typical for the whole district, and presents the following points of interest.
The autumn and winter months show a much higher rainfall than the spring
and summer months of April, May, June, and July. December and January
show the heaviest rainfall. This isin marked contrast with the mean monthly
variation in Dublin, where the months of December, January, February,

R.I.A. PROO., VOL. XXXI, C 6

of the Royal Irish Academy.

ngs o

ti

Proceed

6 18

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Clare Island Survey—Chmatology. 6 19

and March have a small rainfall compared with July, August, October,
and November, and where August is the month with the greatest average
rainfall.

I conclude my remarks on rainfall by giving Table XII, showing the
duration of the rainfall at Clare Island in 1911. The values are based on
the daily records made by the self-recording gauge or hyetograph which was
fitted up near the hotel in charge of Mr. J. J. M‘Cabe. The records were
subjected to a very careful analysis by Dr. H. R. Mill, Director of the British
Rainfall Organization. They are in Dr. Mill’s opinion the only records of
the kind available so far for the whole of Ireland, and are of some interest
apart from the present subject. The numbers were calculated and supplied
by the British Rainfall Organization. For references I give also the monthly
totals given by a standard Snowdon gauge, which was placed very near the
recording gauge, and also the mean monthly totals for Blacksod Point as
given in Appendix III to the Weekly Weather Report.

TABLE XII.

— Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May.| Jun.| Jul. | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Noy. | Dec. | Annual.

No. of hours of Rain-
fall at Clare Island,
Wis 6 6 . | 80°7 | 88-4 | 57°8 | 87:3 | 60°7 | 51°4 | 45°3 | 65:1 | 52°6 | 65-8 | 110°8| 181-9] 897°8

Rainfall by standard
gauge at Clare

Island, 1911, . | 3°25 | 4°48 | 2°26 | 2°94 | 2°82 | 3°28 | 4°02 | 4°05 | 2°64 | 3°73 | 6°34] 7:93) 47°74
Mean Rainfall for

Blacksod, 1871- ~

1905, . ‘ . | 4°94 | 3°56 | 3°88 | 2°89 | 2°69 | 2°63 | 3:02 | 4-88 | 4:26 ).5°138 | 5°29] 5°81} 48°93

Opportunity must here be taken to express my obligation to Mr.J.J.M‘Cabe,
Mr. P. Duffy, and Mr. McGreal, for their undertaking the daily observations
of rainfall for nearly two years. Mr. P. Duffy, the lightkeeper, was also
responsible for general meteorological observations.

6. SUNSHINE,

The information available for a report on the duration of sunshine on
Clare Island and district is very poor. The nearest station for which
sunshine records exist is Markree Castle (Sligo); and the conditions there
are such as to make a close parallel with Clare Island area quite impossible,
In the official publication No. 98 of the Meteorological Office there is given
a summary of “Ten Years’ Sunshine in the British Isles, 1881-1890.” The

C2

6 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

following conclusions based on this analysis for 46 stations are of importance
in the present case :—

(a) “The sea-coast receives more: sunshine than the inland parts of the
country. This is natural, as the sea-coasts are low, as a rule,
and clouds form inland where the ground rises to hills.”

(6) “In the summer and early autumn the north-west of Ireland and of
Scotland, together with the Orkneys, receive very little sunshine.”

(c) “In the late autumn Iveland generally receives more sunshine than
most of England.”

(d) “In January the number of hours of bright sunshine, taken as a
percentage of the total possible number of hours is given as 22 for
Valencia, which comes third after Jersey (25) and Aberdeen (24).”

(¢) May is the sunniest month, except at a few of the southern stations.
Thus for May, Falmouth (46), and St. Anne’s Head (45) are less
than for June, when they both record 47 per cent. Valencia
has 44 for May and only 40 for June.

(f) In July the least sunny stations are Markree and Glasgow (26 per
cent., and, speaking generally, the north-western and extreme
northern stations are below 30.

(g) August is particularly sunless on the north-west of Ireland.

(i) In September Markree is one of the worst stations, and records only
25 per cent.

(i) In the months November and December the north-west of Ireland
improves relatively, and becomes about as sunny as Southampton
and Oxford. :

The above unfavourable conclusions about the north-west of Ireland are
based solely on the records of Markree Castle. These conclusions must not,
however, be made to apply generally to the Clare Island district in view of
the first conclusion given in section (#), and owing to some other considera-
tions. The excessive prevalency of westerly winds, which bring air more or
less saturated with vapour from the sea, results in almost continuous con-
densation over the Connemara and Achill mountains. This condensation
can be seen taking place frequently from Clare Island on clear sunny days.
This local condensation often results in rain, and in most cases must give rise
to cloudiness over a considerable area to the east and north-east. The high
sunshine returns for Valencia, Falmouth, and St. Anne’s Head give much
support to the view that Clare Island district is much sunnier than Markree,
and more comparable with Valencia than with Sligo.

6 21

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6 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The numbers in Table XIII referring to Markree and Valencia are taken
from the Appendix III to the Weekly Weather Report. The last row of
figures are obtained from an analysis of the Weather Journals of Clare
Island Lighthouse for a period of eight years, 1903-1910. The number of
instances was taken for each month in which the observer, at 8 a.m., noon,
and 4 p.m., recorded (b) “blue sky” with or without hazy atmosphere or
detached clouds. The totals for each month for the eight years were taken as
a percentage of the total possible number of observations. The numbers thus
found are given in the table. They may be taken as approximate values for
what might be called “fine day” conditions. The monthly variation is
fairly comparable with that of the duration of bright sunshine at Markree
and Valencia; but it must be clearly recognized that the duration or occurrence
of blue sky is quite distinct from that of “bright sunshine ’”—i.e. sunshine
sufficient to leave its mark on a sunshine recorder. The maximum number
of “fine days” is found in June. This result does not necessarily lead us to
conclude that for Clare Island June is sunnier than May; but it may be
compared with the results already quoted for Falmouth and St. Anne’s
Head.

Proc. R.I.AcAD. VoL, XXXI. PART 6, Prate I.

N N

Ss
JANUARY

FEBRUARY

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—Lyons: CLIMATOLOGY.

Proc. R.I.AcApD., VoL. XXXI. PART 6, PLATE II.

x
N
aN
4
WwW
E E
S S
JULY OCTOBER
N | N
SS
WwW WwW
E E
S S
AUG UST NOVEMBER
N N
Ww Ww
E E
S S
SEPTEMBER DECEMBER

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—Lyons: CLIMATOLOGY.

Clare Island Survey.

7

GEOLOGY.
By T. HALLISSY, B.A., M.R.I.A.
Prates I-VI.
Read January 26. Published Jury 27, 1914.

[COMMUNICATED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THR DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY OF IRELAND. ]

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

SITUATED off the west coast of Mayo, at the entrance to Clew Bay, between
the parallels 53° 47’ 15” and 55° 49’ 45” N. lat., and the meridians 9° 56’ 25”
and 10° 3’ 20” W. long., Clare Island forms one of the most westerly outposts
of the continent of Europe. It is separated on the south-east from the nearest
point of the mainland west of Louisburgh by a strait 5 miles wide, and is
32 miles distant, on the N.N.E. side, from the mainland at the entrance to
Achill Sound.

If we except the triangular promontory on the north, the island is
roughly of the form of a trapezoid, 4 to 44 miles long from east to west,
and about a mile and a half wide. The shape of the northern promontory
is approximately that of an equilateral triangle, each side of which measures
about a mile anda quarter. The entire breadth of the island from Leck-
nacurra to Portnakilly is 2$ miles, and its total area slightly less than
61 square miles.

A marked feature of the above-mentioned promontory is the extremely
rugged character of its surface. Prominent hummocks of bare or scantily
covered rock stick out here and there, and deep valleys, often occupied by
peat, run east and west along the general strike of the rocks. These irre-
vularities of the ground have been determined by the differential weathering
of the rocks which enter into the formation of the area, the soft shales giving
rise to deep valleys and depressions, and the more resistent grits standing
out as well-defined knolls and ridges.

In the trapezoidal area, the most prominent features of the landscape
are two considerable hills, viz., Croaghmore (Knockmore), 1520 feet in height,
on the western side, and Knocknaveen, towards the eastern end of the

RIAs PROC., VOL. XXXI. A 7

7h Ys Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

island, rising to 729 feet above Ordnance datum. Both hills rise rapidly from
the general level of the ground, and are separated by a fairly wide hollow,
forming a gap that connects the comparatively low-lying northern and
southern areas. A steep scarp along the northern side of Knocknaveen
follows the course of a great zone of fracture which extends across the
island from north of the harbour to the western coast.

The coast along the north and west is formed of precipitous rocky clifis,
rising to considerable elevations. One of these, at Allahan, to the west of
Croaghmore, reaches the formidable height of 900 feet above the level of the
sea. The cliffs of the north-east coast, composed mainly of drift (see Plate I),
often attain a height of 60 or 70 feet; while those of the eastern and southern
coasts are comparatively low, rarely rising above the 50-foot contour.

The island is drained by several small streams. Two of these take their
rise in the watershed occupying the hollow between Croaghmore and Knock-
naveen ; one, the Doree River, flows northward through Lecarrow and
Maum, and the other southwards through Strake, entering the sea near
Pitacurry. Another larger stream, the Owenmore, drains the south-eastern
slopes of Croaghmore into the sea at Ooghvunanal. The drainage of the
remainder of the island is effected by five or six streamlets descending from
Croaghmore and Knocknaveen, and two flowing through the townland of
Ballytoohy More.

Three small lakes occupy the undulating ground to the north-west of
Knocknaveen, and another, Lough Avullin, is situated in the townland of
Maum, where the Pollabrandy streamlet joins the Maum River on its way to
the sea.

A comparison of the geological structure of Clare Island, and of the wild
and rugged features of its scenery, with those of the neighbouring mainland,
shows clearly that the island once formed an integral part of the highlands
round Clew Bay. At what period of its history it first became isolated from
the mainland, it is impossible to say. Itis probable, however, that in Lower
Carboniferous times it formed, if not an island, at least part of the shelving
shore-line of a western inlet of the sea that then extended over most of the
present Irish area. Confirmatory of this hypothesis, it will be seen, on
examination of a geological map of the Clew Bay district, that sandstones of
this date, typical shore deposits, occupy the north-east of Clare Island, and
fringe the Clew Bay basin on its landward side, except at its southern margin,
where the beds are partly cut out by a fault. These rocks must have been
laid down in close proximity to an old land-surface that partly enclosed the
Clew Bay inlet, and extended westwards over a considerable portion of the
present Atlantic area.

lita

Clare Island Survey— Geology. 73

More than a third of the island, consisting of a marginal platform along
the north-eastern, eastern, and southern coasts, lies below the 200-foot
contour line, and from this level the hills of Croaghmore and Knocknaveen
rise with remarkable abruptness. A similar phenomenon is seen on the
mainland to the south of Clew Bay. Here, at about the same level, the rock-
platform extends from the bay inland to the foot of Croagh Patrick, and from
the coast near Roonah to the Corvockbrack granite ridge, beyond which the
land rises abruptly as before. The form of the ground here indicated cannot
be attributed simply to differential weathering, but the lowland and highland
features must be considered rather as representing different stages of the
sculpturing of the land by denudation. Thus the low rock-platform of Clare
Island and its counterpart on the mainland, doubtless, form part of the
great post-Carboniferous peneplain that extends over the central plain of
Ireland, while the hills of Croaghmore and Knocknaveen are remnants of
a higher and older plateau from which the mountains of the western
highlands have been carved.

SOLID GEOLOGY.

The original survey of the island was made in the year 1868, by the late
R. G. Symes of the Geological Survey, and the map showing the “solid”
geology of the district on the 1” scale was published in 1879; but, in the
original memoirs accompanying the maps of the country round Clew Bay,
only very scanty references, amounting in the aggregate to a page or two of
letterpress, have been made to Clare Island. In 1909 the ground was
re-surveyed by Mr. J. R. Kilroe, and an exhaustive description of its structure
has been given by him in a Survey memoir just published.! The brief account
of the solid geology of the district contained in the present paper is based
mainly on information derived from the latter source. ‘The accompanying
colour-printed map, also published by the Survey, is included to illustrate the
geological structure of the island, as well as the distribution and extent of the
various superficial deposits which cover the greater part of its surface.

Rock FORMATIONS.

The solid rocks of Clare Island consist of at least five sedimentary groups,
together with a few inextensive igneous intrusions, all of which are fairly
comparable with the rocks of the neighbouring mainland.

Except in the Carboniferous strata, no fossils have been found in any of the
groups ; hence reliance has had to be placed alone on the field relations of

1 Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland. ‘‘ The Geology of Clare Island, Co. Mayo,”’
1914,

A2

74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the series, and on the lithological characters of their component rocks, in
determining the position which must be assigned to them in the geological
record. As, therefore, the identity of the series is still more or less a matter
of conjecture, they have been named in the recent Survey memoir after
localities in which they occur, and the same nomenclature is adopted in the
present paper. The sequence of the series, in descending order, with their
probable stratigraphical positions, is given in the following table :—

. Cappnagower Series (Carboniferous).

. Maum Series (? Upper Old Red Sandstone).
Harbour Series (? Lower Old Red Sandstone).
Knockmore Series (? Upper Silurian).
Ballytoohy Series (? Lower Silurian).

b> oo PP or

Igneous Rocks.
Serpentine.
Epidiorite.
Lamprophyre.
Basic minor intrusions.

Ballytoohy Series.—This series occupies the northern triangular promontory,
and consists of sandstones, and black and dark-grey shales, often highly
indurated, and in parts cleaved. The beds strike east and west, and are
folded into an irregular syncline. If we except the doubtful zone of crushed
rocks occurring in the townlands of Strake, Kill, and Glen, these are the
oldest rocks in the island. Although they have yielded no fossils, they may be
safely referred to the Lower Silurian system, and are indeed lithologically
similar to rocks of known Llandilo age occurring in other parts of Ireland.

Knockmore Sevies—The next group of rocks in ascending order has been
called the Knockmore Series. Outcropping over more than half the area of the
island, these beds enter into the formation not only of Croaghmore (Knock-
more), but also of Knocknaveen and most of the ground to the south of these
mountains. A great variety of rocks, a few of which are crushed and cleaved,
is included in this group. Several types of coarse-grained and fine-grained
sandstones, grey, pink, and green-coloured, as well as fine-grained con-
glomerates, caleareous mud-stones, and flaggy slates, are encountered on the
hill of Knocknaveen ; all of these dip southwards at high angles, from 70° to
the vertical. Croaghmore itself is formed of interbedded grey and greenish-
grey flagey sandstones,red and purple shale and shaly sandstone, red sandstone,
and greenish-grey pebbly grit. Here the beds dip south-easterly from
5° to 45°, but change at Strake hamlet to north at 85°. South of the crushed

Clare Island Survey— Geology. ‘ao

zone, which runs through the townlands of Strake, Kill, and Glen, almost from
end to end of the island, red argillaceous sandstone is the prevailing rock ; but
other varieties, as dark slate, red and green sandstone and shale, and greenish-
grey slate, are also represented.

Crushed Zone-—Myr. Kilroe thinks that the rocks of the faulted area,
referred to as the crushed zone, are simply altered forms of the adjoining
rocks lying outside the fault lines. Their extremely altered character, how-
ever, and their striking resemblance to the great metamorphic group of
Dalradian rocks, render this interpretation rather doubtful. It is, in fact,
extremely likely that they represent portion of the old Dalradian floor, which
has been brought to the surface by the faulting down of the Upper Silurian

trata lying to the north and south of the area. These altered rocks consist
of epidiorite, mica-schist, quartzite, and quartzose conglomerate.

Harbour Series—Occupying a small area around the harbour, in the
south-east of the island, may be seen another group of rocks, the Harbour
Series, which is obviously different from the Knockmore strata. The beds,
consisting of grey sandstones, and purple and chocolate sandstones and con-
glomerates, are apparently of Old Red Sandstone date, and probably belong
to the older division of the system.

Maum Series—North of the great fault which runs W.N.W. across the
island from the northern end of the Harbour strand, a group of red sand-
stones and conglomerates, the latter containing large rounded pebbles of white
quartz, jasper, and quartzite, extends over parts of the townlands of Lecarrow,
Maum, and Ballytoohy. The beds are not of very great thickness, and may
be regarded as forming the base of the Carboniferous strata, but in keeping
with the principles upon which the mapping was carried out on the main-
land at Achill, these red rocks have been separated from the Carboniferous
series of the adjoining ground, and mapped as Upper Old Red Sandstone.

Cappnagower Series—On the north-east of the island, in the townlands of
Cappnagower, Fawneglass, Lecarrow, and Maum, the Carboniferous system is
represented by the Cappnagower series, consisting of grey sandstones, shales,
and calcareous beds, but no limestone. The beds, which dip from 5° to 10° to
the east, are for the most part covered with drift; but good exposures are to
be seen along the coast-line for about a couple of miles (Plate II, fig. 2).
The fossil forms found in this series, viz., molluscan shells, crinoid stems,
indistinct corals, and plant impressions, have been adjudged to be distinctly
Carboniferous in type, and probably belonging to the Lower Carboniferous.

Igneous Rocks,—An interesting band of igneous rocks runs along the line
of the great fault north of Croaghmore and Knocknaveen. The rocks
contain, in places, small quantities of the minerals malachite and copper

76 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

pyrites, and indeed the entire band is suggestive of a mineral lode. The
great variety of rock-types, which include serpentine, dolomite, biotite-
lamprophyre, dolerite, olivine-basalt, &c., occurring here, within a compara-
tively small area, must be attributed to successive intrusions of igneous
material into the zone of fracture. Serpentine and dolomite of the same
date as the corresponding rocks just mentioned appear also asa narrow band
in the faulted area at Portruckagh.

The only other igneous rocks in the island are a few masses of epidiorite
exposed in the neighbourhood of Kill, some minor basic intrusions in the
townlands of Ballytoohy More and Ballytoohy Beg, and a small basic sill,
south of Croaghmore, in the townland of Bunnamohaun.

An explanation of the system of faulting by which the older Ballytoohy
strata were brought down against the newer Knockmore series may be here
desirable. Mr. Kilroe accounts for this anomaly by supposing that an
upthrust from the north took place early in the history of the district, in
fact contemporaneously with the dislocation that produced the inversion of the
strata of Croagh Patrick, in post-Wenlock, and probably early Old Red Sand-
stone, times. The older northern series was thus brought to a high level, and
when a certain amount of denudation had taken place, and after the Upper
Old Red Sandstone and Lower Carboniferous beds had been deposited on the
shores of this old land-surface, normal faulting ensued, bringing down the
Carboniferous rocks against the Lower Old Red Sandstone series, and the
older northern series against the newer southern group.

GLACIAL AND Post-GLAcIAL GEOLOGY.

During the progress of the Biological Survey of Clare Island there arose
many problems concerning the present distribution of the fauna and flora of
that district, and incidentally of Ireland as a whole, for the solution of which
as full a reconstruction as possible of the recent geological history of the
island is of fundamental importance. Had Clare Island already been cut off
from the mainland in late pre-Glacial times? Was it overwhelmed with ice
in the general glaciation of the Great Ice Age? Was there a land-bridge
uniting the island with the mainland on the recession of the ice, or has there
been a land-connexion between them at any subsequent date? What
changes in the relative level of the sea and land have taken place over the
Irish area during the Pleistocene and Recent Periods? All these are
questions deeply concerning the problems which the biologists that took
part in the Clare Island Survey have set themselves to solve.

The present writer, whose privilege it was to examine and map for the
Geological Survey of Ireland the superficial deposits of Clare Island, kept

an

Clare Island Survey— Geology. At

these questions in mind, and, in order to become acquainted as far as
possible with the recent history of the area, studied the glacial phenomena
not only of Clare Island itself, but also of the country round Clew Bay.

In this paper the observations of the previous workers in the district,
principally those of Kinahan and other officers of the Geological Survey, and
of J. F. Campbell and Maxwell Close, have been freely used, and whenever the
work of geologists of other lands has helped to throw hght on the nature of
the more recent crustal oscillations that have taken place in the British area,
it has been Jaid under contribution.

Previous writers on the glacial geology of Ireland have frequently referred
to evidences of ice-action occurring in the mountain districts of west
Connaught. Kinahan noted that Bengower, one of the Twelve Bens of
Connemara, a mountain 2184 feet high, situated about eight miles east of
Clifden, Co. Galway, was polished and ice-dressed to its summit.'
J. F. Campbell, the author of “ Frost and Fire,” records numerous localities
in the western highlands where the rocks have been polished and grooved by
moving ice, and where morainic matter and perched boulders, foreign to the
underlying rocks, rest on glaciated surfaces. According to the latter
observer, the top of Shannaunnafeola, a mountain situated about six miles
south of Lough Nafooey, and two and a half miles west of Lough Corrib,
rising to a height of 2012 feet above Ordnance datum, is polished and grcoved
by the passage of ice across its summit, and “looking towards the places at
which the grooves point, there is no higher land to account for this manifest
glaciation,”* On three other hills of this neighbourhood, far apart, but still
within sight of one another, he noted similar ice-markings, and though
satisfied that these phenomena were not attributable to local ice, but
rather to some general glacial system, he believed that they were produced
by floating icebergs during a partial submergence of the Irish area. When
Campbell wrote his quaint but interesting book, the land-ice theory was as
yet undeveloped, so that it was only natural to find him ealling in the aid of
floating ice to produce the groovings and polishings of the rocks that oceur on
the summits of the mountains of Connaught, as well as to account for the
carriage of huge foreign boulders to situations where human or gravitational
agents were obviously not the means of transport. It is not necessary to
discuss here the merits of the land-ice theory; it has been evolved from the
study of the work of existing polar ice-sheets, and is now very generally
accepted by geologists all over the world.

1 On the Drift in Iveland,’’ Journ, Royal Geol. Soc. Ireland, vol. i, p. 194, foot-note.
+“ Frost and Fire,’’ yol. ii (1865), p. 32.

78 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

What has been said of Bengower, Shannaunnafeola, and the neighbouring
mountains is equally true of many other of the mountains of the western
highlands; and if evidences of glaciation have not been observed more
frequently, it is because the markings are either hidden beneath peat or
drift, or have become obliterated by the ordinary processes of weathering.
Even on Clare Island, where the uncovered rocks are not particularly
well calculated to withstand the weather, the rounded forms of roches
moutonnées are still in evidence as high as the 600-foot contour-line on the
shoulder of Knocknaveen.

Tt is certain that phenomena such as those described could not have been
produced by the action of local mountain glaciers, and it becomes necessary
to postulate a regional ice-sheet of considerable dimensions. What has been
the origin of such an ice-sheet, and whence has it come, are questions which
involve us in the consideration of an extraordinary episode in the recent
geological history of northern Europe, that of the Glacial Epoch. At a
distant period, impossible to reckon in years, but somewhere at the close of
the Tertiary Epoch, arctic conditions set in over the whole of the northern
portion of the European continent. Snow accumulated on the great Scandi-
navian plateau, and being converted into ice, flowed outwards, under the
influence of gravity, from that axis in all directions. As the cold became
more intense, the snowfall increased, and the Scandinavian glacier, enriched
by constant and increasing accessions of glacial material, drained into the
North Sea and Baltic basins, finally extending southwards as far as the
50th parallel N. lat. The ice, having filled the basin of the North Sea,
invaded the British area, as is proved by the boulders of Norwegian and
Swedish porphyries, gneisses, granites, &c., which have been found embedded
in the drifts of the east of England. As no Scandinavian boulders have been
found in Scotland, it is inferred that the ice which gathered on the Scottish
Highlands was sufficiently massive to bar the progress of the glacier from
the North Sea. The two ice-sheets therefore coalesced to form a continuous
ice-cap which buried the whole of Britain as far south as the valley of the
Thames. As the Scottish ice developed, it drained freely from its ice-shed
westwardly and south-westwardly into the Atlantic Ocean, the North
Channel, and the Irish Sea, and appears to have swept over the north-east
of Ireland, scoring and polishing the rocks in its path, and bringing along
with it many varieties of foreign boulders from the Scottish area. It is
probable, however, that it did not push its way far inland; its progress was,
no doubt, soon arrested by the increasing glacial accumulations of a central
Trish ice-field, and the current was deflected into the Irish Sea and Atlantic

Ocean.

Clare Island Survey— Geology. Toe)

The splendid work of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club in investigating
the distribution of the “erratics” in the drifts of the north of Ireland
enables us to trace the Scottish glacier approximately to its western limits.
Fragments of the unique riebeckite-eurite of Ailsa Craig, which have been
found so persistently in the drifts of the north-east of Ireland, do not appear
to have been carried very far westward into the country. “In spite of care-
ful search, Mr. Robert Bell never found any west of the Bann until this year
(1906), when he picked up a solitary piece on the shore of Lough Neagh near
Moyola River.”* Since then, however, Ailsa Craig ‘erratics”” have been
recorded from Limavady and Kilrea, and, quite recently, the known area of
their distribution has been extended westwards to Moys, about three miles
5.S.W. of Limavady, where a specimen of the rock was found by Madame
Christen, of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, at an elevation of over 400
feet. Judging from the distribution of these foreign boulders, it seems
likely that a line running south-east from the mouth of the river Foyle
marks approximately the limit to which the Scottish glacier penetrated into
the country.

The great central Irish snow-shed occupied comparatively low ground
south of the Ox Mountain range, and extended along an axis running north-
east and south-west from Lough Neagh to Lough Corrib. From this axis
the ice moved towards the sea in all directions, swamping the whole of the
present Irish area, and passing at its north-eastern and eastern margins into
the Scottish glacier. Westwards it overspread the highlands of Connaught
and extended far into the sea along the present submarine plateau, probably
reaching the 200-fathom line at the edge of the Atlantic abyss.

This description represents briefly the condition of north-western Europe
during the period of maximum glaciation. From whatever cause, the ice, as
has been seen, developed in a south-westerly direction from its Scandinavian
focus, fresh centres of distribution arising as it proceeded along its course;
but the ice from all sources united to form one general ice-cap which com-
pletely buried both sea and land north of a line running east and west along
the valley of the Thames.

During the period of maximum ice-development, Clare Island and the
Clew Bay area were overwhelmed by the Central Ivish Glacier which invaded
the district in a direction a little south of west. Confirmatory of this
hypothesis, it may be mentioned that the principal glacial phenomena of the
island indicate a great ice-movement seawards in this direction, Thus the
rocks of the low platform along its southern shore are deeply furrowed and
polished by ice that moved out to sea in a direction bearing 10° to 15° south

1 Proceedings of Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club (1906), vol. ii, p. 324.
R,I.A, PROC., VOL, XXXI.

710 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of west. Also, a conspicuous drumlin ridge situated en the south side of the
island has its long axis similarly oriented, and the roches moutonnées which
occur at various elevations up to the 600-foot contour line all present their
ice-dressed surfaces towards the east. In like manner the orientation of the
drumlins at the head of Clew Bay indicate the same general direction of the
current, and the few striae observed in the rocks of this heavily drift-covered
country give confirmatory evidence that the general trend of the ice was
westwards from the central ice-axis.

On examining the glaciated surfaces of the rocks of this district it was
noted that, at several localities, a second set of striae, occurring on the same
or adjacent rock-surfaces, crossed those that pointed westward at a fairly
wide angle. This phenomenon, occurring as it does alike on the northern and
southern side of the island, as well as on the southern shore of Clew Bay,
cannot be due to a temporary or local oscillation of the Central Irish Glacier,
but must be the result of a distinct transverse ice-movement. The latter,
however, cannot have been very intense, nor of very great duration, for the
grinding to which the rocks were subjected by the second glacier was not
sufficient to obliterate the traces of the previous glaciation.

The following extract from the Geological Survey memoir’ already
mentioned gives an account of the local district glacier which produced the
transverse striae and which brought along with it a not inconsiderable pro-
portion of the loose superficial material at present found on Clare Island :—

“When the ice coming from the central snow-field diminished in mass,
the country round Clew Bay was invaded by a local district glacier, fed by a
snow-field situated in the mountainous district west of Lough Corrib, with
probably, as suggested by Kinahan and Close,’ the mountains on either side
of the pass of Maum Con and the Twelve Bens as centre. From this ice-shed
(see sketch-map, Plate IV) a great glacier flowed north-westward into Clew
Bay, overwhelming the greater part at least of Clare Island in its course, sub-
merging the hill of Knocknaveen, but possibly not overtopping the mountain
of Knockmore. Another portion of the ice descending from the northern
side of the ice-shed flowed northward over the low ground into Killala Bay.
In confirmation of the foregoing theory of the glaciation of this region, an
examination of the drift on the southern shore of Clew Bay will show that
the deposit consists of two types of boulder-clay. On the shore of the bay
directly north of Lonisburgh, a 30-foot section of drift may be seen which
clearly illustrates this twofold character of the deposit. The lower part of
this section consists of blue-grey boulder-clay, rich in scratched limestone,

1 Q1_<
pp- 31-34.
* «The General Glaciation of Iar-Connaught and its Neighbourhood in the Counties of Galway
and Mayo’’ (1872), p. 12,

Clare Island Survey—Geology. Genii!

and serpentine boulders which must have come from the east. This
lower boulder-clay, forming the main mass of the drift, is overlain by an
upper or newer boulder-clay of a brown iron-rust colour, containing grey
granite erratics from Corvockbrack, but not containing limestone. The
material of the latter drift is much coarser than that of the former, and
consists largely of sandstone rock detritus. A similar description applies to
an 80-foot section of drift on the shore of the bay west of Carrowmore. This
cliff also exhibits along most of its length, especially on its eastern side, a
marked difference in colour and composition between the materials of its upper
and lower layers, and it is interesting to note that half-way up the cliff there
occurs a 10-foot band of stratified sand and gravel, which at the western end
of the cliff dips almost to sea-level. At this end, too, the deposit is particu-
larly rich in granite boulders from Corvockbrack. A 40-foot cliff-section of
drift at Roonah Quay, four miles west of Louisburgh, is similarly suggestive
of an upper and lower boulder-clay. The 80-foot section on the shore at Old
Head, on the other hand, does not show the same distribution of material as
is found in the cliff-sections already described, although it also is probably
made up of débris contributed by both glaciers. The basal portion of the
deposit contains scratched limestone boulders as before, and here the matrix
is finely laminated in places, as frequently happens in the lower boulder-clay
formation, but serpentine boulders are very prevalent and fairly uniformly
distributed throughout the entire section. Here the limestone, as in the other
cases, must have come from the east, but much of the serpentine must have
come in the southern ice from the serpentine band running parallel to the
shore north of Kilgeever Hill. Owing to the relative geographical positions
of Old Head and Corvockbrack, granite boulders from the latter mass coming
in the southern glacier would not touch the shore of Clew Bay as far east as
the former locality, and consequently no grey granite erratics are to be
found in the drift of the Old Head section.

“he islands in the east of Clew Bay, which consist of drumlin
mounds with their western ends deeply cut into by the sea, present
excellent sections for the study of the drift of this neighbourhood. In
the great cliff of the island of Dorinish More (Plate III, fig. 1), which
shows a magnificent section of boulder-clay about 100 feet in height,
no essential difference can be noticed between the top boulder-clay and
that lower down. The erratics seen in this section are principally scratched
limestones with a small proportion of boulders of grit, red granite, schist,
etc. At Dorinish Beg a 60-foot cliff-section of boulder-clay is to be seen
with the same uniformity of material throughout, except that three or
four feet of the deposit at the surface appear to have weathered to a lighter

B2

wale Proceedings of the Royai Irish Academy.

colour than the rest of the drift below. ‘The boulder-clay of the western
cliff section at Inishlyre, which is 40 feet in height, is similar in type
to that of Dornish More and Dornish Beg, and the material at the base
of the cliff is finely laminated like the lower boulder-clay of Old Head. All
the drift in these islands appears to have been laid down from the eastern
glacier, and there is nothing on the ground at the head of Clew Bay to
indicate that the southern ice from the Iar-Connaught snow-field passed
northwards, as 1t must have done, over the district lying round Westport and
Newport. In addition to the uniformity of the drift material of this area, the
trend of the drumlin ridges is in the path of the glacier that moved towards
the west. They show no signs of having been disturbed by a subsequent
northerly ice-flow, but farther east in the Castlebar district the drumlin ridges
have their Jong axes pointed north and south, at right angles to those at the
head of Clew Bay (see Plate LV). Mr. Kilroe’ suggests as an explanation of this
phenomenon, that the Croagh Patrick mountain range shielded the Westport
region from the ploughing action of the southern ice, while, farther to the
east in the open plain, the boulder-clay already deposited, being fully exposed
to the action of the later glacier, was swept northwards by it and was
replaced, as in the Castlebar area, by drumlin ridges whose axes are oriented
in a direction a little to the east of north. Instead of this more obvious
explanation, Kinahan and Close’ express the opinion that the ice moved
landwards oyer the site of Newport, ‘notwithstanding a little difficulty about
the boulder-clay stones of that vicinity,’ while at the same time the ice a little
farther south moved seawards into Clew Bay, This latter part of the ice-
current they believed to be a deflection of the glacier from the south, which
curved round on the lee side of the Croagh Patrick range of hills, but,
farther north, encountering another barrier at the other side of the bay, was
compelled again to flow north-eastwards to join the other portion of the
southern stream which moved northwards over the Castlebar district into
Killala Bay.”

The foregoing descriptions of the movements of the two principal ice-
currents that glaciated the Clew Bay district will enable us to understand
the origin of the drifts which encumber a considerable portion of the surface
of Clare Island.

GLACIATION OF CLARE ISLAND.

Marks of glacial action can be traced on many of the uncovered rocks of
the island. Striae are not of very frequent occurrence, many of the soft

1“ Soil Geology of Ireland,”’ p. 143.
= «« The General Glaciation of Iar-Connaught and its Neighbourhood in the Counties of Galway
and Mayo,’ p. 13.

Clare Island Survey— Geology. g(t

shales and rough sandstones being ill adapted for retaining these impressions,
but the characteristic ice-grooved and ice-planed rocks so often found in the
paths of great glaciers are common here also, especially along the southern
shore. As already stated, the principal modifications of the rock-surfaces
were produced by the glacier from the east. The peculiar ice-dressed rocks
known as roches moutonnées are common even at considerable elevations.
Thus, on the western coast, south of the lighthouse, a good example of these
glaciated hummocks may be seen. Glaciated rocks of this type occur, also,
near the signal-tower on the west coast, at a height of 470 feet, and on the
east side of Knocknaveen, at a height of 600 feet above Ordnance datum.
All these phenomena bear testimony to the great mass of the earlier ice-sheet
that swept over Clare Island, as well as to the intensity and persistence with
which it performed its work.

Fine examples of the striae which it inscribed on the rock-floor may be
observed at various points along the whole of the southern coast from
Ooghnamaddy to Kinatevdilla. With some minor oscillations, probably due
to the unevenness of the rock-surfaces over which the ice moved, most of
the striations point seawards in a direction a little to the south of west.
Well-marked cross-striae, produced by the district glacier coming from the
ice-shed of the mountainous country between Clew Bay and Galway Bay,
were noted in at least four widely separated localities on the island; they
are oriented in a direction bearing 30° to 35° north of west.

The distribution in this area of certain distinctive foreign erratics, which
cannot be matched with any of the fundamental rocks of the island, is
confirmatory of the movements of the principal ice-currents as deduced
from the evidence furnished by the manner in which the rocks are glaciated.
Thus, boulders of scratched limestone, which are common in the oldest and
and most massive of the superficial deposits of the island, must have come
in the great ice-stream that flowed westward from the central Ivish axis
from the limestone area lying to the east of Clew Bay. Also, granite
boulders, lithologically identical with the granite of Corvockbrack (situated to
the south of Clew Bay), are of frequent occurrence on the southern portion of
the island. Massive blocks of this rock, some of which weigh from about half a
ton to a ton, were noted along the course of the Owenmore stream on the
south-eastern slopes of Croaghmore (Knockmore), and smaller fragments of
the same rock appear also, amongst other places, on the top of Knocknaveen,
650 feet above the level of the sea. Again, scratched serpentine erratics,
identical with the serpentine from Croagh Patrick, are fairly common along the
southern coast of the island. Both the granite and serpentine boulders either
rest on the surface of the ground, or are embedded in the more superficial

a id Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

drift which is obviously later than the lower or lmestone boulder-clay.
It is clear that these foreign boulders must have reached the island in the
District Glacier that came from the south-east. From alittle rocky bay
south-east of the old abbey, and situated about 600 yards from it, Professor
I. Swain obtained a very interesting collection of foreign boulders. These
included specimens of cale-diabase, schistose diabase, altered porphyritic
rhyolite, gneiss, amphibolite, and red granite ; but as itis impossible to trace
the rocks to their source, they do not throw any light on the ice-movements
under discussion. Various other erratics corresponding in character to local
rocks, but often differing lithologically from those that underlie them, are
widely distributed over the island, even at the greatest elevations. Amongst
others, a large boulder of red sandstone-conglomerate, weighing about a ton,
remains perched almost on the summit of Croaghmore.

GLACIAL DRIFTS.
Boulder-Clay.

As the distribution and extent of the various superficial deposits of Clare
Island are sufticiently indicated on the accompanying colour-printed map,
they need not be referred to here in any great detail. A more exhaustive
account of them will be found in the Geological Survey memoir already
mentioned. The chief of these deposits is the boulder-clay ; this drift rests
on the low rock-platform fringing practically the whole of the north-eastern,
eastern, and southern coasts, and extends inland from the sea-margin for
various distances up to that of about a statute mile. The form of the ground in
the boulder-clay area is hummocky, with the hollows between the drift-knolls
often occupied by little flats of peat or alluvium. Great numbers of loose
angular boulders lie strewn on the surface of the hummocks, especially in the
north-eastern corner of the area; on the southern coast the surface features
of the deposit are smoother in outline, with fewer boulders encumbering the
ground. At Rooaunbeg, to the south-east of Knocknaveen, the deposit
assumes the form of a longitudinal mound or drumlin ridge, having its long
axis oriented in the direction of the principal ice-movement; this hammock
forms quite a conspicuous feature of the landscape. The best sections of the
boulder-clay are seen along the north-eastern coast, where cliffs have been cut
in the deposit by the erosive action of the sea. These cliff-sections exceed a
vertical height of 40 feet at various points along the coast, while at
Leckaprison a vertical section of more than 70 feet of boulder-clay is

exposed,

Clare Island Survey— Geology. Ula,

The most cursory examination of the sections reveals the presence of two
distinct varieties of the deposit. In the deeper layers the matrix of the till
consists of fine-grained dark-grey material, closely compacted, and containing
numerous scratched limestone boulders. Resting on this stratum is a much
coarser and looser material, which is lighter in colour, and characterized by
the absence of limestone blocks. The latter variety of the deposit, however,
contains a considerable proportion of angular, or but slightly glaciated, rock-
fragments, An analysis of representative samples of these types, made by
Mr. P. A. Baldock, of Liverpool University, shows that the lower or lime-
stone variety contains, in its finer material, an average of about 18:5 per cent.
of carbonate of lime as against 3°5 per cent. of that ingredient in the upper
portion of the deposit. In this part of the island, the limestone boulder-clay
attains a thickness of from about 12 feet at Leckascannalmore to about
25 feet at Ooghmacnamara ; it is completely covered all along this coast by
the upper or non-calcareous drift. It is only in the south of the island that
the limestone boulder-clay appears at the surface, where it is traceable from
the drumlin at Rooaunbeg northwards along the Owenmore stream up to
about the 300-foot contour-line. To the south-west of Croaghmore, the drift
is extremely coarse and morainic in character, and seems to have been
brought thither in the higher part or on the surface of the glacier, and then
let down loosely on the rock-floor as the ice melted.

It may be mentioned here that a remnant of glacial drift still persists on
The Bills, which are rocky islets, lying well out to sea, about eight miles to
the north-west of Clare Island.

It is interesting to note that the sandy boulder-clay at Ooghcorragaun, in
the north of Clare Island, contains small fragments of marine shells.
Mr. J. de W. Hinch, who made this important observation, has kindly
furnished the following account of his discovery :—

Notes on the Glacial Mollusca of Clare Island and North Mayo.

The only locality on Clare Island in which any shells were found was a
stretch of the coast-line around Ooghcorragaun. Here in the calcareous
boulder-clay a considerable number of shell-fragments were found. Most of
the fragments obtained were in too poor a condition to be identified, but
the following genera and species were recognisable :—

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA:—Ostrea edulis Linn., Mytilus sp., Pecten opercularis
Linn., Cardium echinatum Linn., Cardium edule Linn., Saxicava rugosa Linn.

GASTEROPODA :—Patella vulgata T.inn., Turritella communis Risso,
Dentalium sp.

CIRRIPEDIA ;—Balanus sp.

7% 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

An examination of the present distribution of the above species shows
that all are very common in the British and Irish Seas at the present day,
and that their presence in the houlder-clay of Clare Island throws no light
on the climate of western Ireland during Glacial times.. It was decided to
see if the great development of drift around Clew Bay would yield more
definite information. The coast-line around the bay was searched without
any shells being found. In 1881 the Geological Survey had reported shelly
drift in North Mayo near Ballycastle, and Canon Grainger had named eight
species from the collection made. Two of these eight species were arctic
types; and Ballycastle being only about twenty-five miles to the northward,
it was decided to see what fresh information could be obtained by a careful
examination of these deposits. The coast-line ot North Mayo was examined
from Lacken Bay to Port Urlin, and the shelly drift was found to be confined
to the coast between Glenulra and Belderrig. The district is one in which
ice-movement was apparently of frequent occurrence, and at least three
boulder-clays were distinguished. These were as follows :—

1. In Glenulra and Owenbehey occurs a blue till (the “ blue mud ” of the
district) with a great number of shell-fragments. The following species were
recognisable :—

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA :—Ostrew edulis Linn., Mytilus sp., Nuewlana (Leda)
pernula O. F. Miller, Cardium edule Linn., Cyprina islandica Linn., Astarte
borealis Chem., Tellina balthica Linn., Corbula sp., Glycimeris (Panopea)

GASTEROPODA :—Turritella communis Risso, Purpura lapillus Linn.

CIRRIPEDIA :—Balanus sp.

2. From Lackan Bay to Port Urlin the greater part of the country is
covered with a brown boulder-clay which contains shell-fragments when it
rests on the denuded surface of the blue till.

3. At Belderrig, and for about a mile to the eastward, occurs a caleareous
boulder-clay much less tough than the blue till, and apparently resting on the
denuded brown boulder-clay. In addition to many of the blue-till species
this boulder-clay is made very important by the presence in large numbers of
the well-known northern form Tellina /ata (known also as Zellina proxima
and Tellina calcarea). The individual valves of this shell are very well pre-
served, the epidermis being retained in many cases. This shelly drift of north
Mayo is very important, as showing that, judged by the present distribution
of mollusea, the species found in these drifts indicate a lowering of the tem-
perature, Astarte borealis, Leda pernula, and Tellina lata, being distinctly
northern forms. A more extensive account of these north Mayo shelly drifts
will be found in the “Irish Naturalist,” vol. xxii (1913), pp. 1-6,

Clare Island Survey—Geology. TEA

Modified Boulder-clay.

In the zone between the outcrop of the boulder-clay and the hills, there
occurs a drift consisting of boulder-clay that has been considerably modified
by detrital matter washed down from the higher ground. The distribution
and extent of the deposit are indicated by a slate-colour on the accompanying
map.

Local Drift.

A local drift, consisting of morainic material, and possessing few glacial
characters, clothes the rough projections of the rock-floor, in the undulating
central area, between the mountains of Croaghmore and Knocknaveen. The
deposit, which is generally about 3 or 4 feet in thickness, is derived entirely
from the débris of the local rocks.

Moraines.

Another interesting drift is that produced by the local mountain-glaciers,
in the final stages of the glaciation of the island. One example of this deposit
oceurs at Loughanaphuca, where a series of parallel terminal moraines marks
the pauses in the retreat of a shrunken glacier that debouched through a
small rock-bound valley to the east. Another small terminal moraine stretches
across the hollow of a cirque, about half a mile farther north. These moraines
once banked up small lakes now drained dry by a streamlet which has cut its
way through the morainic barriers that confined them.

RECENT DRIrts.
Aeolian Deposits, Storm-beach, Peat, and Alluvium.

The newest drifts on the island consist of aeolian deposits, a storm-beach,
peat, and alluvium. Along the margin of the storm-swept western coast,
there occurs an inextensive aeolian drift, composed of material driven inland
from the cliff-faces by the force of the prevailing western winds. The
material has been laid down in stratified layers, sometimes intermingled with
peat, hill-wash, or local detritus. Another wind-borne deposit is the barrier
of blown-sand which separates the bay, north of the harbour, from a low-lying
marshy flat, situated immediately to the west.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. C 7

718 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The storm-beach or spit of Kinnacorra occupies the most easterly point
of Clare Island; it is V-shaped in outline, and the limbs of the V bound a
salt marsh, which is the only one of its kind in the district.

The peat and alluvium, shown on the map, occur mostly in the hollows
of the glacial drift, but, in addition to the deposits so represented, much of
the high ground, mapped as “bare rock,” is, or has been, covered with thin
peat. This material is undergoing denudation by the natural processes of
weathering and decay, and some of it is being rapidly cut away for fuel. It
is interesting to note that roots and trunks of trees, principally Scotch fir, the
remains of post-glacial forests, are dug in numbers out of some of the low-
lying bogs.

RECENT CHANGES IN THE RELATIVE LEVEL OF SEA AND LAND.

A short time prior to the advent of the Glacial Period, the land and sea
in western Europe occupied pretty much the same relative level that they
do to-day. Ireland had already been separated from England, and, except
perhaps that the Straits of Dover had not yet been cut, both stood isolated
from the Continent of Europe, and the Clew Bay basin admitted the waters
of the Atlantic, insulating Clare Island from the mainland, just as at the
present time. ‘This statement is borne out by the following facts :—

A late pre-Glacial beach occurs at some few feet above the present sea-
level, not only round the Ivish coast, but at many widely separated points
throughout the British Isles and the coasts of France. In the south of
Ireland it forms a remarkable feature, recurring persistently along the coast.
Its presence here has been recorded by Messrs. Wright and Muff (now
Maufe), to whom we are indebted for an exhaustive study of the
phenomenon. !

On the rock-platform representing the pre-Glacial beach, a series of
deposits reposes. First, immediately above the rock, is found the old beach-
gravel, over which has accumulated a stratum of blown-sand ; this deposit in
turn is covered with “head” or waste from the cliffs behind, and then follow
in ascending order a boulder-clay drift and an upper or recent “head.”

An important conclusion to be drawn from this succession is that, prior to
the advent of the ice, the land had been raised beyond the reach of the waves
for sufficiently long a period as to permit of the accumulation of the lower

1<<The Pre-Glaciul Beach of the South of Ireland,’ Sci. Proc. Royal Dublin Soc., vol. x
(1904), p. 250; and Irish Naturalist, vol. xiii (1904), p. 291.

Clare Islund Survey— Geology. YAS

“head” or scree. The evidence does not preclude the possibility that in
the short time that elapsed between the formation of the beach and the
Glacial Epoch the land stood much higher than it does at present. Indeed,
as, at its present level, the “head” is being rapidly eroded by the action of
the waves, it is probable, as suggested by Messrs. Wright and Maufe, that it
did stand higher while the deposit was being accumulated.

Another reason for supposing that in late pre-Glacial times the sea and
land occupied about the same relative positions in the Irish area as they do
now, is the presence of marine shells in the boulder-clays of Clare Island,
north Mayo, and various localities in the east of Ireland. As the shells are
found, with respect to the main ice-current, only on the down-stream side of
existing arms of the sea, the inference is that during the period of maximum
glaciation, or, at least, at a short time previous to that episode, the sea still
occupied the present basins.

Whether the Irish land occupied a higher level when the glaciation was
most intense, no local evidence entitles us to say ; but such slender informa-
tion as is obtainable from the geological records in places outside this area
points to an elevation of the whole of north-western Europe at that time.
Many of the land valleys of this region, which run down to the existing
coast-lines, have been traced out to sea for considerable distances, and as the
portions of them now above the sea-level have obviously been fashioned into
their present form under aerial conditions, their submerged prolongations
must have been formed in the same manner. But although this considera-
tion shows that the area was considerably higher at some comparatively
recent period, it does not very definitely fix the date as that of the Glacial
Epoch. Surer evidence of such a glacial elevation is furnished by dredgings
of dead littoral shells from considerable depths in the seas round the British
Isles, Farde Islands, and off the coast of Norway, and the distribution, at
great depths in the floor of the North Atlantic, of dead shells of the shallow
water arctic species associated with the Yoldia Clay deposit.

The subsequent movements of the earth’s crust in north-western Europe,
at the close of and since the Glacial Epoch, can best be studied in the Baltic
area, Where so many natural records of the fluctuations of the relative level
of sea and land have been preserved. From the evidence there obtainable, it
would appear that the fading of the general ice-cap was accompanied by a
depression of the land in the Scandinavian area. The southern portion of
that peninsula sank and admitted the sea, which spread over a great part of
the Swedish plains. This sheet of water, known as the Yoldia Sea, connected
the Skager Rak with the Gulf of Bothnia, and extended over Finland as far

7 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

as the White Sea. On its floor was deposited a laminated clay containing
the shell Voldia arctica, a species characteristic of that deposit.

As southern Denmark does not appear to have been involved in this
movement of the earth’s crust, the presumption is that the subsidence was
not of regional dimensions. Scotland, however, appears to have participated
in this depression, for marine clays containing distinctly northern shells
in situ have been found at some distance above sea-level round the Scottish
coast. But we have no evidence that other parts of the British Isles sank
below their present level.

Following the period of subsidence during which the Yoldia Sea was
formed, a general elevation of the lithosphere took place in the northern part
of our hemisphere. The recently submerged land slowly rose again; the
floors of the Cattegat and the Belts became dry land, and the Baltic area
became converted into an immense fresh-water lake, known as the Ancylus
Lake. <A considerable amount of new land was thus won from the sea and
added to the European Continent, and on the land surface thus recovered
peat-mosses and forests flourished. In a subsequent sinking of the crust,
these became submerged, and traces of submarine bogs and forests, belonging
to this period, are of very common occurrence, fringing the existing coasts of
northern Europe.

“In the Baltic area itself, at Falsterbo, a peat deposit with oak and
hazel has been found ata depth of 100 feet. Submerged peat and submerged
kitchen-middens with neolithic remains have been found on the western
coast of Denmark,! and at several points round the coasts of the British
Islands and the north of France similar indications of a recent subsidence
are to be seen. From the positions in which peat in sitw has been found
round the coast of Britain, it is inferred that the land stood at least
60 or 70 feet above its present level, and probably very much more. The
map of Ireland (Plate V), giving the localities at which submerged peat has
been cbserved round the coast, shows that this country, too, sank in recent
times considerably below its former level. That the depression took place at
a period prior to the formation of the lowest raised beach is proved by the
succession seen on the shore near Portrush, and again on the shore to the
south-east of Wexford. In these localities submerged peat underlies marine
deposits which are now some feet above the level of high tide.”

Quite recently peat containing stems and roots of trees, seeds, leaves,

1 Nils Olof Holst ‘* Kyartiir-studier i Danmark och norra Tyksland,’’ Geol. Foren, Forihndl. Bd.
26, ¢. 433 et seq.
* «The Geology of Clare Island, Co. Mayo.’’ Mem. Geol. Survey of Ireland (1914), p. 41.

Clare Island Survey— Geology. 7 21

mosses, and the elytra of beetles has been dredged in the North Sea, on the
slopes of the Dogger Bank, from a depth of 22 to 25 fathoms.' The occurrence
of submerged peats and forests round the Irish coast is dealt with fully in
the Geological Survey memoir on Clare Island, and in the map (Plate V)
prepared for that memoir are shown the localities in which these deposits
have been found. As they occur fairly uniformly round the coast, the
inference is that the whole island has sunk from the position which it
occupied during the peat and forest period. The partially submerged bog at
the back of Dunworiey Bay, Co. Cork, furnishes us with evidence of a con-
siderable subsidence within recent times. This bog, the surface of which at
present stands at about the level of high tide, has been bored to a depth of
50 feet without reaching the bottom of the peat-deposit. As peat could have
accumulated only above high water, we have here evidence that this area
must have sunk, at least, more than 50 feet from the level which it occupied
when the peat began to form. In Britain, the position of the submarine
peats proves a subsidence of the land of at least 60 or 70 feet from its former
level; it is, therefore, fairly certain that the whole of the British area
participated in the movement to a similar extent.

PROBABLE Post-GLACIAL LAND CONNEXION OF CLARE ISLAND WITH THE
MAINLAND.

On all the low ground fringing Clew Bay, great accumulations of drift
remain as testimony to the vast amount of material that must have
been imported by the principal ice-sheet that invaded this region. Along
the coast near Louisburgh, and in the islands in the east of the bay, formidable
cliffs of boulder-clay, often 100 feet in height, are of frequent occurrence.
Great depths of drift occur also on Clare Island itself, and along the northern
shore of Clew Bay, so that on the low ground on every side of the present
basin, there are found vast deposits of loose glacial material, which
undoubtedly extended far seawards in former times. The isobaths or contours
made from the soundings in Clew Bay give us a good idea of the form of the
sea-floor in this area. A reference to the map (Plate VL) shows that the bay
is really a very shallow inlet of the sea. Nowhere in the basin does the
depth exceed 20 fathoms, while the shallow strait separating Clare Island
from the Louisburgh coast is less than 60 feet in depth.

1 Clement Reid and (Mrs.) Eleanor M. Reid. ‘‘ Some Notes on ‘ Moorlog,’ a Peaty Deposit from
the Dogger Bank in the North Sea.’’? Essex Naturalist, Part I., vol. xvi (1909), pp. 51-60.
R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXII. D Uf

| 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Assuming that the land stood at its present level when the ice-sheet
dissolved, it is probable that sufficient material would have been left
behind, when the ice melted, to choke up practically the whole of the bay
and convert it into dry land. But even if we eliminate the part played
by the glacial drift in elevating the floor of the Clew Bay basin, it is
clear that at a subsequent date, with the land standing above its existing
level at the minimum height proved by the present position of the
submerged peats and forests, the submarine ridge above referred to would
rise well above the sea, and form a land-connexion between Clare Island and

the mainland.

"ADOTOULD : ASSITIVH—'AVAUNS GANVIST AAVID

*QOULJSIP OY] UL ATOWYSVOID ‘syIo Baqysog wor ysaM Surooy ‘purjsy otvpD Jo yzed wioyj}1ou ayy Jo Mara [erauda4y

“J a1VIg. ‘L iavd “IXXX ‘I0A “avoy I WwW ‘90%

Proc. R. I. ACAD., VoL. XXXI., PART

PLATE II.

Fig. 1.—Knockmore Series. View of the S. W. shore. Kinateyvdilla in the distance.

R. Welch, Phofo.

Fig. 2.—Capnagower Series, overlaid by 4o feet of Boulder-clay, east of Portlea.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—HALLIssy : GEOLOGY.

Proc. R. I. Acap., VoL. XXXI., Parr 7. Prave III.

Fig. 2.—The Scotch Bonnet: the remnant of an island of Boulder-clay, Clew Bay.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—HALLISSY: GEOLOGY.

5 es 9 nme a

Proc. R. I. Acap., VoL. XXXI., PART 7. PLATE IV.

TA =

D LN ‘On.
3 a) y oO
a Dy C S OR AAZZ

\

J KILLA

=

INISHTURK BEX a4
a}

lo JS MILES.
el

GALWAY BAY

Explanation.
<©— Glacial Strie.the arrow markingthe directionaficeflow. % Drumlins.

Map showing direction of ice-movements and orientation of drumlins in West Connaught,
including the observations of Messrs. Kinahan and Close, and of the Geological Survey.

[Reproduced, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office, from the Geol.
Survey Memoir: ‘‘ The Geology of Clare Island, Co. Mayo.’’]

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—HALLIssY; GEOLOGY.

Proc. R. I. ACAD., VoL. XXXI., PART 7. PLATE V.

MAP OF IRELAND

Shawing the localities at which
Submerged Peat has beenfound. x7

y

NCES HMIIEES: Peat belawH WL,©

20 30 40 50
+

is

Peat insitu belfw H.W.
rt

Peat with roots of oak & ew eat below HW.
fir l2to 14ft belaw H.W,

S

L oS/iga
Sa

Submerged forest

J D Dundalk o

Clare Island Pecans ly submerged

Sumerged peat with tree roots in situ

bmerged peat with tree roots.

eget @ GALWAY
Peat below LW.loft thick Parts submerged bog. Peat with tree-

esubm = Sray® roots in situ.
19k g,
PQ “Elling.

@ LIMERICK

at. 4 fathom line

Peat 3to5 feet
under mud lands

Peat between high
@ x ow water mark

Tramore x

<4
Submerged forest
many fathoms deep

Submerged peat with Cranog

Cahersiveen
ree roots in peat

CORK
below H.Wmar S

Peat 7ft belowL Wg
of Springtides.

els bmerged peat cut far fuel at L.W
Bog which occurs at level of high water is more than 50ftdeep
a Sub-marine peat dug forfuelat L.w.

[ Reproduced, by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office, from the Geol. Survey Memoir :
““The Geology of Clare Island, Co. Mayo.’’]

CLAKE ISLAND SURVEY.—HALLISSY: GEOLOGY.

PP Toe) Ce Te oA ea eee

, Ps) a ;
| nu aA Drie

Proc. R. I. Acap., Vor. XXXL, Part 7.
II9

Ns,

Prave VI.

= \s : :
yifircetaun Ts: Fas .

20 15 & ~
Nis Croagh Patrick

a Miles

1597

Map showing the submarine contours of Clew Bay.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—HALLISSY : GEOLOGY.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF IRELAND.

°oM
Proc. R.l. ACAD., VOL. XXXI. CLARE ISLAND, C e AYO O PART 7.
= ee =
( INDEX.
SOLID GEOLOGY | * . :
Scale of Ome Inch to Statnte Mile osteo el Blown-sand. es) (dimbontbronisy
: : == E | Peat. =e] a ;

LOCAL DETRITUS \
AND W/ND-BORNE
MATERIAL

\ 2
ip7Kinatevdilla

HICK COVERING OF HILL —-WASH
AND LOCAL DETRITUS

Allevium. ee esas)

«| Local Drift. ame Hpockrmpre series

Moraine. eae Faltgtaatey Series.
Boulder-clay. | M7) Mies fast —

Drift modified

by downwash. pa] Epidiorite.

4— Dipof bedding.

—+— Vertical Strata.

Basalt, and other Basic
Igneows Rocks (Intruswe)

2 Glacial Striae, the arrow indicates the direction of Ice-movement.
—— Rock-boundaries underlying superficial deposits.
Soils.

The spots where soils have been collected
are the centres of the black circles on the map.

STORM BEACH
a
kinnacorra

M. W. Gavin, Draughtsman.

Superficial deposits surveyed by T. Hallissy, B.A.
Underlying rocks revised by J. R. Kilroe, A.R.C.Sc.1., 1910.
Grenville A. J. Cole, Director,

\ Scale. Three inches toa Statute Mile =2i120.

Feet1000 500, Q 4000 2000 3000 2000

=i
Furtony ¥ + ¥ IMie.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—KILROE AND HALLISSY: GEOLOGY.

5000 ($280 Feet '

Clare Island Survey.

TREE-GROWTH.

By A. C. FORBES.

Puates I, II.

Read Apu 27. Published Jury 15, 1914.

THE scarcity of tree-growth along the west coast of Ireland and the islands
lying along the Atlantic sea-board is so well known that few words are
necessary to lay stress on the fact that Clare Island, in common with all
islands from Donegal to Kerry, is practically treeless in the strict sense of
the word. Tree species exist in several of them, it is true, but it is probably
safe to say that no individual specimen can be found at present which
attains a height of twenty feet, or which can be said by any stretch of
imagination to contain timber. This being so, interest in Clare Island, so
far as tree growth is concerned, centres round four main points, namely :—

1. Serub and woodland species, of which traces still exist.

2. Evidence of tree-growth in the past.

3. Possible reasons for its disappearance.

4. The connexion between the Clare Island past and present forest flora,
and that of the mainland.

With regard to the first of these points, not only have species to be
considered which, under more favourable conditions, grow into timber trees,
but also those which are invariably or usually associated with woods, and
which are able to survive after the original woodland cover has disappeared.
In Part 10 of the Clare Island Survey Mr. Praeger gives the following shade-,
scrub-, or timber-producing species which are represented on Clare Island :—

Timber-Producing Species.

. Quercus sessiliflora.

. Betula pubescens.

. Pyrus Aucuparia.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, A 9

oo pb

9 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Serub Species.

Corylus Avellana.

. Tlex Aquifolium.

. Salix cinerea.

. S. aurita.

. Pyrus Malus.

Prunus spinosa.
Lonicera Periclymenum.

~I OD oy iB oo b>

ee)

Juniperus nana.

Shade Species.
. Scilla nutans.
. Anemone nemorosa.

29 DO

Luzula sylvatica.

. Primula vulgaris.
Oxalis Acetosella.

6. Sanicula europaea.

ot

In addition to the above, Fraxinus excelsior, Alnus glutinosa, Populus
serotina, and Acer Pseudo-platanus occur as planted trees of ten to twenty
years’ growth.

The occurrence of the native species is chiefly confined to four patches
of broad-leaved scrub, occupying less than five acres altogether. The position
of these patches is indicated on the map (Plate I), and it will be seen that
all are on the south-east side of the island, with higher ground to the north
and west. A photograph of the best-developed of these patches (near
Portlea) is reproduced in Part 10; it consists of about two acres of fairly
thick scrub of Willow, Mountain Ash, Hazel, Holly, Oak, and Birch, with
a growth of Brambles, Bracken, Honeysuckle, and shade plants beneath.
This patch lies from 50 to 100 feet above sea-level, and occupies a slope
facing north-east, the soil being fairly deep and good, although inclined to be
wet. The tree showing the best development is Birch, which occasionally
reaches a height of 10 feet. Hazel also makes a good growth, while Holly
develops into a thick bush seldom more than 5 to 6 feet in height. Willow,
chiefly Salix aurita, is the most frequent species everywhere, but, from
constant cutting, seldom attains its normal height, and the same may be said of
Hazel. Oak forms a spreading stool clump about 6 feet in height, and is only
sparsely represented in this patch. Another patch occupies a steep slope to
the north-west of Lough Avullin, with the same aspect as the first, but has
been more heavily grazed by cattle. It consists of Willow, Holly, and Birch,

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 3

with little undergrowth. <A third patch lies between the harbour and Portlea,
at the same elevation as the first, and contains Birch, Hazel, and Willow, and
is also heavily grazed. A fourth, south-west of the harbour, is practically all
Willow, and occupies the slope of a steep bank facing north-west, at about
100 feet elevation.

In addition to these four patches of serub, bushes of Willow, Blackthorn,
Holly, Hazel, Mountain Ash, and Birch occur east of a line between Knock-
naveen and the lighthouse, and suggest that this area was originally covered
with similar scrub before cultivation and grazing had destroyed it.

Of the reproductive powers of the various representatives of this forest
Hora little can be said, except that seedlings of Willow, Birch, and Mountain
Ash occur in various places. Hazel was flowering at Portlea at the end of
March, 1914, and may possibly ripen nuts in a good season, as they
occasionally ripen at Glendarary on Achill, ten miles to the north-east.
Holly grows about to high-watermark at Portlea, but whether it berries freely
at the present time is doubtful. An old resident states that he often found
the shells of the acorn in the turf bogs, and also remembered seeing the
berries on the Holly bushes, but not later than about twenty years ago.
Mr. Garvie, agricultural overseer on this island, writes :—“ I have asked this
man, and several others, about the hazel nuts, and they all say they do not
remember seeing any growing on the island.”

It is highly probable that the condition of this scrub cannot be taken as
a fair index of the island’s climate, as grazing, cutting, &e., have interfered
with it to a considerable extent. But it is evident that the Oak suffers
more than any other species from sea-wind, Hazel coming next. The
growth made by the Oak in 1913 was found lalled back quite two-thirds
of the length of the stems in March of 1914, while many shoots of Hazel
were uninjured, although the growth of previous seasons had shared the same
fate as that of Oak. Willow and Birch are also affected by the sea-wind in
the same way, but not to the same extent; but Mountain Ash and Holly
appear unaffected, the former species seeding itself wp to 500 feet on the
north side of Knockaveen.

2. EVIDENCE OF TREE-GROWTH IN THE PAst,

To obtain evidence of previous tree-growth on Clare Island, it is necessary
to go further back than the oldest inhabitant, and investigate the stumps and
trunks found in the patches of bog which occur more or less generally, and
which give undeniable evidence of a more vigorous forest growth than that of
recent times, and of the occurrence of one species (Pinus sy/vestiis) no longer
found on the island as a native tree.

A2

9 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The bog areas containing tree-stumps are fairly numerous, and, like the
scrub, are confined to the south-east side of the island, but they indicate a
much wider extension than the latter now possesses.

A glance at the map shows that the Pine and Oak remains are found
in or beneath the peat over about one-half of the total area of the island, and
these are usually mixed with Willow, Birch, and Alder. But while Pine is
the predominant species within 100 feet vr so of sea-level, Oak becomes more
common, and may possibly have been the chief species between 200 and 400
feet, few, if any, traces of tree-growth being found above the latter elevation.
Before dealing with the significance of this fact, it is necessary to refer to the
origin of peat, and see what connexion this deposit bears to the tree-stumps
associated with it. Various theories have been advanced to account for peat-
formation, and probably all of them contain a certain amount of truth. It is
generally admitted that the first requisite is a cool and damp climate; but
this condition alone would not explain its presence in a large number of
cases. The term “peat” usually refers to the partially decomposed remains of
various vegetable growths; but the conditions which have arrested decomposi-
tion are not always the same, and it is these conditions, rather than the
character of the vegetation, which form the more important differences
between various kinds of peat.

So far as Ireland is concerned, peat may be roughly divided into three
classes—mountain, marsh, and high bog peat. Mountain peat originates
wherever the surface conditions are too sterile, or the subsoil too impervious
or water-logged to allow deep-rooting plants to flourish. The surface is
accordingly taken possession of by shallow-rooting plants, which do little to
maintain the connexion between the surface and subsoil, and a deficiency in
the lime content of the soil sooner or later arises. This gives rise to raw
humus, and Heather, Bracken, Wood-rush, Vaccinium, Molinia, Rushes, &e.,
gradually creep in, and a dry heath peat or sour swamp peat begins to form
according to the moisture conditions. Under the heath peat, iron pan invari-
ably arises a foot or so beneath the surface sooner or later, and brings about
surface stagnation, and on both classes Sphagnum and other water-holding
mosses, Cotton-grass, &c., gain a footing, and add to the accumulating mass
of vegetable matter. This mountain peat is not confined to the mountains,
although the most extensive development of it takes place above the 800-foot
level in most parts of Ireland; but in the west it covers the entire surface
down to sea-level in many districts. It varies in thickness from one to ten
feet or more, and is more or less mixed up with marsh peat on undulating
ground.

Marsh peat consists of the partially decomposed remains of Reeds, Sedges,

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 5

Rushes, and other similar plants which occupy shallow lakes and partially
submerged ground. This form of peat constitutes the basis of all the lowland
bogs in Ireland, and of a number of small bogs in mountain districts. Marsh
peat is closely associated with the existence of drumlins and eskers left by
the ice-sheet of the last extensive glaciation of the country, owing to the
indefinite drainage system which prevailed for a long period after the ice had
retreated, In course of time marsh peat fills up the lake or hollow in which
it is accumulating, and the surface raises itself above the water-level. Over
this surface, Bog Myrtle, Willow, Birch, Alder, and other terrestrial plants
able to bear excessive moisture, gradually spread, and a layer from two to
three feet in thickness is gradually built up above the summer water-table.
So long as the water contains lime and nutritive salts, this peat forms as
favourable a medium for the growth of most plants as ordinary soil, although
the nature of the peat prevents tall trees from securing a firm root-hold, and
they are lable to be overturned in strong gales. But as the peat consolidates
with time and pressure from above, both its capillarity and the percolation
of rain-water downwards decrease, and a point is probably reached at which
the connexion between the water-table and the surface of the peat entirely
disappears, while the soil-water itself may become more acid or diluted as
time goes on.

This condition brings the Sphagnum peat, or high bog, into existence,
which differs from the upper surface of the mountain peat more in its mode
of origin than in its composition, both types consisting of the same class of
plants, and both characterized by a lack of connexion between their surfaces
and the soil-water, except where springs or streams happen to traverse the
bogs or peat-covered surfaces. While, however, the Sphagnum peat resting
on mountain bog varies in thickness more or less according to the degree of
impermeability of the soil-surface, and the conditions favouring the accumula-
tion of surface-water, the Sphagnum peat forming the high bogs presents a
characteristic uniformity of growth. This consists in a gradual decrease in
thickness from the centre of the bogs towards the margins, giving their
surfaces a convexity which is so universal that the term “high” bog has
been applied to this particular type to distinguish it from the flat or marsh
bog which follows or is parallel to the water-table. This convexity is usually
attributed to the high power the Sphagnum possesses of holding water by
capillarity, enabling the centre of the bog to rise above the level of the
margins, where natural drainage outlets prevent a further rise. But it is
also probable that the lower level of the margins of a high bog is due to
the partial decomposition of the peat when it comes within the influence of
the soil-water. It is a well-observed fact that peat decays rapidly when

9 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

brought in contact with well-aerated soil or water containing lime. Streams
and springs on the surface, if they do not prevent peat-formation, check its
accumulation, while no peat forms on the margins of streams which periodically
overflow their banks and leave a muddy deposit behind. Peat-accumulation
increases with the degree of acidity, and this being greater the further the
surface lies from the water-table, the centre of the bog naturally increases in
thickness at a faster rate than the sides.

On Clare Island, mountain and marsh peat are well represented, but high
hog, owing to the long duration of peat-cutting, is not much in evidence.
The largest marsh bog originally surrounded the small lake known as Lough
Avullin, which at one time covered ten to twenty acres of the valley in which
the lough lies. This lough is fed by the most extensive drainage system on
the island, but an artificial cutting, about 10 feet deep, near the bridge on the
east side, has now rendered much of the bed of the ancient lake dry. From
the distribution of Oak and Pine stumps in this valley and elsewhere, it would
appear that Lough Avullin at one time occupied a more or less elongated
depression, chiefly to the south-east of the present water, on the margins of
which Pine was the principal tree. At a later period the water gradually
rose and covered these Pine margins with marsh or swamp, killing out the
trees on the lower levels. Either during the time the water-level was slowly
rising, or after it had ceased to rise, Oak apparently spread into the Pine
forest and gained a footing on the marsh round the edges of the swamp until
the water-table of the latter again rose, killed out the trees, and brought the
peat up to its highest level. It is probable that this marsh peat was capped
with high bog, but no trace of this now remains, as the greater part of the
valley has been cultivated in recent times.

Several smaller marsh-bogs occupy depressions to the south of Lough
Avullin swamp, and within 200 feet of sea-level. All of these contain stumps
of Pine and Oak, the former occupying the central parts and lower levels of
the bogs, and the Oak appearing round the margins. This series of bogs all
show the same features, whether as regards marsh-peat, the occurrence ot
Pine in the deeper parts, and the mingling of Oak with the Pine at the edges,
and may be termed, for the sake of convenience, the Pine and Oak group.
Extensions of this group appear to have existed between the harbour and
Knocknaveen, towards the chapel on the south side of the island, and a small
Oak stump was noticed near the chapel, resting on about 4 feet of peat.

The size of the Pine stumps in this group varies from 1 to 3 feet in
diameter at the ground-level, probably corresponding to breast-high diameters
of 1 to 2 feet. Only one log of Pine was noticed, which had a straight length
of 9 feet, and a crooked top of 8 feet, with a diameter of 8 inches 43 fect from

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 97

the root. The Oak stumps in this group were smaller on the whole. Several
logs were found, about 10 feet in length, and quite straight, with mean
diameters of 9 to 12 inches, while west of Lough Avullin several large Oaks
had recently been dug out, about 15 feet in length, and at least 18 inches in
diameter at breast-height. The age to which the trees had attained varied
from 100 to 200 years, but the sapwood of most having decayed away, many
rings had disappeared.

The depth of the peat now remaining seldom exceeds 6 feet, and the
stumps usually occur in definite layers about 2 feet above the water-table,
the upper part of the bog having been cut away in all cases,

Another group of bogs with tree-stumps is found in the circular depression
lying between Curraghmore and Lough Avullin, and due north of Creggan.
These bogs lie in small depressions in the surface, which here slopes gradually
from the cliffs on the north-west side of the island towards the south and east,
and are more or less mixed up with mountain peat in the slopes and higher
ground. These marsh bogs are smaller than those on the lower group,
and lie from about 200 to 400 feet above sea-level. The stumps found in
this group were all Oak, Birch, Willow, &c., and no trace of Pine was found,
except one stump north of the path below Knocknaveen, and apparently
about 350 feet above sea-level. The Oaks here were quite up to the
-dimensions of those found lower down, the end of one projecting from a
peat-bank having a diameter of 13 inches. Most of these Oaks were rooted
in a foot or more of peat, and were in definite layers, as in the case of the Pine
stumps at lower levels.

The partial or total absence of the Pine from this group is difficult to explain,
unless one can suppose that when Pine grew at the lower levels the climate
was too cold to allow tree-growth on the higher parts of the Clare Island area.
If this were so, however, it must have been followed by warmer conditions
when the Oak came in, and any improvement in the climate would benefit the
Pine to an equal degree, and enable it to grow at any elevation attained by
the Oak. It is more probable, therefore, that the absence of Pine is connected
with the period of peat-formation, and may possibly be explained by the
formation of the mountain peat and the smaller marsh bogs after the Oak had
thoroughly established itself, and the Pine had become comparatively scarce.
If this were so, the stumps of the earlier generations of Pine would have
decayed in the ordinary way, and left no trace behind. It is possible, of course,
that more Pine stumps than the one seen exist on this area, but an old and
intelligent islander, who was questioned on the subject, could not remember
any “bog dale” being seen on that part of the island, although he was well
yersed in the various localities in which the Oak was found. One must

98 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

conclude, therefore, that either the Pine does not occur in the bog remains
on this part of the island, or that it is confined to the deeper layers which
have not yet been reached in peat-cutting.

If the tree remains in the Clare Island peat can be accepted as evidence of
a succession in the forest flora due to climatic changes, it would appear that
when the Pine and Birch found in the lower parts of the bogs flourished, many
parts of the island subsequently covered with marsh were dry, and some of the
existing marshes and swamps were without definite outlets. An increase in
rainfall raised the level of these swamps at some period before the arrival of
the Oak, and this rainfall either reached a stationary point or again diminished,
allowing the peat to rise above the water-level, or bringing the latter down
sufficiently to allow a fresh growth of Pines to spread over the peat. After
or during this period, the Oak found its way in, and was probably accompanied
by Hazel, Alder, Holly, and other species now established throughout the
British Isles. Another rise in the water-table appears to have followed,
covering the Pine and Oak on the margins of the bogs, and killing off the
growth of Pines, in which Oak occasionally occurs, on the bog surface.
Somewhere about this period it is probable mountain peat began to form
on the poorer soils, and Sphagnum peat on the marsh bogs; but while the
evidence for the latter theory is fairly conclusive, it is difficult to determine
whether mountain peat in the west of Ireland is due to soil or climatic
conditions, although both have probably something to do with it. There
is little doubt that the mild winters, and cool, moist summers of Ireland
favour the leaching out of lime from the surface soil, and bring about
an acid condition of shallow soils more rapidly than would occur with a
Continental climate.

If the scanty remains of tree stumps in the peat of Clare Island formed
the only evidence of succession in a former forest flora, the above conclusions
might be regarded as premature. But it is a striking fact that mountain and
lowland bogs throughout Ireland yield certain evidence of a distinct and well-
marked change in the flora during the last few thousands of years, and a
succession similar to that found on the island. Ii a typical lowland bog is
examined from the outer edge to the centre, so far as this can be done in the
few cases in which the peat has been sufficiently cut out, tree-stumps are
found to occur singly or in groups to a distance of 200 to 300 yards inwards.
At the outer edge, where the turf has usually been cut away to the natural
soil, stumps of Oak, Alder, Birch, Yew, Willow, and Pine occur more or less
universally —not necessarily in one section, or in any one individual bog, but
generally throughout the country, Oak being most frequently represented
near the edges, with an occasional Yew or Alder, and sometimes Pine and

Clare Island Survey—Tree Growth. 99

Birch. These species, or one or the other of these species as the case
may be, extend about 100 yards in from the original edge of the bog, and
occasionally to a greater distance nearer the centre, but in the deeper parts of
the bog the only species found are Pine and Birch, except where eskers raise
the surface of the natural soil to about the level or horizon at which the
Oak occurs, when Oak or a mixture of Pine and Oak is usually found.

<a ony

Fig. 1. Typical section through small lowland bog. xx Pine stumps. 00. Oak stumps.
a, Sphagnum peat. 0%, Upper marsh peat. c, Lower marsh peat.

Fig. 2. Typical section through mountain slope, showing marsh and mountain peat. xx Pine stumps.

In bogs of not more than 100 acres or so in extent, the entire base of the
bog may be dotted over with tree-stumps, but the larger bogs show few, if
any, signs of stumps at a greater distance than 200 or 250 yards from the
edge, and many bog sections are quite free from stumps, although in very
few bogs as a whole are they entirely absent. Another feature of many
Irish bogs is the occurrence of root-layers through the body of the bog, and
at varying heights above the bog base. Near the margin of the bog, the
root-layer may consist of Oak or Pine, but rarely of Pine alone, but at
distances of 100 yards or more from the margin, and as the thickness of bog
above the root-layer increases, Pine and Birch appear to be the only species
represented. The upper root-layer is invariably under the Sphagnum peat,
and usually on or near the surface of the black or marsh peat, but, beyond
a few small Birch, the writer has never seen a stump above this surface.
Another feature of this upper root-layer is its invariable occurrence at about
3 to 4 feet above the present water table, which, in most bogs, has been
lowered by artificial drainage by at least a couple of feet.

R.I.A. PROC,, VOL. XXXI. B

9

9 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The above statement suinmarizes the results of observations made in
most counties in Ireland, and, briefly put, brings out the fact that Pine and
Birch occupy or lie beneath the older parts of the bogs, while Oak, Pine,
Yew, and various broad-leaved species occur near the margins. Exceptions
to this rule may be found in someof the small marsh bogs in mountain
districts, which may only contain Pine and Birch, while in a few shallow
lowland bogs Oak may be found predominating throughout. Two points are
quite clear, one being that the Pine was an earlier occupant of many sites
than the Oak, and the other that the Oak and Pine formed a mixed forest
at a later period, while it is fairly evident that the more pronounced
Sphagnum stage of peat-formation is invariably treeless so far as the bogs
alone are concerned.

Observations made in various parts of the Continent of Europe agree
generally with the above view regarding the succession of forest associations
found in bogs. Papers contributed to the Eleventh International Geological
Congress in Stockholm in 1911! dealt with bog-formations in Norway,
Sweden, Germany, Holland, Denmark, and other countries, and the writers
are fairly unanimous on this point, although considerable differences of opinion
exist as to the causes responsible for the tree and treeless stages respectively
of the bog-formation. Van Baren (Holland) gives Pine and Birch as the
oldest association, after which came Lime, Hazel, and Alder, and finally
the Oak. Stoller (Germany) gives Birch, Willow, and Arctic Birch; then
Pine and Birch; later Alder, Hazel, and Oak, with Birch and Pine; and
finally Alder and Beech; and assumes that the Oak-Hazel-Alder association is
of the same age as the submerged peat of the North Sea coast. Andersen
(Sweden) supposes that Birch formed the first forest belt along the west
coast, and Pine and Birch further east. After Pine forest had prevailed
for a long period, a rise of temperature brought in a broad-leaved forest
which pushed out the Pine. Wahnchafie (Germany) gives Birch and Pine;
then Oak, Alder, Fir, Birch, and Lime; the latter association being contem-
poraneous with the submerged forests.

On the other hand, Kinahan? and many other recorders of timber in
Irish and British bogs mention the Oak as occupying the lowest position,
with Pine coming in later; but it is highly probable that these statements
are due to the fact that the Oak invariably lies at the edges and shallower
parts of the bog, where turf-cutters would quickly come upon it on the
natural soil. When the Pine layer was reached, the fact that it lay above

1 «« Die Veriinderungen des Klimas seit dem maximum der letzten Eiszeit,””
? Geology of Ireland,

Clare Island Survey— Tree-Growth. 9 11

the soil or bottom of the bog was regarded as a proof of its later origin, the
fact being overlooked that the Pine horizon was lower than that of the Oak,
and, therefore, older, and not younger.

With regard to the root-layers, considerable difference of opinion exists in
the minds of Continental investigators as to their occurrence and cause. That
the stumps of trees are found in definite layers, separated by two or three
feet of peat free from roots, is well known; but as their distribution in any
bog can be seen only where they are exposed at the turf banks, and records
of those previously found in the peat are either wanting or based on hearsay,
how far they extend on a definite horizon is difficult to say. No difficulty
appears to arise in tracing them over an area of two or three acres in many
bogs; but when larger areas are dealt with, the difficulty arises of making
sure that peat of the same age is being investigated at one place as at another.
But, assuming that these root-layers exist—and this is beyond all doubt so far
as limited areas are concerned—their origin is a matter of considerable interest.
Swedish bog-investigators are sharply divided in their opinions on this point,
one theory being that they represent a climatic change from wet to dry
conditions, the other favouring the idea that a local change in the condition of
the bog may account for them. Sernander and Andersen are the principal
exponents of these respective theories; the former advocating the climatic
theory, the latter the local or “ edaphic” explanation.

Lewis! states that “all the Scottish peat mosses show a definite succession
of plant remains. The oldest, in the South of Scotland and the Shetland
Islands, have an arctic plant-bed at the base. This is succeeded by a forest
of Birch, Hazel, and Alder, containmg temperate plants. A second arctic
plant-bed occurs above the lower forest, and is overlaid in all districts (except
the Hebrides, Cape Wrath, and the Shetland Islands) by an Upper Forest
covered by several feet of peat bog plants.” The Upper Forest appears,
according to Lewis, to consist of Pine, in one or two root-layers, separated,
in the latter case, by two to three feet of peat. If the same succession holds
good in Ireland, it is evident that the Lower Forest is invariably hidden
beneath the water-table. In the vicinity of many bog sections which show
no trace of stumps above the water-table, fragments of Birch are taken up by
peat diggers; but whether Hazel and Alder are also present is a matter for
further investigation.

As far as Ireland is concerned, it would appear that root-layers are chiefly
confined to the smaller bogs, or to the margins of the larger ones, although
in the case of the latter the deeper peat-layers are invisible, and little is

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xlvi, Part I (No. 2).
B2

9 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

known about them. Where definite root-layers occur in the peat, however,
the lower ones invariably appear to lie at about the level of the existing water-
table or rather below it, while the upper layer lies within 3 or 4 feet of the
water-table, and just below the Sphagnum or red bog. Jt is usually difficult
to identify the true water-table of many bogs, owing to the holes cut and left
in the peat by turf-cutters; but it may be assumed that the water lying in
bog holes during the summer is, if anything, rather below than above the
natural water-table, the latter having been lowered by drainage. ‘he root-
layers are evidently the remains of several generations of trees, for two or
three large roots may be found resting immediately above each other, showing
that the upper originated as seedlings upon the decayed stumps of the lower ;
and for these successive stages of growth and decay to have taken place a
period of 500 to 1000 years would be required. Another feature of these
stump-layers is that while the lower edge is frequently indefinite, and at no
precise level, the upper edge finishes off along a more or less horizontal
line, as if the trees had ceased to grow at one particular period. The roots
themselves, especially the larger ones, are extended horizontally in all
directions, but seldom show any trace of a descending tap or side roots, or even
roots running obliquely downwards as is the case with Pine growing on well-
drained porous soil. This flat root system suggests a water-logged condition
1 foot or 18 inches below the surface; and, furthermore, that this water-
logging was due toa water-table at a fixed level. Had the bog gradually become
drier, as suggested by Sernander and others, the trees would have ultimately
sent down “sinkers,” or perpendicular roots, as is the case when Pine is
planted on artificially drained bog, with a gradually sinking water-table. A
significant fact is the occurrence of the upper root-layer invariably below the
Sphagnum peat, and near the upper surface of the black marsh peat, showing
that the change which killed off the last layer of trees was also accompanied
by a change in the composition of the bog, and was not necessarily due to an
increase of moisture alone. The under edge of this Sphagnum peat often
shows layers of Sphagnum which have been bent or pressed down on either
side of the pointed end of a stump, showing that its rate of growth was
comparatively rapid, and that it followed a period during which the peat on
which it rests was of a different character, and had attained a firm surface.
Another conclusive proof of the marked chemical difference between the
black peat bearing stump-layers, and the red or Sphagnum bog above, is found
in the rate of growth of the bog-timber. However well high bog may be
drained by natural or artificial agencies, the growth made by Pines or other
trees is invariably slow after the first ten or fifteen years, and the maximum
size such trees attain is seldom more than 12 inches in diameter at breast

Clare sland Survey—Tree-Growth. 9 15

height. Inthe root-layers, many pines show a rapid rate of growth during
the first fifty or sixty years, and rings from one-fifth to one-tenth of an inch
in breadth are common. The large size attained by many of the bog trees is
well known, although an exaggerated idea of this may be easily gained from
the horizontal root system. However, there is no reason to doubt that trees
of 2 to 3 feet in diameter at breast height existed. A Pine in the lower
group of bogs on Clare Island showed fifty rings in the first 12 inches of
radius, the broadest ring being a quarter of an inch wide. This rate of growth,
together with the frequent occurrence of Oak on bogs throughout Ireland,
proves that the peat in which the trees grew had comparatively little acidity,
whereas the acidity of the Sphagnum bog is well known, and invests the bog
flora with a distinctly xerophytic character. The occurrence of Oak of
comparatively large size in the root-layers proves the favourable chemical
condition of the peat, as Oak never attains a large size on sour bog.

The problem of peat with and without root-layers is not, therefore, a
mere question of moisture or drainage, but probably one connected with the
character of the soil-water. Many facts point to the same changes in the
level of the water-table having taken place, as is suggested by the Clare
Tsland tree-remains, and render it highly probable that periodic increases
and decreases in the flow of springs feeding the bogs occurred, bringing about
a submergence of the tree-growth on peat, and a renewal of the marsh
growth, the trees again spreading over the bogs when the level of the marsh
had again become stationary. For this to have occurred, it is necessary
to assume that the majority of bog areas had no definite drainage outlet
in earlier times, otherwise a mere increase or decrease in the supply
would not permanently alter the level of the water-table beyond a few
inches, provided the supply was not too small to make good the loss from
evaporation. While it is not impossible that the latter occurred, the flat-
root system of bog-timber rather favours the theory of a stationary than a
falling water-table during the period of tree-growth.

This assumed rise in the water-level of bogs and lakes is borne out in
other directions. The majority of the crannogs existing throughout Ireland
have been discovered after the lowering of lakes by arterial drainage. Many
of these crannogs also rest upon peat, and are now covered by considerable
depths of bog ; and it is quite reasonable to assume that a certain amount of
subsidence has occurred since many of the crannogs were last inhabited. But
those which have appeared after the lowering of lakes usually stand upon
islands and solid foundations, and these could not have sunk to any appreciable
extent, but must have been submerged after they were built, and probably
since they were last inhabited. Possibly the silting up of streams and the

9 14 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

formations of bogs may have temporarily raised the level of lakes from time
to time, but the natural deepening of a drainage-channel is quite as common
an occurrence, and the level of every lake cannot have been raised by silt or
peat-formation.

In many parts of Ireland, again, tree stumps can be seen below the
present level of the water, and the same thing has been noticed in Sweden.
Wright! has observed these submerged stumps in Donegal, and points out
the impossibility of their submergence being due to any tilting of the earth’s
crust which might alter the drainage outflow. In some instances, however,
it is quite possible that these lakes were originally peat bogs, and the stumps
now remaining are simply the residue of the bog which has been gradually
eaten away by a stream which has increased in volume during comparatively
recent times, and subsequent to the growth of the trees on the peat. This
erosive or corrosive action of spring-water upon peat is clearly demonstrated
in many parts of Ireland by the green lines which intersect stretches of
mountain peat, due to streams which have cut their way through two or three
feet of peat, and leaving the edges in the form of perpendicular walls along
the line of flood-water mark. The course oi many of these streams could not
have been materially altered since the peat-formation took place, and the
most reasonable conclusion is that precipitation has increased within com-
paratively recent times. Bog-slides and surface denudation of peat in
mountain districts point in the same direction.

Another link in the chain of evidence regarding this point is the almost
invariable position of the uppermost root-layer with regard to the water-
table, and the existence of the lower one on or below the latter. Had all lakes
in which bogs have since formed been at a fixed level from the beginning, the
occurrence of the lower root-layer would have been impossible, or the upper
one could not have become submerged for any length of time. Although the
general subsidence and consolidation of the peat might possibly have brought
about the death of one root-layer, the probabilities are that had this occurred
a continuous series of stumps would be present, corresponding to the surface
of the marsh, until the latter gradually became converted into Sphagnum
peat,

The probable periods of time which have elapsed since the Pine, Pine and
Oak, and Oak respectively flourished on Clare Island and the mainland
cannot be given with any degree of accuracy. Various estimates have been
made of the length of time required to form a certain depth of peat, but all
are based upon such uncertain data that they must be regarded as unreliable.

} Geological Magazine, N.S. Decade V, vol. ix.

Clare Island Survey—Tree-Growth. 9 15

Observations over a certain number of years may give results at a given
point, but they afford no evidence of the rate of growth of a bog, which may
have been mountain or heath peat at one period or at one spot, marsh peat
at another, and Sphagnum peat at a third; nor do they enable one to judge
of the periods of time during which a bog may have increased in thickness,
remained stationary, or decayed from time to time, according to the prevailing
local or climatic conditions. The depth of peat underlying or overlying a
root bed, therefore, does not necessarily prove the age of the latter, nor does it
necessarily follow that the deepest bogs are the oldest. Probably the surface
area of a bog would be the best standard of age, as it implies the result of
climatic and other conditions upon different soils and situations, but, even
here, many factors of acceleration and retardation of an uncertain nature
have to be taken into account, and the most careful estimate may be wide
of the mark.

The only facts which appear to throw some light upon the antiquity of the
Pine, and the approximate date of the Oak and Pine period, are the traces
of submerged forests round the coast of Ireland and Great Britain, the
names associated with the ancient townlands into which Ireland is divided,
and the materials of which the crannogs are built. The first shows that
Oak and Pine, together with Hazel and other species, existed in the country
when the land stood well above its present level, and that if a pure Pine and
Birch period existed, it must have been, if anything, earlier than the final
submergence of the land. The names of townlands suggest that while Oak
must have been common at the time they acquired the reputation upon which
their nomenclature was based, the existence of the Pine at that period,
probably somewhere early in the Christian era, is very doubtful. The
remains of the various crannogs, which go back to Pagan times in Ireland,
prove the abundance of Oak and Hazel in their construction, while Pine is
conspicuous, not by its absence, but by its rarity, and appears to be confined
to the more ancient structures.

As regards the submerged forests, Pine, Oak, Birch, Hazel, &c., appear
fairly generally distributed amongst them; but in one at least, Ardmore,
county Waterford, no trace of Pine could be found by the writer. In
Blacksod Bay, and at Bray, county Wicklow, the distribution appears to be
Pine at the deeper level, and Oak within five to ten feet of high-water mark,
following the order found in the peat bogs round the English coasts.
Clement Reid’ records Oak, Hazel, &c., but Pine in one or two instances only,
and he attributes the submergence to the Neolithic Period. Praeger? also

1 « Origin of British Flora,”’ ? Proc. R.I. A., series ii, vol. iv.

9 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

states, with reference to the raised beaches of the north-east of Ireland, that
the submerged peat under Estuarine Clay contains Pine, Oak, Hazel,
Alder, &c., and that the overlying or later deposits indicate a warmer
climate than that of the present time. Putting the various pieces of evidence
together, it would appear that the submergence of the land took place during
the transition period from Pine to Pine and Oak, and that the climatic
optimum, in which Oak predominated, came later, and prevailed towards the
close of the Neolithic Period. Clement Reid supposes that the submergence
began in England about 5000 years ago, and occupied about 1500 years ; but
the data upon which this conclusion is based are not very clear. If the
opinion of the same author’ be accepted, to the effect that the Oak would
require one million years to spread unaided from one end of the British Isles
to the other, the transition from pure Pine to pure Oak in the west of Ireland
would require a longer period than the geologist would allow, since the last
glaciation of the country.

The origin of the townland names may be regarded as negative rather
than positive evidence; but it is significant that all existing tree species are
perpetuated in these names, and the general omission of the Pine becomes all
the more significant. Joyce suggests that the one or two instances in which
Pine is associated with townlands may refer to bog-timber rather than the
living tree.

The occurrence of tree-stumps in or under mountain peat is not so well
marked as in the lowland or marsh bogs. In most cases they occur singly
or in small groups within a foot or so of the surface, and appear to have
grown on dry heath peat. Intermixed with this mountain peat, and merging
into it on all sides, are numerous shallow marsh bogs, and the stumps in these
may be several feet above the surface of the soil. While Oak is seldom
absent over large areas, it is evident that Pine is the predominant species in
this type of peat, and occurs up to elevations of 1500 feet in the Wicklow
Mountains, and down to sea-level in the west of Ireland, Birch being mixed
with it everywhere. Oak occurs up to 800 feet on Slieve Bloom ; but obser-
vations are lacking as to the exact altitude it attains in many parts of
Ireland.

Whether in marsh or mountain peat, the occurrence of tree-stumps is very
irregular, thick groups and single trees being usually separated by spaces
free from stumps, and the general distribution is rather that of an open park-
like arrangement of the trees than that of a dense forest. The age of the
trees varies from 50 to 300 years or more, but, owing to the decay of the

1 « Origin of British Flora,” ? «Trish Names of Places,’”’ vol. ii.

Clare Island Survey—Tree-Growth. 9 17

sap-wood, exact records are difficult toobtain. Stumps in marsh peat are, on
the whole, larger, and show a more rapid growth than those in mountain
peat, and the character of the underlying soil has evidently influenced their
growth considerably.

THE PRESENT TREELESS CONDITION OF THE WEST COAST OF IRELAND,
AND ItS PROBABLE CAUSES.

Tf Clare Island alone gave evidence of a former wooded condition which
no longer prevails, it might be assumed that special influences have been
operating upon that area, which would account for the disappearance of trees.
The effect of cultivation and grazing upon a limited area for a long period
would be auite sufficient to prevent natural regeneration taking place, and
bring about existing conditions. But a review of the coast-line between
Donegal and Kerry, and of the various islands lying in the Atlantic, reveals
not merely a general absence of trees over wide stretches of country, but, what
is of greater significance, the occurrence of tree, shrub, and shade species in the
form of small detached colonies a few miles apart, strongly suggestive of a
former wooded condition of the intervening spaces. The presence of tree-
stumps and logs in and under the peat which covers so large a proportion of the
land-surface bears out this theory, although the peat remains probably belong
to an older period than that of the existing forest flora. Where patches of
natural woodland occur which prove the possibility of forest-growth under
existing conditions, they are found to consist of small Oak, Ash, Hazel, Holly,
Birch, Mountain Ash, with an occasional Elm, Aspen, Juniper, or Yew. The
general composition of this forest flora differs little, if at all, from that
prevailing over three-fourths of the British Isles; and, with the exception of
Birch, Juniper, Aspen, and Mountain Ash, these species, but more especially
Oak and Hazel, are associated with better soils and warmer summers than
those now existing in the west of Ireland generally. The condition of these
scattered woods is one which suggests the last stage of debility and degrada-
tion, the stems being short, crooked, and moss-grown, while the rate of
growth is so slow that little alteration in the size of the trees or condition of
the woods can be noted over long periods. It is quite evident that they form
the rearguard of a retreating forest-growth, rather than the outposts of an
advancing one, and the general conclusion to which a careful observer must
arrive from all the facts before him is that a broad-leaved forest, in which Oak
and Hazel predominated, invaded the whole of the west of Ireland at some
early period, flourished there for an unknown number of centuries, and is
now in full retreat.

R.I,A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. C 9

9 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In support of this conclusion, the occurrence of tree or shade species along
the entire western coast-line, on most of the islands, and on the mountain-
ranges far above the present tree limit, may be cited. Barrington! found Scilla
nutans, Luzula sylvatica, and Primula vulgaris on the Great Blasket; while
Praeger records Digitalis purpurea and Lonicera Periclymenum from the same
island? The Clare Island forest and shade flora has already been referred to.
From Inishturk, a rocky island standing out in the Atlantic in the vicinity of
Clare Island, Praeger’ records Betula pubescens, Corylus Avellana, Ilex aqui-
Jolium, Populus tremula, Salie cinerea, and the following shade plants :—
Lonicera Periclymenum, Primula vulgaris, Lusula maxima; while Juniperus
nana occurs both on Inishturk and Achill Island, although absent from Clare
Island. On Inishbofin, Praeger‘ found Aspen and Mountain Ash, and Luzgula
maxima; and the same observer records Lonicera Periclymenum and Luzula
erecta from the Mullet,? and Luzula maxima on the extreme west of Achill
Island.* Hart’ recorded various shade plants, as—Sanicula ewropea, Scilla
nutans, Lusula maxima, Digitalis purpurea, Primula vulgaris, Lonicera
Periclymenum, &e., at various elevations up to 2640 feet on the mountains
of Mayo and Galway; while Oak was found up to 750 feet and Hazel up to
1100 feet. These records, while not absolute proofs of the existence of woods
at an earlier period, prove the survival oi plants so closely associated with
shade that they furnish the student of plant associations with evidence that
is practically convincing on this point when taken in conjunction with other
facts.

Another point of importance in connexion with these relics of previous
woodland extension is the more or less universal sterility of the soils on which
they exist. While they are usually absent from the peat blanket which
appears to wipe out everything but a characteristic peat flora, Oak and Hazel
are frequently found on rock detritus, and in crevices of rock slopes; and
while their survival on these sites is easily understood, it is difficult to
imagine their establishing themselves under existing conditions. Oak and
Hazel woods now growing on talus and Boulder-clay ground in the extreme
west are not merely in a decadent and stunted condition, showing little
vegetative and still less propagative vigour, but the surface is invariably
covered with a surface flora of Heather, Vaccinium, Molinia, Sphagnum, and
other plants, forming the early stages of peat formation, and the conditions
are the reverse of those favourable for the establishment of Oak and Hazel,

1 Proc. R. 1. A., series ii, vol. iii. 2 Trish Naturalist, vol. xxi.
3 Trish Naturalist, vol. xv. 4 Trish Naturalist, vol. xx.
* Trish Naturalist, vol. xiv. © Trish Naturalist, vol, xiii. 7 Proc. R. 1. A., series ii, vol,

Clare Island Survey—Tree-Growth, 9 19

two species which demand fairly good soil and growing seasons, with tempera-
tures of at least 55°-60° Fahrenheit, for the production of fruit on a scale
which would bring about their extension on bare land, or that occupied by
a competing flora.

If the geographical distribution of the Oak and Hazel over Europe is
investigated, it is found that the former species occurs in Scandinavia up
to latitude 61° or thereabouts, although occasional trees may be found still
further north. This latitude corresponds in that region to a July mean of
about 60° Fahrenheit, and a period during which the temperature remains
over 50° Fahrenheit for about 100 days, or from three to four months. From
Valencia in the south of Ireland to Malin Head in the north, the July mean
steadily decreases from 59° Fahrenheit to 572° Fahrenheit; while means
over 50° Fahrenheit prevail from May to October, or for a period of about
180 days, the means for the above-named months being slightly over
50° Fahrenheit in the south, and slightly under in the north. In all the
western Irish stations, however, the means for August are slightly higher
than for July, and indicate a relatively warmer autumn than summer, as
compared with most parts of the country. While the maximum mean
temperatures for the summer months are higher at the northern limit of the
Oak and Hazel region in Scandanavia than in western Ireland, the length of
the growing season is very much longer in the latter, and this fact must be
borne in mind when assuming the climatic conditions necessary for the pro-
pagative functions of the species in question. It is a matter of common
observation that the normal vegetative development of the Oak in the British
Isles corresponds to a July mean of about 59° Fahrenheit. By normal
development is meant an average height-growth on average soils and situa-
tions, and in close woods, of from 80 to 100 feet, with diameters of 20 to
30 inches at breast height. Where the summers are cooler than those
represented by this mean, good specimens of Oak are rarely found except on
good soils and aspects. ‘This fact is brought out fairly clearly if the July
isotherm of 59° Fahrenheit is followed from the west of Ireland to the east
coast of Scotland. So far as scanty meteorological records go, this isotherm
passes a little north of Valencia Island, and thence in a north-easterly
direction along the basin of the Shannon to about Londonderry. Skirting
the northern and eastern coast-line, it crosses the Irish Sea somewhere about
the Isle of Man, and then again turns north, and crosses Scotland about the
latitude of Edinburgh. Along the western seaboard of Ireland few stations
appear to go above 58° Fahrenheit, and the records for Blacksod Point for

' Clare Island Survey, Part 6.

C2

9 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

July and August in 1911 are 581° and 58°2°. West and north of this
isotherm, Oaks of large size are exceedingly scarce, and although actual
records of individual trees may be quite misleading as climatic indices, the
writer cannot recall having seen any tree in the north-west of Ireland which
would be regarded as of average size in England, except, perhaps, on excep-
tionally favoured sites, as at Westport House, the neighbourhood of Sligo,
and other localities with good soils and shelter from westerly winds.

in Scotland, Hutchinson’ recorded oaks of over 80 feet from Ross, Perth,
and Clackmannan, and Elwes and Henry? record an Oak of 118 feet in
Perthshire, the last-named county showing the greatest number of tall trees
north of the line referred to above. Apart from a few favoured individuals,
therefore, the Oak becomes a comparatively small and slow-growing species
in the extreme north and west of the British Isles, although few, if any,
parts of the latter are outside its limits of distribution in the form of scrub,
or fail to show its occurrence as a timber-tree in earlier times by remains
preserved in peat bogs.

If this July mean of 59° Fahrenheit is necessary for the normal vegetative
development of the Oak, it is certainly necessary, and probably less than is
required, for its normal reproductive functions, which require more heat than
suffices for growth. ‘The truth of this statement with regard to broad-
leaved species in general was well exemplified in the case of the Spanish
Chestnut in Ireland in 1911.- This species attains as large dimensions in
the south and midlands of Ireland as in any part of the British Isles, but
the ripening of its fruit is a rare occurrence apart from the extreme
south-east of the country. In 1911, when the July means reached 60°
to 62° Fahrenheit, crops of ripe nuts were general south of Dublin, and were
produced in other parts of Ireland. In the case of the Oak, acorns are able to
ripen in all parts of Ireland in summers of average warmth, but the seed years
are few and far between; the acorns are exceptionally small, and the crops
poor, as compared with English yields. For the Oak to have become the
dominant tree throughout the west of Jveland, a more plentiful seed-pro-
duction must be assumed than that now taking place; and the same may be
said in a general way of the Hazel, although the long growing season probably
favours the latter species more than the Oak. That this heavier seed-
production was due to greater summer warmth seems the only conclusion
that can be arrived at, especially when due consideration is given to the
fact that Oak scrub is found at much higher elevations throughout the
British Isles than those at which the species now attains a timber size, or

1 Trans. Highland Agric. Soc., vol. xiii, 1881. 2 “Trees of Great Britain and Ireland.’’

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 21

produces fertile seed. In every mountain district Oak scrub may be found
well above the 1000-feet contour line, and although this may have
occasionally arisen from seed produced at lower levels, the greater part
of it must be regarded as relics of a wider extension of that species at some
reinote period, and under conditions which no longer exist. Moss’ suggests
that the appearance of heather and Vaccinium in the surface flora of Oak
woods prevents natural regeneration ; but before this ground flora can
establish itself, the leaf canopy of the Oak crop must be weakened by
thinning or a reduction in the vegetative vigour of the crop. While
thinning alone may alter the character of the surface flora, the appearance
of the shade-bearing Vaccinium suggests a deterioration of surface-soil rather
‘than an increase of light, and this may be due to climatic changes such as a
lower summer temperature and heavier rainfall, and evidence of changes of a
similar nature are found in the west of Ireland.

But another climatic factor of equal importance to temperature, and
one by which the latter can be considerably influenced, is wind. While a
low summer temperature may check or retard the growth and propagation
of Oak and Hazel, wind can not only check but actually destroy growth
already made, and this is especially found to be the case in the west of
Ireland. This destructive effect of the wind along the coast is chiefly due
to the salt content of the air-currents from the Atlantic, and during the
summer and autumn not only partially destroys the foliage of broad-
leaved trees, and the needles of many conifers which are usually better
adapted for resisting adverse climatic features, but destroys the woody
growth formed earlier in the season. Trees exposed to strong sea-winds
acquire a characteristic form, and an examination of these trees shows that
the ends of all branches or shoots exposed to the wind are killed back more
or less annually for a certain distance, the succeeding year’s growth being
continued from buds or short spurs below the dead portion. This annual
shortening back of each season’s growth, which on the west coast takes
place usually in autumn, invests the crown with a flattened surface on the
top and windward sides, as if the branches had been trimmed with shears,
while the leeward side of the crown, being in shelter, develops more or less
normally, the tree thus being given an unequally balanced crown and a
leaning stem.

On the extreme west, trees exposed directly to the wind cannot attain
more than a few feet in height unless growing in masses, or sheltered by
high ground to windward, and for a considerable distance from the coast,

1 ** Woodlands of England,” in New Phytologist.

9 22 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

few indigenous species can be found until undulating or hilly ground occurs,
and then hollows, valleys, and eastern slopes alone show trees of normal
shape or development.

How far the effect of the salt wind extends inland it is difficult to say,
but probably no part of Ireland is quite free from it. On high ground and
poor soils, the salinity of the air, however, may be obscured by the ordinary
desiccation caused by evaporation and a reduced temperature surrounding
the branches. The evaporation effect of wind in drying up branches to a
fatal degree is usually confined to trees with low vegetative vigour, as those
growing at or near the vertical tree-limit, or on poor, acid soils, while it is
a common occurrence in old trees, and forms the early stage of that con-
dition to which the term “stag-headed” is applied. The cause of desiccation
in all these cases is practically the same, namely, evaporation from the
surface of the branch or leaf at a more rapid rate than the loss can be made
good by water absorbed by the roots. In young and vigorous trees, or those
growing on good soils, fatal desiccation seldom, if ever, occurs at elevations
below 1000 feet in inland districts; but all freely exposed trees show a
shorter growth of twigs and branches on the windward side, and the same
tendency to produce a flat-topped crown. The further east, or the greater
the shelter afforded to the westward, the less marked does this habit of
growth become. But at high altitudes the reduction in osmotic pressure
throughout the cellular system of the tree, brought about by the low
temperatures of soil and air, may often cause the death of the ends of the
branches by excessive evaporation, and produce results similar to those
found near the sea. Trees growing on poor, peaty, or water-logged soils
are also affected in the same way, owing to the slow rate at which the roots
take in water, and their reduced functional activity.

The precise cause of the effect of sea-wind upon tree-growth is difficult to
determine, but probably both chemical and physical action is responsible.
That the salinity or low temperature of the air, and not merely the drying
action of the wind, is the cause of injury may be inferred from the condition
of trees growing near sea-level on north and east coast-lines, where the winds
off the sea are comparatively rare in occurrence and light in force during the
summer months. Trees and hedges within two hundred yards of the sea
show the same effect from sea-wind on these coasts as those on the west,
although the low elevation and good soil on which many of them are growing
are able to produce a vigorous growth a few yards further inland.

In connexion with this point, a few observations made on the Old Head
plantation near Louisburgh may be cited. Old Head rises sharply from the
sea to a height of 340 feet, and is clothed with forest growth down to within

Olare Island Survey—Tree-Growth. 9 23

10 feet or so of sea-level. ‘The effect of the sea-wind can be seen on the east
and north aspects, and in situations quite sheltered from the west and south-
west, and appears to be greater at lower than at higher levels. As the force
of the wind increases with elevation, it would appear that the character of
the wind, and not its force alone, is the factor which influences the growth of
trees near the sea.

Tt is a rather curious fact that few indigenous British trees can be
deseribed as good sea-wind resisters, or as able to produce timber at high
elevations. Experience gained during the last century in planting exposed
sites brings out the fact that the best species for resisting or tolerating
sea wind are Austrian, Corsican, Mountain, Maritime, and Monterey Pines,
White American Spruce, Sitka Spruce, Silver Fir, and one or two others
amongst the conifers, and Sycamore, Alder, Ash, Birch, Willow, Mountain
Ash, Poplar, Elm, &c., amongst broad-leaved trees. Of these, Alder, Ash,
Birch, and Mountain Ash are probably alone indigenous to the west
of Ireland, and none of these approaches the Oak in numerical importance
at the present day. After many centuries of exposure, therefore, there are
few indications that the forest flora of the west has adapted itself to present
conditions, or that the species best represented are those best adapted for
wind-resistance. Whether this point has any reference to a comparatively
recent alteration in the climatic conditions in the west is difficult to say,
but it is significant that Scots Pine, which at one time covered the western
sea-board, shows little ability to stand sea-wind with impunity, while the
Oak, which followed it, is little, if at all, better.

One very common effect of destructive wind upon Oak and other broad-
leaved woods is that of preventing the ripening of wood sufficiently well
to enable flower-buds to form. Much of the growth of the trees being due
to adventitious buds, and produced under conditions which prevent free
exposure to light and sun, well-developed flower-buds cannot be formed
in any quantity, and seed-production in wind-swept woods is reduced to
a minimum, and may be prevented altogether. While this may not prevent
bare ground being stocked, or old woodland regenerated by means of seed
produced by trees growing in sheltered spots, it diminishes the reproductive
power of the species over a wide area, and it is evident that little reproduction
of Oak and Hazel is taking place in the west of Ireland at the present time,
and certainly none on the more exposed sites.

A third adverse factor as regards Oak and Hazel in the west is soil,
which is proverbially sterile and unproductive. A few oases of good
land occur here and there, but rock and peat predominate. ‘The extremely
widespread distribution of Oak and Hazel, and the absence of Pine, render

9 24 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

it probable that not merely the climate but also the soil must have deterio-
rated long before historic times, and since the Oak spread throughout the
west. With the present soil conditions, the Pine, which at one time was
universally distributed over Ireland, would have a better chance of
maintaining its footing than the Oak, and could scarcely have been crushed
out by the latter. Yet there are good reasons for supposing that this actually
occurred.

Whether this deterioration of the soil and the growth of peat was a
direct result of climatic change is an open question. As already pointed
out, there are good reasons for assuming a heavier rainfall and cooler
summers at the present time than those of two or three thousand years ago,
when dry heath probably occupied the surface now covered by mountain
peat, and the more extensive growth of Sphagnum peat had not commenced.

The general conclusion at which one must arrive after reviewing the
whole of the facts regarding the comparative absence of trees in the west
of Ireland is, that after making due allowance for human interference,
grazing, and other artificial causes, the present soil and climatic conditions
are not those which prevailed at the time Oak and Hazel pushed their
way to such extremely wind-exposed points as Clare Island, and colonized
the whole of the mainland within 1000 or 1200 feet of sea-level. Warmer
summers appear to have been the most likely feature which characterized a
former climate, but whether these were accompanied by a lighter rainfall
and a reduction in westerly winds is not so clearly suggested by the evidence
available in the west of Ireland alone. An extension of the land, ten to
twenty miles further west, which is suggested by geological evidence of changes
in the sea-level, would place the present coast-line far enough inland to
enable trees growing along that line to escape the worst effects of the sea-
wind, and while the beneficial effect of this would be somewhat discounted
by the higher elevation at which trees on existing land areas were growing,
there is some reason to suppose that a lowering of the present sea-level by
109 feet or so would lead to an increase in summer temperature, and a
reduction in the rainfall of lowland districts.

The year 1913 appears to have provided a good example of the effect of
temperature upon the ripening of wood, resulting in a greater resistance to
wind in trees throughout the Blacksod and Louisburgh districts. Exposed
trees of Ash, Sycamore, Oak, Hazel, Thorn, &c., show large numbers of well-
ripened and uninjured shoots; so much so, that many trees have partially
lost their characteristic wind-swept appearance for the time being. Two
wind-swept Oaks at Old Head, with flattened tops, and about 10 feet in
height, possessed well-ripened 1913 shoots of 12 to 24 inches in length

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 25

in March, 1914, and much evidence of the same sort of thing could be seen
between Mulranny and Tullaghan Bay, one of the most wind-swept parts of
the Belmullet area.

The only explanation that can be found of this unusual occurrence is
the higher autumn temperature of 1913 in that part of Ireland. The
Blacksod records of the monthly means, as given in the Meteorological Office
Reports, show the following differences from the average :—

| Mean Temperature. Rainfall in Inches.

| DS ee eae See zh be Soe

| + = + =

[Estee
July, : | — - | Ley — 1:19
August, . | (2? | — = 3°02
September, 0 0:6° | — “45 —
October, . . 1:9° | — 1-26 —
November, : 2:6° | — 1°69 —
December, 5 | 1:5° | — — 67

Ne eee 4 56° | Es = — 1-48

If the four months July to October only are taken, an increase of 1°5 is
shown in temperature and a decrease of 2°5 in rainfall, the last three months
in the year being responsible for the high gain in the former. It is not,
probable that the comparatively small difference in rainfall had any
appreciable effect, and the higher temperature appears to be the only
important difference from the normal in 1913, as winds were as strong and
frequent as in 1912, although perhaps rather below the average on the whole.

If similar conditions to the above prevailed during a series of years, it
is quite probable that tree-growth in the west might show quite a different
development. As it is, the above proves the comparatively slight climatic
change that would be necessary to restore the conditions which probably
existed during the climatic optimum in the west of Ireland, although the higher
temperatures possibly occurred earlier in the season than those of 1913.

RELATION OF CLARE ISLAND Forest FLorA TO THAT OF MAINLAND.

The position of Clare Island with regard to the mainland and the existing
distribution of trees on the latter raise certain questions which are of
special interest, as they afford circumstantial evidence of the antiquity of the

island flora. Clare Island is at present separated from the mainland by two
PROC, R.I.A., YOL. XXXI, D 9

9 26 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

straits of the Atlantic, which form the entrances to Clew Bay. On the
north-east the nearest point to the island is the southern end of Achillbeg,
which lies about three miles from Clare Island lighthouse, and the same
distance separates the Harbour on the south-east corner of the island
from Roonah Quay, near Louisburgh. Rocks projecting above the sea
in the channels to the north and south of the island show that the general
depth of the sea is not great, and suggest that at one time Clare Island was
either connected with the mainland or was only separated from it by narrow
straits joining in Clew Bay. This suggestion is strengthened by geological
evidence,’ which goes to show that much of Clew Bay was once filled with
glacial drift after the disappearance of the main ice-sheet moving in a south-
westerly direction, while a subsequent local ice-sheet from the south passed
over the island from the Mweelrea group of mountains, the moraines of
which occupied the valleys of the rivers now running into the mouth of Clew
Bay in a north-westerly direction. There is good reason for supposing, there-
fore, that the last connexion between Clare Island and the mainland was on the
southern side, while the northern connexion was more or less interrupted by
the drainage system of the land lying to the north and east of Clew Bay. |

A comparison of the past and present forest flora of Achill Island and the
Curraun peninsula to the north, and the stretch of flat land between Louis-
burgh and the Mweelrea and Croaghpatrick mountains, and the character of
the soils in which this flora existed, renders it probable that the country to
the south of the island was more heavily timbered at an early period than
that on the Achill side. On the Louisburgh side, the soil is of a comparatively
fertile character, and is highly cultivated. While peat originally covered
the whole district in a general way, it owed its origin to the more or less
marshy character of the surface, which subsequent drainage was able to turn
into agricultural land, and on and under the peat Oak and Pine once
existed in large numbers, as is proved by the stumps now remaining. While
the whole area is wind-swept and bare at the present-time, it is evident that
the general lie of the land, a considerable proportion of which slopes in an
easterly direction from the western coast-line, would, under existing climatic
conditions, allow trees of the same species to thrive at the present time if
planted in large masses. The existing tree-growth is chiefly confined to belts
and clumps round a few farm-houses, but at Old Head a considerable area of
native timber and plantation exists, and suggests that the present scarcity of
tree-growth on this side of Clew Bay is chiefly due to human interference,
and not to natural causes. On the sheltered side of Old Head, Oak, Ash,
Beech, Pine, Sycamore, ete., of normal dimensions are found, although rather

1 Clare Island Survey, Tart 7.

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 27

smaller than the size attained by these species on similar soils and sites
further inland. Oak, Birch, Hazel, Willow, and Holly scrub clothe the north
and south slopes of the head, while miniature clumps of Oak, with a surface-
growth of Luzula, Bracken, etc., on the summit prove that at no very distant
date the greater part of this hill was covered with timber. There is good
reason to suppose, therefore, that Old Head forms the last stronghold of the
more modern forest flora of the district, and that at one time it extended
across a ridge now broken through or covered by the sea, to Clare Island, and
covered much of the valley now occupied by Clew Bay.

On the mainland to the north, a more sterile surface soil, practically
covered with mountain peat, prevails over the whole of Achill Island, and the
country west of a line from Newport to Belmullet. Over the whole of this
tract the sterility of the surface soil is far greater than on the area already
described, and the original forest covering appears to have consisted almost
entirely of Pine, stumps of which are scattered over the original surface now
covered by peat. The small size of the Pine stumps on the slopes facing
Clew Bay between Newport and Mulranny suggests that this area was
always comparatively sterile and wind-swept. Scrub Oak exists at
Mulranny, Glendarary House near Achill Sound, and a few other places,
but the growth of ail vegetation suffers considerably from wind on this side
of the bay, except where sheltered by hills to the westward. Modern planta-
tions of Ash, Alder, Sycamore, Maritime and Scots Pine exist in a few places,
and at Glendarary fine specimens of Pinus insignis, planted about 1870 on a
peat-covered hillside, prove the fitness of this species for the west of Ireland.

The above facts favour the theory that the more recent forest flora of
Clare Island came in from the south or east when a wide valley covered with
Oak, Hazel, Holly, etc., occupied a great part of the site now forming Clew
Bay, while the high ground to the north was covered with Pines. The
former type of forest invaded the Pine forest already present on Clare Island,
and by sheer force of numbers probably reduced the proportion of Pines to
an extent which gradually placed them in the position of a subordinate
species, and created difficulties in the way of their natural regeneration which
finally brought about the total extinction of the species over wide areas, its
final disappearance being possibly due to human agency, although the exact
influence of the latter is a doubtful point, as already suggested.

This disappearance of the Pine from the Clare Island and west of Iveland
flora is not easy of explanation. The few Irish place-names associated with
trees on the island, which are quoted by MacNeill,’ refer to Oak and woody
growth generally, while Colgan* comments on the absence of names of trees

' Clare Island Survey, Part 3. ? Clare Island Survey, Part 4.

D2

9 28 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

generally in the vernacular of the island. This omission of any mention of
the tree and its associations is probably connected with the increasing
scarcity of this species all over Ireland from a very early period, and presents
many perplexing problems. The destruction of the species by fire, grazing,
and other causes might be regarded as a satisfactory explanation if Pine had
been plentiful down to the historic period; but while there is no evidence
that this was the case, there is much circumstantial evidence to the contrary.
The omission of the tree in Irish place-names has already been referred to.
Bog stumps on the whole show no trace of having been destroyed by fire or
felling, and the occasional exposure of a charred or felled stump in turf-
cutting proves nothing as regards the death of trees over large areas, which
have evidently died in situ, the stems decaying away above the surface, while
a growth of Sphagnum or marsh bog formed over the roots and preserved them
intact, and in their present condition. This killing out of Pine over large
areas of peat-bog has already been dealt with, but the disappearance of the
tree over adjoining areas free from peat at the present time, and a still larger
peat-free area at an earlier period, suggests some widespread cause which
must have had a more powerful influence upon the life-history of the Pine
than grazing or human interference.

Compared with most species, the Pine shows not only great powers of
reproduction and dispersal with unfavourable surface conditions, but a
vitality which is only exceeded by the Oak and Yew amongst British or
Trish trees. No soil type exists in Ireland on which the Pine will not flourish,
although its weakly calcifuge character might be disadvantageous in a few
districts. Since its re-introduction into Ireland and England during the last
two or three hundred years, it has spread over bogs, mountains, and heaths
in spite of fires, grazing, and other forms of abuse, and shows no evidence
that the climatic conditions are unfavourable to it, whether it is dependent
upon the cool, damp summers of Ireland, or the warmer and drier ones of
the south of England. No change in the climate great enough to affect the
development of the tree can have occurred since it flourished all over the
British Isles, or, if a slight change has taken place, it is one which should be
to this tree’s advantage rather than otherwise.

The only reasonable explanation of its disappearance, but one which is to
a certain extent inadequate, is the increase and progressive development of
Oak and other broad-leaved species in the original Pine forests during the
climatic optimum, which produced a shade-flora and humus layer unfavourable
to the natural regeneration of the Pine on the better classes of soil, while the
poorer heath- and Pine-covered areas were ultimately affected by the
mountain peat-formation when a damper and cooler climate followed. Milder

Clare Island Survey—Tree- Growth. 9 29

winters would also enable a great increase to take place in the spread of
Gorse, beneath which seedlings of Pine would be quickly smothered. While
this theory does not satisfactorily explain the total disappearance of the tree,
it affords a possible reason for its speedy destruction when semi-civilized
man came on the scene, and commenced to burn the Gorse and Heather for
the sake of providing rough pasturage—a process which would destroy
seedlings and young trees on many areas of mountain which probably
formed the last stronghold of the Pine. One possible natural factor in the
process of extinction may be mentioned. Many stumps of Fir in bogs show
the “rhizomorphs” or mycelium of Agaricus melleus, the Honey Fungus. This
fungus is particularly fatal to young Pines, and when the latter are planted
on woodland cleared of Oak, Ash, or other broad-leaved species, large numbers
succunb. On a soil more or less permeated by the mycelium of this fungus,
as is old Oak and Ash woodland, the Pine may have had an enemy of con-
siderable virulence to contend with, and this, added to the shade and thick,
loose. humus layer, may have practically exterminated it from large areas.
At what period the Pine ceased to be a recognizable component of the
forest flora of Clare Island is difficult to say. If the absence of Pine from
the higher-lying forest zone is confirmed, it appears probable that the species
disappeared from the island earlier than was the case on the mainland, as
there is no trace of it under the mountain peat which covers the Oak stumps
on the former, while it occurs everywhere under mountain peat on the main-
land. Submerged forests on Achill Sound, Tullaghan and Bellacragher Bays,
&e., show that Oak and Pine formed a mixed forest when the sea-level was
from five to ten feet lower than at present, while the same mixture in the
lowland peat-bogs occurred previous to the formation of Sphagnum peat. As
already pointed out, an increase in the temperature would favour rather than
prevent the spreading of Pine on to the higher ground, but the preservation of
the stumps would only occur when they were covered with peat. If the
formation of the mountain peat on Clare Island took place at a later period
than that on the mainland, owing to more favourable soil conditions or other
causes, the Oak may have succeeded in suppressing the Pine on the restricted
area available for tree-growth on the island before mountain peat-formation
began, while on the poorer soils of the Achill and Belmullet areas, the
extension of Oak would be hindered on the one hand, and the peat-formation
hastened on the other. There are several reasons for supposing that mountain
peat was not extensively developed at high elevations, or in the west of
Ireland, until after the climatic optimum, a period corresponding to the
greatest development of the Oak and Hazel fiora. Wright’ supposes that
this optimum occurred in early Neolithic times, about the time the sea had

1« The Quaternary Ice Age.”

-9 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

attained its maximum encroachment on the land, as shown by the 25-foot
beach in the north-east of Ireland. Praeger’ summarizes the climatic changes
corresponding to differences in the sea-level in this part of Ireland as
follows :—“ The peat bed [containing a submerged forest of mixed Oak, Hazel,
Alder, Pine, &c.], so far as we know its flora and fauna, points to a climate
not much differing from that which exists at present. A slight submergence
allowed the deposition of the lower estuarine clay, with its rather southern
fauna, and a further submergence was followed by the accumulation of
deposits of mud in the shape of the upper estuarine clay, of sand banks, such
as the Curran of Larne, and of shelly beach deposits, such as Portrush. At
this period the southern element of the fauna attained its maximum. Finally
came elevation of the land, and with the last change of level came the final
fluctuation in the character of the animal life—a distinct return towards
its former northern character, which has left the fauna as we now find it.”

Correlating the above changes in sea-level and marine fauna with the
growth of trees and peat on Clare Island, it is possible to imagine the
following succession :—

ee qs, Submerged or Peat
Period. Sea-Leyvel. ineyeenis ype. Peat Type.
1 20 — 30 feet lower. | Pine and Birch. Shallow Marsh Peat.
2 | O0—10 = Mixed Oak and Pine. | Deeper Marsh Peat.
3 | 0 — 25 higher on) Oak, Hazel, etc. Sphagnum Peat on Marsh bog.
north-east coast of
Ireland.
4 Present leyel. Broad-leayed Scrub. | Mountain Peat in west of Ire-
| land and at high elevations.

While the above assumption regarding the succession of species appears
reasonable, it is evident that the general absence of the Oak at more than
ten feet below present high-water mark in Achill Sound does not explain its
introduction to Clare Island by a land-bridge towards the end of the rise in
sea-level. There is, however, proof of the existence of the Oak in the southern
parts of Ireland when the sea failed to reach the present low-water mark. At
Ardmore, County Waterford, no trace of Pine can be seen, while Oak,
Birch, &c., extend under the present sea-level, and at Bray and several other
places Oak, &c., appear to go much lower than the ten feet assumed above.
But a possible explanation of the late introduction of Oak into the island by
land is the strong probability of any land-bridge having partially survived the
rise of the sea for a long period, owing to the time required to completely eat
away eight to ten miles of Boulder-clay. ‘There is every probability, again,
that the bed of the channel between Clare Island and the mainland has been

1 Proc. R.I. A., Series iii, vol. iv.

Clare Island Survey—Tree-Growth. 9 31

deepened by tidal scour during the last two or three thousand years, so that
the fall in sea-level necessary to lay dry the present channel has only partly
to do with the problem. Another point necessary to bear in mind is the fact
that the submerged forest and peat layers in Blacksod Bay and adjoining areas
were formed at a time when higher ground, in the shape of sand, gravel, or
clay ridges, must have existed in a seaward direction, otherwise the formation
of marsh and peat could not have occurred. Many of the trees and the
overlying or surrounding peat may thus have grown on a surface actually
below high-water mark, and not been submerged until the barriers on the
sea side had been broken through by erosion. The appearance of having
grown on a surface sloping gradually down to and under the sea, which
these submerged forests now present to the eye, may lead to quite
erroneous ideas being formed of the rate at which the sea advanced, and
it is highly probable that this occurred in the form of a series
of jerks instead of as a gradual and steady advance. Land may
thus have existed several miles to seaward until quite recent times,
and afforded a foothold for Oaks on islands and peninsulas no longer
in existence. A familiar example of the above condition of things may be
seen between Greystones and Wicklow, where the sea has encroached nearly
a mile within the memory of those now living, and where the ridge on which
the railway runs is the only barrier against further encroachment.

The possibility of the introduction of the forest flora by wind, water, or
animals has been fully discussed by Praeger,’ and, so far as many species are
concerned, presents little difficulty. But Oak and Hazel, the two most
signilicant components of the present forest flora, cannot be distributed by
wind, while ripe acorns and nuts sink rapidly after immersion in water, and
it is unlikely that they would, in the event of their floating, get beyond the
high-water mark of any shore-line on which they were cast up unaided. No
bird exists which would be likely to carry nuts, and although acorns are
frequently carried by Rooks two or three hundred yards for more convenient
consumption, the chances of their carrying them over two or three miles of
sea are very remote. Acorns may be carried in an undigested state in the
crops of Pigeons, but the death of the birds shortly after a meal would be
necessary to enable them to germinate. The chances of the introduction of
these species by any other than overland routes are, therefore, too remote to
be accepted as foregone conclusions, more especially as Clare Island appears
to be the only island on the western seaboard which contains Oak, although
Hazel has been recorded also from Inishturk by Praeger.’

The absence of several mainland species from Clare Island may he

1 Clare Island Survey, Part 10, * Trish Naturalist, vol. xvi.

9 32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

regarded as bearing upon this point. Ash is probably the most common
indigenous tree in the Irish Hora at the present time, but does not appear to
exist on any of the western islands except where planted. Compared with
the Oak and Hazel, its facilities for dispersal by air and water are numerous,
while it thrives better in maritime districts than either, and the same
applies to the Wych Elm. Alder is almost as common as Ash on the main-
land, and both species are found at Old Head and Achill, probably native.
This species stands sea-wind better than any broad-leaved tree, and is now
being planted for shelter hedges on Clare Island with. fair success. It also
distributes itself easily by wind, water, birds, ete., and, when once established,
is difficult to eradicate from damp ground. Amongst the numerous samples
of bog-timber collected by the writer on the island, no trace of Ash was
found, and it is reasonable to assume that this species never existed there.
It is highly probable, therefore, that the separation of Clare Island from the
mainland occurred during the movement of the present forest flora westward,
the earlier or more vigorous arrivals on the seaboard reaching the island, but
later comers being shut out by the sea-barrier subsequently formed. Several
of the Clare Island species, such as Holly, Mountain Ash, ete., may have
arrived at any time, as the distribution of these species by birds is constantly
going on; but the presence of Oak and possibly Hazel on the one hand, and
the absence of Ash, Elm, &c., on the other, are inexplicable on any other
erounds than the above.

The main conclusions which one arrives at from a careful survey of all
the facts regarding the past and present forest flora of Clare Island are :—

Ist. That the earliest tree-growth existed when Clare Island was con-
nected with the mainland, and that Pine and Birch were the
principal species.

2nd. ‘That the Oak and Hazel followed the Pine, and reached the island
before its connexion with the mainland was entirely broken off.

3rd. That the Oak and Hazel gradually dominated the Pine, when the
former produced timber of medium size at an altitude of 400 feet
over present sea-level.

4th. That the absence of Ash, Wych Elm, Alder, etc., from the whole of
the western islands suggests that these islands possess the oldest
representatives of the mainland forest flora only, and were separated
from the mainland at an early period.

Sth. That while the present stunted condition of tree-growth on the
island is partly due to human agency, there are good grounds for
supposing that the summers are cooler af the present time than

when the Oak occurred in comparatively large numbers,

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ROGAMIA.

E

PHAN

SURVEY.—PRAEGER :

CLARE ISLAND

Clare Tsland Survey.

PHANEROGAMIA AND PTERIDOPHYTA.

By Rk. LLOYD PRAEGER.

[Read June 12 and Novemser 13.

1. General features of the district,
2. Extent and character of the flora of
Clare Island, s
Comparison of the floras of
Clare Island, Inishturk, and
Tnishbofin, 5 :
The floras of adjoining islets,
The Bills,
Mweelaun,
Caher Island, . 3
3. Description of the vegetation of Clare
Island, 0 6
Character of the island,
Maritime vegetation,
Meadowland vegetation,
Woodland vegetation,
Moorland vegetation,
Alpine vegetation,

Puares I-VI.

Published Novempen 29, 1911.]

CONTENTS.
PAGE
1 4, List of the flora of Clare Island,
Notes on the list,
2 5. Influence of man upon the flora,
6. Origin of the flora,
Transport by water,
5 Transport by wind,
12 Plumed seeds,
12 Winged seeds,
12 Powder seeds, : :
13 Efficiency for dispersal by wind
of the seeds of some British
14 plants, °
14 Transport by birds,
15 Probability of a land-bridge,
18 The case of the Faerées,
19 The case of Krakatau,
20 7. Bibliography,
23 8. Index,

1. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE DISTRICT.

PAGE

28

Ir is necessary, in the first place, to recall briefly what will be found in
another section as to the general features of Clare Island and its environment.
A glance at a map will show many features that must be borne in mind by the

reader of the following pages.

West Mayo and West Galway form together

agreat buttress, composed mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks, and of
early Palaeozoic slates, projecting boldly into the Atlantic, and forming, with
the exception of the headlands of Kerry and West Cork, the most westerly

R.1,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI.

A

1

10 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

land in Europe. This district includes many groups of mountains, the higher
ones rising to about 2000-2600 feet, with wide areas of lower undulating
ground. On both high and low ground, peat predominates, and often
stretches unbroken over wide areas, with a limited and monotonous
vegetation. The coast-line is very broken and irregular, with outlying
peninsulas and islands. In the area with which we are concerned, the large
island of Achill, swathed in bog and almost treeless, stands boldly out,
separated from the mainland by a narrow, shallow strait.

South of Achill, Clare Island, Inishturk, and Inishbofin lie in a string off
the coast, separated from each other by channels about 5 miles in width.
Clare Island is the nearest to the mainland (3 miles); Inishturk the furthest
(9 miles). Clare Island is much the highest (1520 feet), and also the largest
(64 square miles). The islands all le in the full sweep of the rollers and
storms of the Atlantic. The prevailing winds are off the ocean—west and south-
west. The rainfall may be taken at about 60 inches. The climate is mild and
moist—mean January temperature about 43° F.; mean July temperature
about 58° F. The western side of all the islands is cliff-bound, and desperately
exposed ; the population and cultivation are huddled in sheltered nooks, and
towards the eastern side.

2. EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE FLORA OF CLARE
ISLAND.

Prior to the expeditions of 1909-1911, the Flowering Plants and their
allies were the only section of the natural history of Clare Island about which
anything was known, and as regards them, this knowledge was of recent date.
In July, 1903, my wife and I had spent a week investigating the flora of the
island, and the results were in the course of a few months communicated to
the “Trish Naturalist.” In this paper the flora is described and listed, and a
few notes on the plant-formations are given. The vegetation of the island as
noted on that occasion proved more varied and more interesting than was
expected. The list of species ran up to over 360, the most striking
feature of the flora being the occurrence of an extensive colony of
alpines at a comparatively low elevation on the sea-scarp of Croaghmore. In
the course of the survey of 1909-1911, much general work fell to me as
organizer and secretary, otherwise the amount of time spent on the island
would have permitted of a very detailed floristic study. As it was, little

1R. Li. Praeger: The Flora of Clare Island. Irish Nat., xii, pp. 277-294. 1903.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogumi. 10 3

attention could be given to critical plants, and the time devoted to botany was
spent mainly in ecological work, in mapping, and in studying the influence of
man upon the flora. A certain amount of time was devoted each season to the
examination of remote or promising spots, and especially to the complete exami-
nation of the great precipice of Croaghmore. Asa result, some 30 additional
species have been found, many of these being uncommon plants, and some of
them of high interest. The more important additions to the former list include
Cochlearia groenlandica, Saxifraga Geum, Erica mediterranea, Orobanche rubra,
Salix herbacea, Cephalanthera ensifolia, Cystopteris fragilis, Aspidiwm Lonehitis.

The total flora now stands at 393; a flora large, as are those of Inishturk
and Inishbofin, in comparison with the flora of the adjoining island of Achill,
or of the peninsula of the Mullet, as the following table will show :—

= Greatest

Area in ayNiehs 2

—— serene miles, elevation in Klora.®
Inishbofin,! 43 | 292 379
Inishturk,* 21 629 327
Clare Island, . 62 1520 393
Achill Island, ‘ ; 3 57 2204 414
The Mullet,* . 4 8 . 45 434 348

This high total is, no doubt, due to the diversity of surface of Clare Island,
as compared with the flatter, more wind-swept surface of the Mullet, and to the
smaller proportion of monotonous peat-bog such as dominates Achill. The
Inishturk and Inishbofin totals compare favourably with that of Clare Island,
The poverty of the Mullet, which has had the advantage of continuous
terrestrial migration, is remarkable.

Looking at the flora of these outlying areas as a whole, we are struck with
the continuity of distribution of some of the rare or interesting species, and with
the discontinuity in the range of others. For instance, Saxifraga wmbrosa,
Sedum Rhodiola, Lobelia Dortmanna (except Clare Island), Juniperus nana,

1A. G. More: Report on the Flora of Inish-bofin, Galway. Proc. R.I. Acad., (2) Science, ii,
pp. 553-578. 1876. R. Ll. PrazcEn: Notes on the Flora of Inishbofin. Irish Nat., xx, pp. 165-172.
1911. = ‘ 2
2 R. Ll. Prazcer: The Flora of Inishturk. Irish Nat., xvi, pp. 113-125. 1907.

3. R. Ll. Prancer: The Flora of Achill Island. Irish Nat., xiii, pp. 265-289. 1904.

4R. Ll. Prazcer: The Flora of the Mullet and Inishkea. Irish Nat., xiv, pp. 229-244. 1905.

© That is, species and sub-species, according to the standard adopted in ‘ Irish Topographical
Botany,’’ which can be ranked as native or naturalized in these areas. Characeae in all cases omitted—
they are included in some of the above reports.

A 2

10 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lastrea aemula, Osmunda regalis, have penetrated, mostly in abundance, to all
these outposts, the alpine species descending in all cases to close upon
sea-level.

On the other hand, the next stations of Sarifraga Geum and S. decipiens are
in Kerry ; of Stlene acaulis in Sligo; of Helianthemum guttatum and Hieracitum
hypochaeroides in Cork ; of Ceratophyllum demersum in Westmeath and Clare ;
of Calamagrostis Epigejos in the Aran Islands in Galway Bay ; and of Huphorbia
hiberna on Slieve Aughty in 8.E. Galway. Lychnis divrna, found sparingly on
Inishturk and Clare Island, has its next station on Lough Mask; Trifolium
urvense is on the whole west coast of Ireland found only on Inishturk and on
one of the Aran Islands.

AnatyticaL Notes.—Of some 370 species which are known to grow, or
which probably grow, in all the forty Irish botanical divisions, about 300 are
present on Clare Island—in other words, about 80 per cent. of the Clare
Island flora is made up of “ Universal” plants. The same comparison within
the flora of the whole of West Mayo would give 60 per cent. of Universal
plants for that division; or within the Ivish flora approximately 30 per cent.
In Connacian type plants Clare Island is remarkably poor—a feature which it
shares with Inishbofin, as will be seen later. Of 63 Connacian species listed
in my paper on Types of Distribution,’ only five (Sazifraga umbrosa, Erica
mediterranea, Oxyria digyna, Juniperus nana, and Aspleniwn viride) occur on the
island. As to the other types, the only Ultonian plants are Silene acaulis and
Saxifraga oppositifolia ; the only characteristically Mumonian, Saxifraga Geum ;
Lagenian type is not represented, save by Carex dioica, of which recent exten-
sions of range suggest removal from that type. Of Marginal plants, 18 out
of 46 are present; of Central plants, only one (Juncus obtusiflurus) out of 38.

One would expect the flora of Clare Island to be thoroughly calcifuge, and
such is found to be the case. Taking the “ Cybele Hibernica” standard, we find
that of 56 species classed as calcicole, only 8, or 14 per cent., occur. These are 5
“calcicole B” plants (namely, Anthyllis Vulneraria, Tussilago Furfara, ? Cardwus
nutans, Leontodon hirtus, Carex glauea) and three “calcicole C” plants
(Antennaria dioica, Pulicaria dysenterica, and Convolvulus arvensis). On the
other hand, of 75 species classed as calcifuge, 59, or over 78 per cent., are
found on the island.

1R. Ll. Prazcer: On types of distributionin the Irish Flora. Proc. R.I. Acad., xxiv, Sect. B,
pp. 1-60. 1902.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 5

COMPARISON OF THE FLORAS OF CLARE ISLAND, INISHTURK,
AND INISHBOFIN.

These three adjoining islands are, on the whole, so similar as regards
position and physical conditions that it is interesting to note some points of
similarity and dissimilarity in their floras, and we now possess the materials
for such a comparison. As regards Clare Island, the list of the flora is now
very full. Inishturk I explored pretty thoroughly in 1906, so much so that
two additional days spent on the island in 1911 added only one plant (Thymus
Chamaedrys) to the flora. The Bofin flora was examined by A. G. More and
R. M. Barrington in 1875. To their list of 303 plants I added 82 during a
three days’ visit in 1911, and the Bofin list may now also be regarded as
fairly complete. The relative size, elevation, and total floras of the three
islands have been given above (p. 3). They are all mainly or wholly
composed of Silurian slates. It may be added that Bofin is better supplied
with lakelets and with sandy shores than the other two, and that Clare
Island is conspicuous on account of its high hill.

We find, in the first place, 274 species common to the three islands. This
represents $34, or 54 per cent., of the combined flora of the three. These
plants are all found on adjoining areas, and most of them are common plants

_in Ireland; but a few of the more interesting may be listed :—

Cochlearia groenlandica. Juniperus nana.
Spergularia rupestris. Empetrum nigrum.
Radiola linoides. Sparganium affine.
Saxifraga umbrosa. Carex limosa.

Sedum Rhodiola. Festuca rottboellioides.
Matricaria discoidea. Asplenium marinum.
Myosotis repens. Lastrea aemula.
Pinguicula lusitanica. Osmunda regalis.
Thymus Chamaedrys. Ophioglossum vulgatum.
Lamium intermedium. Selaginella selaginoides.

lf we now compile lists showing the species which are confined to each
of the three islands, and those which are absent from one of the three only,
we shall have carried the comparison sufficiently far. I shall leave out
of account a few non-naturalized introductions recorded from the several
islands.

10 6 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.-

Present on CxiareE IsnanpD ONLY.

Anemone nemorosa.
Nymphaea alba.

Viola arvensis.

Silene acaulis.

Lotus uliginosus.

Rubus plicatus.

R. saxatilis.

Geum rivale.

Potentilla Fragariastvum.
Alchemilla vulgaris.
Saxifraga oppositifolia.
8. Geum.

8. decipiens.

Sanicula europaea.
Aegopodium Podagraria.
EKupatorium cannabinum.
Filago germanica.
Gnaphalium sylvaticum.
Saussurea alpina.
Hieracium anglicum.

H. hypochaeroides.
Erica mediterranea.
Fraxinus excelsior.
Myosotis versicolor.
Digitalis purpurea.

Veronica officinalis.
Orobanche rubra.
Ajuga reptans.
Polygonum lapathifoliuin.
Oxyria digyna.
Salix herbacea.
Quercus sessiliflora.
Listera cordata.
Cephalanthera ensifolia.
Scilla nutans.
Juncus obtusiflorus.
Alisma Plantago.
A. ranunculoides.
Scirpus caespitosus.
Carex sylvatica.
Phalaris arundinacea.
Alopecurus geniculatus.
Asplenium viride.
A. Trichomanes.
Cystopteris fragilis.
Aspidium Lonchitis.
A. aculeatum.
A. angulare.
Equisetum maximum.
49 in all.

ABSENT FROM CLARE ISLAND ONLY.

Fumaria pallidifiora.
Helianthemum guttatum.
Viola canina.

Trifolium medium.

T. procumbens.

Rubus dumnoniensis.
Lobelia Dortmanna.
Centunculus minimus.

Populus tremula.

Allium Babingtonii.

Agrostis canina.

Glyceria maritima.

Lolium temulentum.

Asplenium Ruta-muraria.
14 in all.

If we examine the above “ present” and “absent” lists, we find that they
fully reflect the features of Clare Island, as compared with Turk and Bofin.
No less than 12 of the former are montane or alpine species, which owe
their presence to the “ Big Hill,” which has a much larger mountain-flora than

can be easily accounted for.

No mountain species occurs in the “absent” list.

Clare Island Survey — Phanerogamia, 10 7

Ten more are woodland species—trees or shade-plants—brought in by the
comparative shelter which obtains on Clare Island. Populus tremula is the
only species of this group in the “absent” list. Three hydrophytes also figure,
against one (Lobelia Dortmanna) absent.

Present on INISHTURK ONLY.

Trifolium arvense. Carlina vulgaris.
Rubus erythrinus. Euphorbia hiberna.
R. Borreri. Phleum pratense.
Crataegus Oxyacantha. Holcus mollis.
Drosera intermedia. Isoetes lacustris.
Anthriscus sylvestris. 12 in all.

Sherardia arvensis.

ABSENT FROM INISHTURK ONLY.

Ranunculus hederaceus. Scrophularia aquatica.
Nuphar luteum. Veronica scutellata.
Sisymbrium officinale. V. Tournefortii.
Raphanus Raphanistruimn. Pedicularis palustris.
Spergularia salina. Utricularia intermedia.
Ulex europaeus. Salsola Kali.

Vicia hirsuta. Polygonum amphibium.
Potentilla procumbens. P. Rai.

Pyrus Aucuparia. Rumex conglomeratus.
Drosera anglica. Myrica Gale.

Sedum acre. Luzula campestris.
Callitriche hamulata. Sparganium ramosum.
Peplis Portula. Lemna minor.

Conium maculatum. Potamogeton pusillus.
Apium inundatum. Scirpus maritimus.
Bidens tripartita. Rhynchospora alba.
Pulicaria dysenterica. Hriophorum vaginatum.
Senecio sylvaticus. Carex arenaria.
Campanula rotundifolia. C. ampullacea.
Vaccinium Myrtillus. Agropyron junceum.
Convolvulus arvensis. Hymenophyllum unilaterale.
Symphytum officinale. 43 in all.

Here the only feature of the “present” list is a group of three woodland
species (Crataegus Oxyacantha, Anthriscus sylvestris, Huphorbia hiberna). The
first occurred as one young bush, rooted in a chink of the rocks (bird-sown
probably). The others are confined to the sheltered, bushy slope over the
harbour. In the “absent” list a conspicuous feature is the number of hydro-
phytes (thirteen species), a result of the paucity of lakelets; while the absence

10 8 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

of sandy beaches is accountable for the appearance in the list of Sedum acre,
Salsola Kali, Polygonum Rati, Carex arenaria, Agropyron juncewm.

PRESENT ON INISHBOFIN ONLY.

Ranunculus trichophyllus. Tanacetum vulgare.

R. Baudotii. Centaurea Scabiosa.

R. bulbosus. Veronica Anagallis.
Avabis ciliata. Bartsia viscosa.
Brassica nigra. Scutellaria minor.
Senebiera didyma. Atriplex Babingtonii.
Cakile maritima. Ophrys apifera.
Raphanus maritimus. Habenaria viridis.
Arenaria serpyllifolia. Juncus conglomeratus.
Hlatine hexandra. Potamogeton pectinatus.
Malva sylvestris. Ruppia rostellata.

M. rotundifolia. Zostera marina.
Erodium cicutarium. Eriocaulon septangulare.
Vicia angustifolia. Scirpus paucifiorus.
Rubus carpinifolius. Calamagrostis Epigejos.
R. mollissimus. Psamma arenaria.

R. dunensis. Catabrosa aquatica.

R. villicaulis. Glyceria plicata.
Potentilla reptans. Festuca elatior.
Agrimonia Eupatoria. Ceterach officinarum.
Callitriche verna. Lycopodium inundatum.
Eryngium maritimum. Isoetes echinospora.
Aethusa Cynapium. 46 in ail.

Inula Helenium.
ABSENT FROM INISHBOFIN ONLY.

Cardamine hirsuta. Corylus Avellana.
Polygala vulgaris. Listera ovata.

Lychnis diurna. Orchis mascula.

Tex Aquifolium. Sparganium minimum.
Rubus pulcherrimus. Scirpus setaceus.

R. iricus. Carex paniculata.
Alchemilla arvensis. C. pilulifera.

Pyrus Malus. C. Hornschuchiana.
Chrysosplenium oppositifolium. Deschampsia caespitosa.
Cotyledon Umbilicus. Scolopendrium vulgare.
Circaea lutetiana. Botrychium Lunaria.
Valeriana sambucifolia. Hgquisetum palustre.
Mentha arvensis. Lycopodium Selago.

Betula pubescens. 27 in all.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 9

On Bofin an interesting feature is the scarcity of woodland plants, seven
species being absent there which occur on both the other islands, against
which no species occurs on Bofin only. The presence of lakelets also makes
itself felt by eleven hydrophytes in the “ present” list to two in the “absent”
list. Xerophytes are also well represented; sixteen are present; only one
absent. In this category it is interesting to note that the influence of
calcareous sea-sands makes itself felt in the presence of some distinctly
ealcicole species, such as Arabis ciliata, Centaurea Scabiosa, Ophrys apifera,
Ceterach officinarum (the last on a dry-built wall). In any case, Bofin
enjoys generally a lighter soil, which gives to the flora a more xerophile
facies, as is well seen in the great abundance, as compared with the other
islands, of Senecio Jacobaea, and the corresponding scarcity of S. aquaticus.

The above analysis of the flora of the three islands may be expressed
diagrammatically thus -—

274
CLARE
oe a =) 27 aa
4a
a3

Using the “index of floral diversity” which Colgan has proposed,} we

eeo)
find that this index, as regards Clare and Turk, is _ 7 Bs or 282; as regards
3
Clare and Bofin, oe. or ‘300; as regards Turk and Bofin, a or 308.

It will be seen that the amount of difference between the floras of the three
islands is pretty uniform, there being a slightly greater divergence between
Turk and Bofin than between the two other pairs. This is due to the fact
that Bofin is best, and Turk is worst, provided with fresh water and with
sandy beaches.

It is interesting to see what common Irish plants are absent from this
group of islands. We may select for this purpose those species, absent from
the three islands, which occur throughout Ireland (or the maritime species
around the whole coast), and are also frequent or common in West Mayo.
This latter qualification cuts out certain calcicole species, such as Zuonymus

1 Trish Nat., x., p. 236. The index of floral diversity is “the ratio which the total of species not
common to both areas bears to the total flora of the two areas combined.”’

R, IA. PROC., VOL. XXXI, B 10

10 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

europaeus, Orchis pyramidalis, and Juncus glaueus, which, though occurring
throughout Ireland, are in West Mayo local, owing to the rarity of limestone,
and would not be expected to occur on these Silurian islands.

Common Puants ABSENT FROM THE THREE ISLANDS.

Barbarea vulgaris.
Erophila vulgaris.
Reseda Luteola.
Silene Cucubalus.
Sagina apetala.
Cytisus scoparius.
Medicago lupulina.
Rubus Idaeus.
Geum urbanum.
Rosa tomentosa.
Hippuris vulgaris.
Epilobium hirsutum.

Smyrnium Olusatrum.

Sium angustifolium.
Viburnum Opulus.
Asperula odorata.
Scabiosa arvensis.
Bidens cernua.
Petasites officinalis.
Crepis paludosa.
Linaria Cymbalaria.

Scrophularia nodosa.
Melampyrum pratense.
Nepeta Glechoma.
Salicornia herbacea.
Suaeda maritima.
Rumex nemorosus.
Alnus glutinosa.

Salix Caprea.
Habenaria bifolia.
Typha latifolia.
Sparganium simplex.
Arum maculatum.
Potamogeton perfoliatus.
Carex disticha.

C. remota.

C. hirta.

Alopecurus pratensis.
Briza media.

Bromus giganteus.
Equisetum sylvaticum.

To this list might be added Rumex conglomeratus, of which a single plant
occurred on Clare Island and another on Inishbofin, both, no doubt, casually
introduced.

Tf we examine this list, we may extract from it certain little groups of
plants which will help us to appreciate its character and significance.

TREES AND SHRUBS.—Cytisus scoparius, Rubus Idaeus, Rosa tomentosa,
Viburnum Opulus, Alnus glutinosa, Salix Caprea. For the absence of these
we must look, perhaps, to the great exposure of the islands; also to the
merciless way they are grazed. Some of the arboreal species which are found
on the islands occur extremely sparingly —Crataegus Oxyacantha as one bush
on Inishturk; Pyrus Malus as one bush on Clare Island. If any of the
missing species formerly occurred as sparingly as these do now, grazing might
easily have exterminated them,

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 11

SHADE PLANTS.— Gewm urbanum, Asperula odorata, Crepis paludosa,
Nepeta Glechoma, Arum maculatum, Carex remota, Bromus giganteus. The
scarcity of trees and absence of hedges is naturally followed by a scarcity of
their dependent species.

HYDROPHYTES AND HyGropHyTEs.—HMippuris vulgaris, Epilobiwm hirsu-
tum, Sium angustrfolium, Bidens cernua, Typha latifolia, Sparganiwm simplex,
Potamogeton perfoliatus. The rarity of sheets of water, and the small size
of those which occur, must be held responsible for the absence of these
water-plants. The great exposure, so inimical to the taller herbaceous plants,
may have assisted in preventing such species as the Typha and Epilobium
(both of which are very wide-spread plants) from becoming established. The
absence of such a lover of wet ditches as Bidens cernua is difficult to explain.

XEROPHYTES.—Hrophila vulgaris, Reseda Luteola, Sagina apetala, Innaria
Cymbalaria. This list is not long, because many xerophytes are already rare
throughout West Mayo, and do not, therefore, come within our category.
The rarity of sandy ground makes the absence of the first two not unexpected,
and of mortar-built walls the last. Under this head may be listed also
Salicornia herbacea and Suaeda maritima, for which no suitable habitat of
saline mud or gravel is available on the islands.

UNACCOUNTABLY ABSENT.— Some of the remaining plants may be so
classed, as they are widespread species in the west, and as the conditions they
require would appear to be abundantly supplied on the islands. Such are
Medicago lupulina, Melampyrum pratense, Rumex conglomeratus (see note,
p. 10), &. nemorosus, Carex hirta, Equisetum sylvaticum.

It may be pointed out that in this list of absentees we find very few
plants of those classes which we should expect from the general features of
the islands to be well represented there. The sea-rocks, the peaty fields and
grass-lands, and the heaths, which are the prevailing habitats on the islands,
have a flora nearly as full as that of the same habitats on the adjoining
mainland. It would seem, therefore, that all sections of the mainland flora
have fully exploited the islands, absence of species being accounted for by
absence of habitat.

It is not necessary to enter into any detailed description here of the flora
of the neighbouring islands (Achill, Inishturk, Inishbofin) which have been
on previous pages (pp. 3, 5-8) compared with that of Clare Island, since they
are sufficiently described in the papers to which the reader is referred at the
bottom of p. 3. But reference may be made to the flora of a few of the
uninhabited islets that lie near Clare Island, the most remote of which is the
group of rocks known as The Bills.

B2

10 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

FLoras OF ADJOINING ISLETS.
The Bills.

The Bills are a group of rocks lying close together, 9 miles north-west
of Clare Island, and 8 miles S.S.E. of Achill Head. There are two large
rocks, each with an area of about a couple of acres,and several small ones,
which are mere pinnacles. All rise precipitously from deep water, and attain
a general elevation of 100 to 120 feet above Ordnance datum. They are
formed of metamorphic rock: and traces of drift, including much-rounded
pebbles, are to be seen.

On the north side the rocks go straight down into 20 fathoms. On the
south side a small 6- to 8-fathom bank extends. All round the prevailing
depth is about 24 fathoms.

The flora of the Bills is extremely limited. We explored only the eastern
or inner rock ; but it has much more vegetation than the western one, and it
is unlikely that a landing on the western rock would have resulted in any
additions to the flora. The lower limit of vegetation ranges from 100 feet at
the western end of the western island to about 50 feet at the eastern end of
the eastern one. The cliffs and steep slopes rising from the sea are occupied by
luxuriant Beta maritima and Cochlearia officinalis and Atriplex hastata. The
top of the inner rock presents an undulating surface, about two acres in
extent, of light, springy turf, composed almost entirely of dead Armeria
maritima. Its surface is largely bare, studded with numerous great bosses of
the same plant alive—some of the bosses being a yard across. Hollows are
occupied by colonies of Atriplex hastata, and patches of Festuca ovina are
abundant. The only other plant seen was Spergularia rupestris, growing
sparingly in rock-chinks. The turf is absolutely riddled with the tunnels of
the Puffins, which, with gulls, Guillemots, and Razorbills, are responsible
both for the large proportion of bare ground and for the luxuriance of
vegetation where it occurs.

No mosses or hepatics were seen, but lichens were abundant on the rocks,
though few in number of species (see Part 14).

Muceelaun.

Mweelaun More and Mweelaun Beg lie close together two miles south
of Clare Island, in the channel. They are formed of sandstone. The smaller
rock is entirely wave-swept; the larger has an area of 4 acres, and a height
of 77 feet above Ordnance datum. The seaward two-thirds is swept quite

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 13

bare, with only an occasional plant of Armeria nestling in a crevice. The
eastern third, though not quite so high, has a certain amount of vegetation.
Over a few square yards, Mestuca ovina has formed a sward. Armeria
maritima is abundant, and Atriplex sp. forms verdant colonies. The remain-
ing vegetation consists of a little Cochlearia officinalis (with leaves up to three
inches across), Spergularia rupestris, and Glyceria maritima, plus lichens and
algae. Great Black-backed Gulls, Herring-gulls, Oyster-catchers, &c., breed on
the rock, and are in part responsible for the filthiness of the stagnant pools
which abound.

Caher Island,

Caher Island lies some five miles south of the west end of Clare Island,
and is partially sheltered from storms by Inishturk, which rises two miles to
the W.S.W. Its area is 128 acres. It is nearly a mile in length, and oval in
outline ; but while the eastern end is quite low, it rises steadily westward to
the highest points (188-201 feet), where it drops in a fine cliff into the
Atlantic. At the eastern end a pretty lakelet (Kinkeel L.) lies a little above
sea-level ; a pool lies on the south-east shore, and close to the highest point
another lakelet occupies a little transverse valley. A three-hours’ visit to the
island in July, 1911, permitted an examination of its flora. Owing to limited
grazing, the greater part of the surface was, at the time of our visit, covered
with rank vegetation, a foot or more in height, heathery in the drier parts,
with much Saha repens, Calluna vulgaris, and Hrica Tetralix; grassy in the
damper places, with abundance of Festuca ovina, Triodia decumbens, Carex
vulgaris, and Hrica Tetralix. To the westward these give way near the coast
to Plantago sward of characteristic type, which occupies a crescent-shaped
area around the western shores. In this formation, on a clayey slope facing
south-west, Juncus maritimus, Schaenus nigricans, and Phragmites communis
grow together at a height of 100-150 feet above the sea. The forehead of
the promontory, from the highest point to the edge of the cliff (188-150 feet),
is occupied by Glyceria maritima. On the north-east shore stands a ruined
church with some other early remains, and around it are a few ruined fences
and the signs of “lazy-bed” cultivation; but the only plants pointing to
human influence were Cnicus arvensis and C. lanceolatus in the former tillage,
and Stellaria media, Sonchus asper and Urtica dioica, growing in the shelter of a
small square enclosure built of loose stones as a shelter for sheep. -Aspleniwm
Ruta-muraria, growing on the old church, owes its habitat to man,

Excluding these six plants, the indigenous flora of the island numbered 129
species. It is hardly necessary to give a list of these. But while no plant

10 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

occurred which is not found on some of the adjoining islands, a few of the
Caher plants have a limited distribution upon them :—

Glyceria maritima
Asplenium Ruta-muraria
Sparganium ramosum
Lemna minor
Potamogeton pusillus
Ranunculus Baudotii
Potamogeton pectinatus
Ruppia rostellata
Alisma ranunculoides Absent from Turk and Bofin.

Absent from Clare Island.

Absent from Inishturk.

Absent from Clare and Turk.

—S WS

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION OF CLARE ISLAND.
CHARACTER OF THE ISLAND.

In order that the flora of Clare Island, and the problems which it raises,
may be understood, it is necessary to recail briefly the position and features
of the island.

Clare Island lies across the entrance of. Clew Bay; and while distant
some fifteen miles from the land at Westport and Newport, only three miles
of sea separate it from Hmlagh Point, which forms the southern entrance
of the bay, and the same from Achillbeg and the Curraun peninsula, which
form the northern entrance; but these channels are deep and open, and in
the full swing of the Atlantic roll. ‘he island is roughly triangular
in outline, measuring about 4 miles by 23 miles. Its area is 64 square
miles, of which about one-third is under tillage or pasture, the remainder
consisting of stony heath, thin bog, or maritime sward, ‘The dominating
feature of the island is the great east and west ridge (Croaghmore)
attaining an elevation of 1,520 feet, which occupies much of the north-
western shore. A second ridgy hill (Knocknaveen), attaining 729 feet,
forms a prominent feature in the centre of the island; while a third parallel
one, much lower but still conspicuous, extends along the south-eastern edge.
The ground falls in many parts from the north and west towards the south
and east, thus protecting the surface to a limited extent from the fury of
Atlantic gales. The cultivated and inhabited portion of the island—it
harbours some seventy families—lies along the eastern and southern margins.
(See map, Plate IT.) Much of the land formerly cropped has been allowed to’
relapse into poor pasture. Every part not under cultivation, including the

1 The following account is taken partly from my former paper on the flora of Clare Island (Joc. cit.).

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 14

hill-tops and sea-cliffs, is closely grazed by sheep, cattle, horses, and donkeys.
The live-stock, which is the pride of the islanders, is certainly pretty severe
upon the vegetation.

There is little to be said regarding the geology of the island as affecting
its vegetation. ‘The slates and allied rocks yield a light loamy, lime-free soil ;
but this is generally thin. ‘The hard sandstones and pebbly beds in the east
are very intractable; and much of the area occupied by them is thickly
boulder-strewn, with the rock close below. Glacial drift covers much of the
lower parts of the island—z.e., the east and south—and in the north-east attains
a great thickness. A blue limestone Boulder-clay underlies the local drift,
but appears mainly in sections along the coast or by streamlets, and has no
noticeable effect on the flora.

While producing a fairly fertile soil in some areas, in others the drift is
exceedingly stony and barren. ‘The deepest soil is found in one or two small
valleys in the east. ‘Thin boggy soil covers the greater part of the island,
but no great depth of peat is now found, except near the top of Croaghmore.
A single small area of blown sand occurs behind the bay at the Harbour.
This is the only sandy shore on the island. A few boulder beaches occur
but the coast is almost everywhere rocky, and generally cliff-bound. While
along the southern and eastern sides the cliffs are generally under 100 feet in
height, elsewhere they are higher, and along the north-western side of the
island attain magnificent proportions.

The impression, as regards the vegetation, left by one’s first view of the
island, is its wind-swept and stunted character. No groves of trees meet the
eye, no hedges even. Beyond the narrow limits of the cultivated ground,
poor stony heath forms the prevalent feature, passing into bog-land as one
ascends.

MARITIME VEGETATION.

The maritime flora is poor in variety, as is usual in the west of Ireland,
and many species characteristic of the sands or rocks of the east coast are
missing. ‘he only sand on the island is at the Harbour, at the east end of
the island, where shelter is greatest—a small curving sandy bay, with a little
blown sand behind it. The strand flora consists of Salsola Kali with some
Atriplex and Arenaria peploides.

Behind that, above storm-level, two associations occupy the ground :—

(1) An open Agropyron junceum* society with a slight admixture of

Salsola appears to be curiously irregular in its occurrence. I noted it there on my first visit in
1903. In 1909 no trace of the species was seen during the season; in 1910 the Saltwort was
represented by about 100 bushy plants, and formed a notable feature ; in 1911 the plant was much
less conspicuous, but dwarfed growth accompanying an exceptionally dry season was partly
accountable for this.

10 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Salsola Kali* and Avenaria peploides* below, and of Potentilla Anserina,
Senecio Jacobaea, Arctium Newbouldu,* Taraxacum officinale var. erythros-
permum,* Planta go lanceolata, &c., above.

(2) A close sward of Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium repens, with some
Viola arvensis*, Sagina nodosa,* Geranium molle, Trifolium pratense, Potentilla
Anserina, Sedum acre,* Daucus Carota, Senecio Jacobaea, Taraxacum officinale
var. erythrospermum,* Leontodon hartus, L. autumnalis, Prunella vulgaris,
Plantago major, P. lanceolata, Carex arenaria,* Cynosurus cristatus, Poa
pratensis, Festuca rottboellioides,* Bromus mollis. In the above lists the
plants with an asterisk behind them find here their only station on the island.

At Kinnacorra, the extreme east corner of the island, there is a remarkable
V-shaped boulder beach, interesting to the botanist because it encloses the
only bit of salt-marsh on the island, which yields Scirpus maritimus, Juncus
Gerardi (neither found elsewhere), J. obtusijlorus, kc. A more extensive
boulder beach occupies the foreshore at Portlea in the north-east; behind its
crest it is colonized by a low growth of willows (S. aurita), and some
Saxifraga umbrosa. Between this and the lighthouse, steep high banks of
Boulder-clay front the sea. They support a heathy vegetation, and here
Erica mediterranea (Plate V., fig. 1), Cephalanthera ensifolia, and Listera ovata
have their only habitat.

Everywhere else the coast is rocky or cliff-bound. Some shelter obtains
on the cliffs, and sheep are often excluded by their steepness ; in consequence
the vegetation is often comparatively luxuriant. Spergularia rupestris,
Crithmum maritimum, and Beta maritima are widely spread; Hupatorium
cannabinum also was found only on sea-clifis; Angelica sylvestris affected the
same habitat in quantity.

The fine range of rugged Silurian cliffs, 300 to 500 feet in height, that
stretches from Croaghmore to the lighthouse, facing north-west, has a con-
siderable flora, vertical precipices alternating with steep grassy slopes and
huge blocks of rock. In the portions examined (much of it is difficult of
exploration) Plantago maritima, P. Coronopus, and Festuca ovina were the
leading species, with much Sazifraga umbrosa, Sedum anglicum, Primula
vulgaris, Euphrasia officinalis, Thymus Serpyllum, and Lastrea aemula; and
some Bellis perennis, Jasione montana, Trifolium repens, Empetrum nigrum,
Cnicus palustris, Viola Riviniana, Blechnum Spicant. Saxifraga decipiensis
frequent down to sea-level, and Asplenium marinum ascends to 300 feet;
among the rocks Athyrium Filix-faeminu grows luxuriantly.

The influence of the sea is seen far beyond the coast-line. Plantago
maritima and P. Coronopus grow on stony ground all over the island, ascending
to 1,200 feet on the Croaghmree cliffs, Glaux maritima occupies in abundance

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. LO 17

wet gravelly ground facing south, 300 feet elevation, and eut off by higher
ground from the sea, which is a quarter of a mile off; and occurs in similar
ground in the extreme west, ascending the stony courses of streamlets to an
elevation of 400 feet. Aspleniwm marinwm grows abundantly on a low inland
cliff near Ballytoohy, half a mile from the sea on either hand. Spergularia
rupestris grows with the last on the old abbey walls; Crithmum and Carex
distans were seen on a dry cliff at the west end, a quarter of a mile from the
nearest sea. On the Croaghmore cliffs, while Cochlearis officinalis ascends to
1,200 feet, and Silene maritima ascends to 800 feet, it was noted that Armeria
maritima and Asplenium marinum stop at 400 feet; Spergularia salina
grows in the lighthouse yard, 350 feet above the sea.

The best-marked formation of halophile tendencies is that which forms
the exceedingly short, springy turf along the top of the cliffs, and of which
Plantago maritima and P. Coronopus are the dominating plants. (See Plates
II.-III.) The composition of this formation is shown by the following
examples :—

Har A MILE WEST or THE Harsour.

PLANTAGO MARITIMA, V.C.

Coronorus, v.¢.
lanceolata, c.
Thymus Serpyllum, c.

Euphrasia officinalis, c.

Viola Riviniana.
Polygala depressa.
Cerastium tetrandrum.
triviale.
Sagina procumbens.
Radiola linoides.
Lotus corniculatus.
Trifolium repens.
Potentilla Tormentilla.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris.

Bellis perennis.
Hieracium Pilosella.
Hypochaeris radicata.
Calluna vulgaris.
Anagallis tenella.
HKrythraea Centaureum.
Prunella vulgaris.
Carex glauca.

Oederi.
Aira praecox.
Holcus lanatus.
Cynosurus cristatus.
Koeleria cristata.
Triodia decumbens.
Festuca ovina.

Scabiosa Succisa. Ophioglossum vulgatum.

This represents a mild form of the Plantago sward which, first described
from this example, is now recorded from many places along the west coast of
Treland and also from the Faerées.!

It forms a dense sward about half an inch in height, with flower-stems
rising to about two inches. Radiola, which proved a frequent ingredient of
this formation, grows 3-inch high, and usually unbranched ; Ophioglossum the

1 Botany of the Fuerées, p. 929.
R.I.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, Cc 10

10 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

same height, and barren. The flowers of the majority of the plants grow
level with those of Anagallis tenella and Radiola.
An extreme example—and such are not rare—is now given :

West Enp, neAR Beerte Heap.

PLANTAGO MARITIMA, V.C. Plantago Coronopus.
Radiola linoides. P. lanceolata.
Potentilla Tormentilla. Luzula campestris.
Sedum anglicum. Aira praecox.
Galium saxatile. Festuca ovina.
Jasione montana. Mnium hornum.

Anagallis tenella.

This was a smooth shining sheet of P. maritima (at least 80 per cent.) with
mere scraps of the other plants. The rosettes of P. Coronopus and P. mari-
tima measured 4 inch to 2 inch across. The composition of the formation
varied as to the admixture of P. Coronopus, which sometimes equalled in
quantity P. maritima; but one or both of these species was always absolutely

dominant.
Or again :
East or LicutHouse, 850 FEET ELEVATION.
Prantaco maritima (at least 75 P. lanceolata,
per cent.), Carex Oederi,
P. Coronopus, Festuca ovina,

with a very little Sagina procumbens, Cerastium triviale, Huphrasia officinalis.
Like the last, a smooth shining sheet of P. maritima.

The Plantago formation occurs extensively, as will be seen from the map
(Plate II.), at the west end of the island, and at intervals elsewhere round the
margin, from near sea-level at the east end up to about 500 feet. It is
characteristic of ground greatly exposed to the sea, where in winter gales the

soil becomes soaked with spray.

MEADOWLAND VEGETATION.

This comprises the lowland flora, such as is associated with a predominance
of grasses, and such plants as Meadow-sweet, Yellow Flag, and Purple Loose-
strife. This flora is confined to the cultivated area, and only here and there
has it wholly escaped the effects of tillage. It is best seen in the north-east
of the island, where a series of little east-and-west valleys harbours a com-
paratively luxuriant vegetation. In these favoured spots grasses and

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 19

herbaceous plants grow several feet in height, and one may see banks covered
with grand hedges of Osmunda 5 feet high (Plate IV., fig. 2). In the
meadowland the most: conspicuous plant is Lythrum Salicaria ; and Equisetum
maximum is unusually abundant, extending also to exposed ground, where it
attains a height of only a few inches. Cnicws pratensis, also remarkably
abundant over the island, reaches its maximum in the meadowland, where it
frequently bears branched stems with several (2 to 8) heads of flowers. On
account of the moist climate and the peaty soil, species which would be usually
reckoned as marsh plants, such as Anagallis tenella and several of the above,
are common ingredients here. In drier spots Vicia Cracca forms large
tangled beds of greyish foliage and blue blossoms. Brambles are common
along banks and walls in this area, but, though embracing interesting species,
are apparently in no great variety (see the notes later on, p. 28).

Without doubt much of the ground now occupied by this kind of vegeta-
tion has been artificially prepared, partly by the clearing away of original
serub, and partly by the draining of wet ground.

The only place where a marsh flora is developed in any quantity is round
Lough Avullin, lying in a sheltered hollow 75 feet above O. 8. datum. Around
this little lake four zones of vegetation are conspicuous :—

(1) Grasses with much Juncus effusus.

(2) A dense broad fringe of Menyanthes trifoliata with much Galiwm
palustre, and in addition Ranunculus repens, Lotus uliginosus,
Potentilla palustris, Cnicus pratensis, Eleocharis palustris.

(3) Hqusetum limosum, Phragmites communis, Carex ampullacea, Spar-
ganvum ramosum (on the edge or in 1-2 feet of water).

(4) Nuphar lutewm and Potamogeton natans (in 2-8 feet of water).

WOODLAND VEGETATION.

As stated elsewhere (p. 40), it would appear probable that before man’s
influence made itself felt, serub occupied a good deal of the steeper and more
sheltered places on the low grounds. The best fragment of the primitive
woodland now remaining occupies a rocky slope north-west of Portlea (Plate
IV., fig. 1). It consists of fairly dense scrub 4 to 8 feet in height (one
Birch attains a height of 10 feet !), low and spreading, many of the trees being
very old. The constituent species are Corylus Avellana, betula pubescens,
Ilex Aquifolium, Pyrus Aucuparia, Quercus sessiliflora, Salix awrita, S. cinerea,
Myrica Gale, Lonicera Periclymenum and Rubi. These shelter a good shade-
flora :—Ranunculus Ficaria, Oxalis Acetosella, Viola Riviniana, Conopodiwm
denudatum, Sanicula europaea, Primula vulgaris, Scilla nutans, Lastrea
dilatata, L. Filiz-mas, L.aemula, and in spring the luxuriant foliage and bright

C2

10 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

colours here contrast strongly with the bare stony heaths, still almost lifeless,
which lie around. A similar but less well-preserved piece of scrub lies in a
similar situation west of Lough Avullin. In wetter ground, willow-scrub
(S. aurita and S. cinerea) is found here and there—notably in wet, stony
fields near Kinnacorra, where it is associated with Wyrica Gale; but the place
is much trampled by cattle and the ground vegetation destroyed. The bulk
of the woodland section of the flora of the island is found by mountain
rivulets and on cliffs facing towards the north.

MoorLaNnD VEGETATION.

Beyond the limit of cultivation—which on Clare Island is usually not
higher than 200 feet, and often descends to sea-level, on account of exposure
or absence of soil—the moorland area extends, in its various forms of dry
banks, stony heath, marsh, bog, rock, and cliff. On the higher ground (1,000 to
1,500 feet) the peat-forming associations are better developed ; and the summit
of Croaghmore consists partly of heathy and partly of spongy bog. This
whole area is, generally speaking, dominated by Calluna, with an admixture
of Erica cinerea and E. Tetraliz, and other usual ingredients of the familiar
Calluna formation ; but, owing to the fact that almost the entire surface has
been interfered with by turf-cutting, the natural associations have been much
broken up. In the few places where the peat is deep, and the surface undis-
turbed, which occurs here and there on the higher grounds (800 to 1,500 feet),
Scirpus caespitosus and Cotton-grasses become conspicuous. The result of the
irregular turf-cutting is an increase of Rushes, or, where the turf has been
removed down to the stony subsoil, of grasses. Where the heathy ground
gets wet, Hypericum elodes and Lleocharis multicaulis appear in quantity, and
bring with them abundance of Viola palustris, Drosera rotundifolia, Potentilla
palustris, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Menyanthes trifoliata, and Myosotis repens.
The characteristic Irish lowland bog flora, with Drosera anglica, Rhynchospora
alba, Andromeda Polifolia, is absent as such, on account of absence of suitable
habitat; but the two first-named plants occur, the former in two stations, the
principal one being a floating morass around Lough Leinapollbauty, with
Carex limosa; the second sparingly in a patch of wet bog near Lough Avullin.
The boggy marshes form a connecting link with the pools and bog-holes,
which yield Utricwlaria minor, Juncus supinus, and Littorella lacustris. Three
little moorland loughs le in the hollow between Croaghmore and Knockna-
veen at 350 feet elevation—Creggan Lough, Lough Leinapollbauty, and Lough
Merrignagh. They are bleak and exposed. The third yields Nymphaea alba,
and the dredge revealed Wite/la translucens in the first and second. There

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamiu. 10 21

is also a series of pools on the cliff near the lighthouse, which forms the
only habitat of Utricularia intermedia, and where Carex paniculata may be
seen growing one foot high. Patches of grass-land, apparently aboriginal,
occur occasionally in the heath-land area, generally where the Silurian rocks
have formed a friable soil, as on the northern slopes of Knocknaveen, and
again as long streaks on the steep gable of Croaghmore which dominates the
west end of the island. In the latter place, in the drier portions, Nardus
stricta is dominant with much Festuca ovina and Potentilla Tormentilla, and

some
Hrica Tetralix, Juncus squarrosus,
E. cinerea, Carex glauca,
Calluna vulgaris, Molinia caerulea ;

Anagallis tenella,

but the composition of the vegetation varies a good deal according to the
degree of dampness of the ground.

On dry banks throughout the moorland area Sedum anglicwm, Jasione
montana, and Thymus Serpyllum are abundant and showy. Ulex ewropaeus
is confined to the east of the island, where there is plenty of it: Prunus
spinosa likewise, but in much smaller quantity. Where the ground gets steep
or rocky, and some shelter is obtainable, Saxifraga umbrosa, Lastrea aemula,
‘and Salix repens at once appear, and all three ascend from sea-level to the top
of the Croaghmore cliffs (say 1,400 feet). Cliffy places, and the rocky banks
of mountain streamlets, supply a habitat also for a little stunted Oak and
Ash, Rowan, Holly, and Birch; and nooks in the same places, as already men-
tioned, afford the only refuge of some woodland and lowland species, such as
Anemone nemorosa, Geum rivale, Fragaria vesca, Potentilla Fragariastrum,
Ajuga reptans, Orchis mascula (to 1,200 feet), Carex sylvatica, Aspidium
angulare.

The only inland cliff of any importance forms a conspicuous patch of black
Silurian slates on the steep northern slope of Knocknaveen, overhanging the
“Green Road.” It lies on one of the main faults of the island. Here the
vegetation is very luxuriant, and of shade type. Great masses of Saxifraga
umbrosa and Luzula maxima clothe the rocks, with much Aspidiwm angulare
and Scolopendrium vulgare, some Asplenium Trichomanes and A. Adiantum-
nigrum, Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, &e.; some Corylus and Ilex, and one
bush of Pyrus Aucuparia; a good patch of Lychnis diurna, which is extremely
rare in the district, and a little Stachys sylvatica.

Where the ground rises into the dominating ridge of Croaghmore little
change takes place in the vegetation, save that, on account of greater drainage

10 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and less turi-cutting, the Calluna formation is better developed. The land-
ward sides of the “Big Hill” give no indication of the interesting alpine
vegetation of the seaward face; Calluna prevails up to the summit, and the
only mountain plant is Listera cordata (800 to 1,520 feet). Some of the Calluna
here is old and shaggy, and up to three feet in height. This being quite the
largest and oldest Calluna on the island, a stem of it was kindly examined for
me by Mr. A. D. Cotton. He found it to measure 1:8 x 1:15 cm. at 4 inches
from the ground, and to show twenty annual rings of growth. This gives a less
age than one might have thought, to judge from the appearance of the plants.

The summit (1,520 feet) is a narrow ridge, on which Calluna, 3 to 9
inches high, is dominant: it is accompanied by—

Polygala depressa. Luzula maxima.
Potentilla Tormentilla. Scirpus caespitosus.
Galium saxatile. Eriophorum angustifolium.
Solidago Virgaurea. E. yaginatum.
Erica cinerea. Carex pilulifera.

Tetralix. binervis.
Vaccinium Myrtillus. Anthoxanthum odoratum.
Rumex Acetosa. Festuca ovina.
Empetrum nigrum. Sphagnum spp.

Juncus Squarrosus.

But close by are wetter patches, dominated by Sphagnum and Scirpus
caesyitosus, and containing also—

Potentilla Tormentilla. Euphrasia officinalis.
Drosera rotundifolia. Empetrum nigrum.
Calluna vulgaris (very starved). Narthecium ossifragum.
Pinguicula vulgaris. Eriophorum angustifolium.

There are also patches having, like the last, a smooth grassy appearance,
in which Calluna and Eriophorum vaginatum share dominance; with much
Empetrum, Sphagnums, Racomitrium lanuginosum and other mosses, and
some

Potentilla Tormentilla. Luzula maxima.

Drosera rotundifolia. Narthecium ossifragum.
Pinguicula vulgaris. Eriophorum angustifolium.
Orchis maculata. Cladonia sp.

Extending thence westward, covering the long ridge of the hill and its
seaward slopes, a curious mixture of associations occurs. The general
appearance of the vegetation is grassy and rushy. Sometimes Calluna is
dominant, sometimes Eriphorum vaginatum, or Juncus squarrosus. Other

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 23

characteristic plants are Potentilla Tormentilla, Salix aurita, Orchis maculata,
Narthecium ossifragum, Eriophorum angustifoliwm. Mosses are abundant, the
leading species being Dicranwm majus, Hylocomium loreum, H. proliferum,
and species of Sphagnum.

ALPINE VEGETATION.

Lastly, reference must be made to the flora of the great sea-scarp of Croagh-
more, which forms a precipice 1,500 feet high descending into the Atlantic.
This scarp consists, in its upper part, of ranges of cliffs, with very steep grassy
slopes between; below are almost sheer cliffs, rismg from the sea to a height,
at some spots, of nearly 1,000 feet. The alpine vegetation concentrates on the
upper ranges of cliffs, from 1,000 to 1,400 feet. This part of the precipice can
be explored best by the aid of two little sheep-tracks, which run in from the
east edge of the cliff, and became known to us as the “1,000-foot path” and
the “1,200-foot path.” (Plate I. The 1,000-foot-path is illustrated in Part 23,
Land and Fresh-water Mollusca.) They lead along the scarp, and one
can work one’s way out again at the west end. The 1,000-foot path starts
from a little ledge that forms a conspicuous feature on the steep edge of the
hill, as seen from the east or south-east. Ten plants of Watson’s Highland
Type are found on the-Croaghmore scarp :—

Silene acaulis. Oxyria digyna.
Saxifraga oppositifolia. Salix herbacea.

Sedum Rhodiola. Aspidium Lonchitis.
Saussurea alpina. Asplenium viride.
Hieracium anglicum. Selaginella selaginoides.

With these some other interesting species occur—Saxifraga Geum, not pre-
viously known in northern Europe outside Kerry and West Cork; Savifraga
decipiens (Plate VI., fig. 2), elsewhere in Ireland known only from Slieve
Mish, in Kerry; the northern var. procumbens of Hypericum pulchrum; and
Cystopteris fragilis. Croaghmore forms the only island-station for almost
all these, and also for a few other plants, such as Anemone nemorosa,
Polygala vulgaris, Rubus saxatilis, Geum rivale, Campanula rotundifolia.
Among the characteristic concomitants of the alpine plants at 1,400 feet

are :—
Ranunculus acris. Jasione montana.
Viola Riviniana. Primula vulgaris.
Cerastium triviale. Pinguicula vulgaris.
Hypericum pulchrum. Thymus Serpyllum.
Oxalis Acetosella. Carex glauca.
Saxifraga umbrosa. Hymenophyllum unilaterale,

Angelica sylvestris, Lastrea dilatata,

10 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Aeademy.

The most abundant plants of the scarp include :—

Silene acaulis, Sedum Rhodiola,
Saxifraga decipiens, Oxyria digyna,
S. umbrosa, Hymenophyllum unilaterale—

all of which occur in great profusion. Silene acanlis, and also Hymeno-
phiyllum unilaterale + Mnivm hornum form large bosses (Plate VL, fig. 1):
Sedum Rhodiola and Oxyria digyna occupy all the rock crevices: Saxifraga
umbrosa and S. decipiens are everywhere. Small falls of stone and earth are
continually dragging down clumps of vegetation. Silene acaulis suffers
particularly in this way, but easily maintains its abundance by means of
seedlings, despite the ravages of the slug Arion ater, which ieeds voraciously
upon the blossoms (Plate V., fig. 2).

The vertical limits on Clare Island of some of the plants are given below;
but no systematic observations on this point were undertaken :-—

Cochlearia officinalis, 0? to 1300
Silene acaulis, 400 to 1450
S. maritima, 0 to 1000
Lychnis diurna, to 1000
Saxifraga decipiens, 0 to 1300
S. umbrosa, 0 to 1500
Sedum Rhodiola, 150 to 1450
8. anglicum, 0 to 1450
Angelica sylvestris, to 1200
Armeria maritima, 0 to 1300
Oxyria digyna, 600 to 1400
Hymenophyllum unilaterale, 0 to 1500
Lastrea aemula, 0 to 1500
Asplenium marinum, 0 to 500

4. LIST OF THE FLORA OF CLARE ISLAND.

Tn enumerating the flora of Clare Island, I shall adopt the method most
saving of space—to list the plants in columns, with no further comment than
the figure or letter which follows each. The figures 1, 2, 3, are used when
the species were seen in only one, two, or three stations on the island;
r. signifies rare ; f., frequent ; ¢., common; v.c., very common; /., local. For con-
venience of statistics, only species and sub-species (according to the standard
used in “Irish Topographical Botany”) are included in this list, varieties
being separately dealt with below. The present list includes all species found

1 “<Q”? signifies the lower limit of terrestrial vegetation.

Clare Island Survey

Phanerogamia.

10 25

on the island in situations other than those in which it is clear they have
been planted. The question of introduced plants and man’s influence upon
the flora is dealt with later (p. 31).

Anemone nemorosa, 1.
Ranunculus hederaceus, c.
Flammula, c.
repens, ¢.
acris, 7.
Ficaria, 3.
Caltha palustris, 1.
Nuphar luteum, 1.
Nymphaea alba, 1.
Fumaria confusa, 2.
Nasturtium officinale, f.
Cardamine pratensis, /.
hirsuta, f.
flexuosa, 1.
Cochlearia officinalis, c.
danica, 2.
eraenlandica, l.
Sisymbrium officinale, 2.
Brassica Rapa var. Briggsil,
ee
Sinapis, f.
alba, c.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, f.
Senebiera Coronopus, c.
Raphanus Raphanistrum,
3.
Viola palustris, c.
Riviniana, c.
arvensis, 1.
Polygala vulgaris, 1.
serpyllacea, f.
Silene maritima, c.
acaulis, 1.
Lychnis diurna, 2.
Flos-cuculi, f.
Cerastium tetrandrum, f.
glomeratum, /.
triviale, f.
Stellaria media, f.
graminea, f.
uliginosa, f.
Arenaria peploides, 1.
Sagina maritima, f.
procumbens, c.
R. I, A. PROC., VOL. XXXI,

Sagina subulata, U.
nodosa, 1.
Spergula arvensis, v.c.
Spergularia salina, 2.
rupestris, c.
Montia fontana, c.
Hypericum Androsaemum,
3.
tetrapterum, f.
humifusum, 3.
pulchrum, /.
elodes, v.c.
Radiola linoides, f.
Linum catharticum, f.
Geranium molle, f.
dissectum, 2.
Robertianum, f.
Oxalis Acetosella, f.
Ilex Aquifolium, +.
Ulex europaeus, J.
Trifolium pratense, f.
repens, ¢.
dubium, 2.
Anthyllis Vulneraria, f.
Lotus corniculatus, c.
uliginosus, 1.
Vicia hirsuta, 1.
Cracea, ¢c.
sepium, f.
Lathyrus pratensis, /.
macrorrhizus, 3.
Prunus spinosa, J.
Spiraea Ulmaria, f.
Rubus plicatus, f.
pulcherrimus, f.
rusticanus, f.
iricus, f.
saxatilis, 1.
Geum rivale, 1.
Fragaria vesca, 1.
Potentilla Fragariastrum,
2.
Tormentilla, c.
procumbens, 2.
D

Potentilla Anserina, c.
palustris, c.
Alchemilla arvensis, 7.
vulgaris, 7.
Rosa spinosissima, 7.
canina, 1.
Pyrus Aucuparia, 2.
Malus, 1,
Saxifraga oppositifolia, 1.
umbrosa, c.
Geum, 1.
decipiens, 1.
Chrysosplenium oppositi-
folium, 2.
Cotyledon Umbilicus, 1.
Sedum Rhodiola, J.
anglicum, c.
acre, 1.
Drosera rotundifolia, c.
anglica, 2.
Myriophyllum
rum, 1.
Callitriche stagnalis, f.
pedunculata, 2.
Peplis Portula, f.
Lythrum Salicaria, c.
Kpilobium parviflorum, /.
obscurum, f.
montanum, f.
palustre, f,
Circaea lutetiana, 1.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, c.
Sanicula europaea, 2.
Conium maculatum, 7.
Apium nodiflorum, 3.
inundatum, 2.
Conopodium denudatum, 3.
Crithmum maritimum, /.
Oenanthe crocata, c.
Angelica sylvestris, c.
Heracleum Sphondylium,
f.
Daucus Carota, c.
Hedera Helix, f.
10

alterniflo-

10 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lonicera Periclymenum, f. Sonchus asper, /. Mentha hirsuta, f.

Galium verum, /. arvensis, 2. Thymus Serpyllum, c.
saxatile, c. Jasione montana, /. Chamaedrys, 7.
palustre, 7. Campanula rotundifolia, 1. Prunella vulgaris, ce.
Aparine, c. Vaccinium Myrtillus, f. | Stachys palustris, f.

Valeriana sambucifolia, f. Calluna vulgaris, c. sylvatica, 2.

Seabiosa Succisa, c. Krica Tetralix, c. arvensis, 2.

EKupatorium cannabinum, cinerea, c. Galeopsis Tetrahit, 1.

2. mediterranea, 1. Lamium intermedium, 2.

Solidago Virgaurea, f. Armeria maritima, c. purpureum, f.

Bellis perennis, f. Primula vulgaris, c. hybridum, 1.

Aster Tripolium, /. Lysimachia nemorum,c. Teucrium Scorodonia, /.

Filago germanica, 1. Glaux maritima, 2. Ajuga reptans, 1.

Antennaria dioica, 2. Anagallis arvensis, f. Plantago major, r.

Gnaphalium uliginosum,c. _ tenella, v.c. lanceolata, c.
sylvaticum, 2. Samolus Valerandi, f. maritima, c.

Pulicaria dysenterica, 1. Fraxinus excelsior, 1. Coronopus, ec.

Bidens tripartita, 3. Erythraea Centaureum, f. Littorella lacustris, 8.

Achillea Millefolium, f. Gentiana campestris, f. Chenopodium album, 7.
Ptarmiea, f. Menyanthes trifoliata, 7. Beta maritima, f.

Chrysanthemum segetum, Symphytum officinale,1. Atriplex patula, f.

1. Myosotis caespitosa, c. hastata, f.
Leucanthemum, r. repens, ¢. Salsola Kali, 1.

Matricaria inodora, c. arvensis, f. Polygonum Conyolvulus, 7.
discoidea, c. versicolor, 1. aviculare, f.

Artemisia vulgaris, f. Calystegia sepium, 2. Raii, 1.

Tussilago Farfara, 7. Convolvulus arvensis, 1. Hydropiper, f.

Senecio vulgaris, c. Scrophularia nodosa, 1. Persicaria, f.
sylvaticus, 7. Digitalis purpurea, f. lapathifolium, 2.
Jacobaea, f. Veronica agrestis, 2. amphibium, 1.
aquaticus, f. polita, 2. Oxyria digyna, 1.

Arctium Newbouldii, 1. Tournefortii, 2. Rumex conglomeratus, 1.

Cnicus lanceolatus, c. arvensis, f. obtusifolius, c.
palustris, c. serpyllifolia, f. crispus, ¢.
pratensis, c. officinalis, 3. Acetosa, f.
arvensis, f. Chamaedrys, f. Acetosella, c.

Saussurea alpina, 1. scutellata, 3. Euphorbia Helioscopia, f.

Centaurea nigra, f. Beccabunga, /. Peplus, 7.

Lapsana communis, /. Euphrasia offic alis, ¢. Urtica dioica, f.

Crepis virens, 1. Bartsia Odontites, f. urens, /.

Hieracium Pilosella, f, Pedicularis palustris, 2. Myrica Gale, f.
anglicum, 2. sylvatica, f. Betula pubescens, 3.
hypochaeroides, 1. Rhinanthus Crista-galli, c. Corylus Avellana, 1.

Hypochaeris radicata, c. | Orobanche rubra, 1. Quercus sessiliflora, 1.

Leontodon hirtus, 2. Utricularia minor, r. Salix cinerea, f.
autumnalis, c. intermedia, 1. aurita, 7.

Taraxacum officinale, f. Pinguicula vulgaris, f. repens, c.

Sonchus oleraceus, f. lusitanica, 7, herbacea, 1,

Clare Island Survey—P hanerogamia.

Empetrum nigrum, 7.
Juniperus nana, 1.
Listera cordata, 1.
ovata, 1.
Cephalanthera ensifolia, 1.
Orchis mascula, 2.
incarnata, f.
maculata, c.
Habenaria chloroleuca, 3.
Tris Pseud-acorus, f.
Scilla nutans, 2.
Narthecium ossifragum, f.
Juncus bufonius, c.
squarrosus, f.
Gerardi, 1.
effusus, c.
maritimus, 1.
supinus, f.
obtusiflorus, 3.
lamprocarpus, f.
acutiflorus, f.
Luzula maxima, 3.
campestris, f.
erecta, f.
Sparganium ramosum, f.
affine, 2.
minimum, 2.
Lemna minor, 1.
Alisma Plantago, 1.
ranunculoides, 1.
Triglochin palustre, f.
maritimum, 1.
Potamogeton natans, 38.
polygonifolius, c.
pusillus, 2.
Eleocharis palustris, f.
multicaulis, c.
Scirpus caespitosus, 7.
fluitans, f.
Savii, 7.
setaceus, 2.
lacustris, 2.
maritimus, 1.

Eriophorum vaginatum, 7.

aneustifolium, 7.
Rhynchospora alba, 1.
Schaenus nigricans, f.
Carex dioica, 1.

pulicaris, r.

arenaria, 1.

paniculata, 3.

vulpina, 2.

echinata, f.

ovalis, f.

vulgaris, c.

glauca, c.

limosa, 1.

pilulifera, 7.

praecox, 7.

panicea, f.

sylvatica, 1.

binervis, c.

distans, /.

Hornschuchiana, 2.

extensa, 1.

flava, c.

ampullacea, f.
Phalaris arundinacea, 1.
Anthoxanthum odoratum,

f.
Alopecurus geniculatus, 1.
Agrostis alba, 1.

vulgaris, c.
Aira caryophyllea, f.

praecox, c.
Deschampsia caespitosa, 1.

flexuosa, 38.
Holcus lanatus, 1.
Arrhenatherum

ceum, f.

Triodia decumbens, f.
Phragmites communis, 2.
Cynosurus cristatus, c.
Koeleria cristata, f.
Molinia caerulea, f.
Dactylis glomerata, f.

avena-

10 27

Poa annua, f.

pratensis, f.

trivialis, f.

Glyceria fluitans, c.
Festuca rottboellioides, 2.

sciuroides, f.

ovina, f.

rubra, f.

Bromus mollis, 1.

commutatus, f.
Brachypodium sylvaticum,

f.
Agropyron repens, 1.

junceum, 1.

Nardus stricta, f.

Hymenophyllum unilater-
ale, f.

Pteris Aquilina, c.

Blechnum Spicant, v.c.

Asplenium Adiantum-ni-
grum, f.

marinum, f.

viride, 1.

Trichomanes, 2.
Athyrium Filix-faemina, c.
Scolopendrium vulgare, -.
Cystopteris fragilis, 1.
Aspidium Lonchitis, 1.

aculeatum, 1,

angulare, 1.

Lastrea Filix-mas, f.

dilatata, f.

aemula, c.

Polypodium vulgare, /.
Osmunda regalis, c.
Ophioglossum vulgatum, 3.
Botrychium Lunaria, 1.
Equisetum maximum, c.

arvense, f.

palustre, 2.

limosum, f.

Lycopodium Selago, 2.
Selaginella selaginoides, 3.

D2

10 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

NOTES ON THE LIST.

Fumaria confusa, Jord.—Both the type and var. hibernica, Pugsley, occur
sparingly.

Cardamine pratensis, L—The forms with proliferous leaves and with double
flowers both occur.

Cochlearia groenlandica, L.—Not uncommon in chinks of rocks at the west
end. Found also on Inishturk, Inishbofin, Achill, and in north Donegal.

Polygala vulgaris, L—Only found on the great cliff, among alpines—a hand-
some dwarf form, with very large leaves and flowers. Mr. Arthur Bennett
writes of it :—“It is very like specimens I gathered on the cliffs of chalk
at Dover, and when I gathered it I thought I had found grandiflora... .
It certainly seems to me to come a# least half way between that and the
eu-vulgarts of Syme, and is a notable form.”

Silene acaulis, L—Varies much in the colour of its flowers, from pale pink to
deep rose and dull purple. The Clare Island station is the most southerly
in Ireland, and its lower limit here (400 feet) is the lowest in the
country—lower even than in Donegal (550 feet).

Sagina subulata, L—Rocks near the harbour, also near the light-house, and
frequent at the west end. Was found also on Achillbeg.

Lychnis diurna, Sibth.—A very rare plant in the west. On Clare Island there
is a colony of it on the cliff on the north side of Knocknaveen, and
another on the Croaghmore cliffs at 800 feet. Its only other West Mayo
station is on Inishturk.

Spergula arvensis, L.—Both forms (vulgaris and sativa) common.

Montia fontana, L.—Var. minor common; var. rivularis only once seen.

Alchemilla vulgaris, L—Rare on the island. A. alpestris Schm. was the
prevailing form, but.4. pretensis Schm. also occurred.

Hypericum pulchrum, L., var. procumbens Rostrup.—On the Croaghmore scarp.
Elsewhere in Ireland known only from the similar scarp of Croaghaun
in Achill. In Great Britain found in Shetland only.

Rubus.—Only a limited amount of attention was given to the Brambles. R.
plicatus and R. rusticanus were frequent. Of some half dozen selected
specimens gathered and submitted to Mr. Rogers, the fact that two of
them proved to be R. pulcherrimus and three R. iricus may be taken as
showing that these two forms, the latter of which appears to be endemic
in Ireland, are also frequent. Another interesting gathering was unfor-
tunately mixed; Mr. Rogers writes :—“Stem piece looks like &. Selmerz,
while panicle strongly recalls the R. Lettzi of Cos. Down and Armagh,
and may belong to that.”

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 29

Pyrus Malus, L.—One very old tree (var. acerba (DC.)) by the Ooghganny
stream near the west end. I believe native. Found also on Inishturk.

Saxifraga oppositifolia, L._Sparingly in one spot on Croaghmore cliffs at
about 1,200 feet, with Asplenium viride, &c.

8. umbrosa, L.—On rough ground at all elevations, from the round stones of
the boulder beach at Portlea to the summit of Croaghmore.

8. Geum, L.—The most interesting plant added to the flora by the field-work
of 1909-1911. It grows on two spots on the Croaghmore cliffs at about
1,200 feet, in small quantity—a dark green hairy form, the leaf not
deeply cordate at the base as in the type, but running into the stem at
about right angles. I have an almost identical form in cultivation from
Berehaven and from the Pyrenees. <A different form of S. Gewm was
found by Miss Knowles at Old Head, Louisburgh, growing on a bank
near a ruined house; it did not not occur in any other situation there, and
was, I believe, an escape from cultivation.

In the west of Ireland generally, where S. Gewm does not occur, one
does not encounter those puzzling forms intermediate between Gewm and
umbrosa which are the despair of the botanist in Kerry. It is interesting
to note that a couple of plants of a form distinctly intermediate were
seen on Croaghmore, close to one of the colonies of S. Geum. This suggests
a hybrid origin for the intermediate forms.

S. decipiens, Hhrh.—The Clare Island plant is a very strong-growing hairy
form. Elsewhere in Ireland S. decipiens is known from Kerry only.
Descends to sea-level (a.¢., storm-level) on cliffs at Altnamarnagh.

Sedum Rhodiola, DC.—Abundant all round the northern and western cliffs,
from storm-level to 1,450 feet. Inland on rocks east of the Signal Tower
at 800 feet, and sparingly on the cliff on the north slope of Knocknaveen.

Matricaria discoidea, DC.—Has greatly increased since my visit in 1903. At
that time it extended for about half a mile along the roads from the
Harbour. It is now nearly continuous from the Harbour for three miles
along the chapel road, and is abundant at many places on the lighthouse
road.

Saussurea alpina, DC—Half a dozen colonies along the 1,200-foot path on
Croaghmore,

[Carduus nutans, L.—“On Clare Island; Hon. Miss H. Lawless” (Cyd. Hub.
ed. ui.) This is one of the very few previous plant-records from the
island. Miss Lawless informs me that she gathered plants on Clare
Island during her brief visit there at the request of A. G. More, and sent
the specimens to him. Reference to Mr. More’s annotated copy of Cybele
Hibernica, ed. i., in the Royal Irish Academy, shows the above entry in

10 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
his own hand-writing, so it may be taken that he named the specimen.
Miss Lawless cannot say where she gathered the plant. Not seen since.]

Hieracium hypochaeroides, Gibs., var. saxorum, F. J. H.—In good quantity
on the Croaghmore cliffs at about 1,100-1,300 feet.

H. anglicum, Fr.—With the last, and also on low sea-cliffs at Doontraneen.

Leontodon autumnalis, L., var. simplex, Duby.—Frequent at the west end of
the island. A very small glabrous plant with unbranched flower-stems
and almost entire leaves.

Taraxacum officinale, Weber, var., crythrospermum (DC.).—On sand at the bay
beside the Harbour.

Erica mediterranea, L.—Abundant on boulder-clay slopes (no trace of peat)
facing north-east, from storm-level to about 70 feet, between Portlea and
Oogheorragaun ; flowers very pale, the corolla being practically white,
with a pink edge. A couple of outlying plants on top of the low cliff at
east end of Portlea.

I was interested to discover what insects were fertilizing the flowers of
this plant on these sunless northern banks in March, and spent half an
hour capturing the insects which came to the blossoms. They numbered
four flies and one bee, which Messrs. Grimshaw and Halbert identify as
Scatophaga stercoraria g and ¢, Fucellia fucorum 2, Pseudopyrillia
cornicina 92, Eristalis tenax 2. No mention of this Heath or its
fertilization occurs in the well-known works of Miller or Knuth.

Euphrasia officinalis, L.—Z. brevipila, Burn. & Gremh, and #. gracilis, Fr. are
common; JL. occidentalis, Wettst.; #. curta, Fr., var. glabrescens, Wettst.;
and £. scottica, Wettst., are rarer.

Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L.—The prevailing formis FR. stenophyllus, Schur.

Or2sanche rubra, Sm.—This interesting plant was added to the flora on the
occasion of my last visit to ClareIsland. It was descried from the light-
house yard growing sparingly on the cliff below; and Mr. Duffy,-head
light-keeper, kindly went down on a rope and procured a specimen.

Thymus Chamaedrys, Fr.—In several spots, but much rarer than 7. Serpyllum.

Salix herbacea, L.—A couple of patches on Croaghmore at 1,000 feet, and
another at about 1,400 feet.

Juniperus nana, Willd—One patch on a small inaccessible sea-stack near
Doontraneen, about 70 feet elevation.

Cephalanthera ensifolia, Rich.—A few small plants, flowering sparingly, on a
boulder-clay slope facing north-east, 50 feet above the sea, between
Portlea and Ooghcorragaun. Found by D. J. Scourfield. Jistera ovata
also has here its only station, and Brica mediterraneais close athand. A
curious habitat for all three plants.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 31

Carex Oederi, Retz—Seems characteristic of the Plantago sward. ‘The var.
oedocarpa, And., also occurred.

Hymenophyllum unilaterale, Bory.—Very abundant on Croaghmore up to the
summit. On the scarp it forms bosses along with Mniwm hornum,
resembling those of Silene acaulis. It descends to about 500 feet on the
north-east flanks of Knocknaveen, 200 feet at Craigmore, and at Portlea
occurs at storm-level on the edge of the boulder beach.

Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.—Several small colonies on the Croaghmore scarp
at 1,200-1,400 feet.

Aspidium Lonchitis, Swartz.—Three colonies, each of about a dozen plants,
on the 1,200-foot path on Croaghmore.

Osmunda regalis, L—Common. Great tussocks growing in pasture-land are
left, as large boulders might be, on account of the labour required to
remove their dense matted roots. On wet clay in shady positions
seedings in all stages are often very abundant. A fine cristate form
found near Ballytoohy is figured in “ Irish Naturalist,” xii, 291.

5. THE INFLUENCE OF MAN UPON THE FLORA.

As regards the general history of the effect of human activity on the flora
of Ireland we have not much to go upon. We begin with an aboriginal
vegetation, its characters being the result of past geological changes, of local
climate and soil, plus the overmastering influence of the native fauna, from
grazing quadrupeds down to the lowest forms of animal life. The advent of
the human race at first can have made no appreciable difference. So long as
man merely hunted, his influence on the vegetation was very small. When
he became a keeper of flocks, he must have influenced the flora locally, chiefly
by reduction, owing to plants being prevented by grazing from increasing,
or from maturing seed. But when he began to use fire for clearing the wood-
land, and to till the ground, not only did his operations destroy the local
plant-formations, but the carrying and bartering of grain, for sowing or for
food, must have tended to spread the seeds of many plants.'

All through the Middle Ages, and on through modern times, as trade and
commerce increased, as towns grew, as lines of transportation spread across
the world, and railways and steamboats linked cities and countries together,
the scattering of alien seeds has ever gone on more and more, till nowadays
a dozen American or Russian plants may often be found growing together in
our own islands near centres of industry or of traffic. Recent studies by

1 See A. pe Canpoutr; Origin of Cultivated Plants (English edition), chap. i. 1884.

10 32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Trail,| Burkill, and Dewey,’ treating of certain interesting phases of this
modern feature in our flora, will be found instructive. Scott Elliot‘ and
Miall’ have written good chapters on the general subject; Hooker® has
discussed the introduction and spreading of Compositae; aliens in central
London have recently excited some interest’; and as regards Ireland, some
information will be found in certain writings by Adams,° Miss Knowles,’ and
myself.’

The influence of man upon the vegetation of the earth has been so
profound, and so different both in degree and in kind from that exercised
by the rest of the animal kingdom, that it is customary and useful to
distinguish between them; we say that seeds brought by a bird in mud
for building its nest are brought by “natural” means, while seeds brought
by man in mud to build his hovel are brought by “artificial” means.
It is curious to speculate at what particular period man became the author
of “artificial” actions. Presumably Pithecanthropus was guilty of no
“introductions”; nor could the seeds carried and dropped when man

‘* bruised the herb and crush’d the grape,
And bask’d and batten’d in the woods,”

be classed differently from those scattered by the birds. But when man
began to subject first the wild animals and then the woods to his will,
his influence on nature became so profound as to justify us in placing it
in a separate category. It is true that Woodruffe-Peacock pleads" for what
he considers a broader and more natural treatment of the subject, by including
man and all his works among the “natural” phenomena, and placing his
influence on the same footing as that of the wild beasts and birds. Certainly,
one wishes this could be done; but it would only lead to confusion, especially
in the domain of geographical botany. The results of man’s work have been
so rapid and revolutionary, so completely destructive of the gradual influences

1J. W. H. Tzarz: Florula of a piece of waste ground near Aberdeen. Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist.,
Y., pp. 231-285 ; yi., 24-31, 237-245; yiii., 221-230. 1896-9.

2]. H. Burxixi: Notes onthe Plants distributed by the Cambridge dust-carts. Proc. Cambridge
Phil. Soc., viii., pp. 92-95. 1895.

3 L. H. Dewey: Migration of Weeds. Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896, pp.263—286.

4G. F. Scorr Extior: Nature Studies (Plant Life), chap. xxvii. 1903.

5L. C. Mratt: Round the Year, pp. 200-208. 1899.

& Notes on the Classification, History, and Geographical Distribution of the Compositae. Journ.
Linn. Soc. (Botany), xiii., pp. 668-577. 1873.

7 Wild Flowers in the Strand. Journ. of Horticulture, lv, p. 122. 1907.

8 J. Apams: On the possibility of distinguishing between native and alien species of plants in
Ireland. Irish Nat., xviii., pp. 1238-132. 1909.

°M. C. Kyowxes: A contribution towards the alien flora of Ireland. Irish Nat., xv.,
pp. 143-150. 1906.

10 Knowledge, xxy., pp. 16-19, 1902, and Irish Topographical Botany, pp. xxxiy-xxxyiii. 1901.

11 E. A. Wooprurre-Peacocg: Natives and Aliens. Journ. Bot., xlvi., pp. 390-396. 1908,

Olare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 33

that have been at work “from the beginning,” that it seems wise to keep them
in a separate category. ‘

Man has influenced the flora in many ways, but most of all by clearing
away the native vegetation and growing instead certain plants, native or
foreign, which are useful to himself. The ousted native species, which have
hitherto held the ground against all comers, are continually breaking into
these reserves, and man is as constantly employed in keeping them out.
Agriculture, indeed, has been defined as “a controversy with weeds.”

The majority of our present-day weeds are light-soil plants widely
spread in Europe; and from the beginning these must have been weeds
in the cultivated lands, into which they migrated, and from which they
have never since been absent. Similarly, later on, the draining and manuring
of the land, the metalling of roads, the planting of trees, all had their effect,
both in providing new habitats for indigenous species, and in allowing foreign
introduced plants to obtain a footing.

So one effect of even the earliest cultivation must have been a very con-
siderable extension of the range of many native species (as well as the
curtailment of the range of others)—just as the erection of mortar-built walls
has resulted in the natural migration of calcicole plants, such as the Spleen-
worts, into areas which previously furnished them with no suitable habitat.
And along with this natural migration into artificial habitats by means of
wind-borne seeds, feeding birds, and so on, there went on artificial migration
through the medium of seeds imported by man in various ways. From this
point of view, then, we have in the farm-land three main classes of plants
to deal with :—

(1) Native species which still maintain their original habitat in the
cultivated areas.

(2) Native species which have migrated by natural means from adjoining
aboriginal habitats into the ground altered by man.

(3) Species carried into the new ground by man, or through his
operations.

As regards the date of the earliest changes in the flora, we know that
the cultivation of cereals in Europe goes back to Neolithic times; and that
then, as now, weed-seeds were mixed with the grain. In Ireland,
we have no direct evidence of Neolithic agriculture. Among the stone
implements, for instance, we do not find sickles, like the flint sickles of
ancient Egypt—unless a certain curved knife of slate from Antrim,' sharpened
on the concave face, may be looked upon as such. But the grain-rubbers

Sir Jounn Evans: The Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, p. 358. 1897.
R. I. A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, a) 10

10 34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

which have been found are exceedingly ancient, antedating by a long way
the well-known querns, and are probably Neolithic. Coming to the Bronze
Age, we find socketed sickles of the later portion of this period (possibly 900-
800 B.c.) fairly common in this country,’ which show that the cultivation of
grain was widespread. Plant-remains from the Irish lake-dwellings or inter-
ments unfortunately do not help us here; seeds have seldom been identified
from them, nor have these been correlated with the objects associated with
them; where walnuts and beech-nuts are mentioned in the same breath with
bronze implements’ it is clearly hopeless to pursue inquiry.

When we enter on the historic period, we find the cultivation of cereals an
important occupation of the people. Early Irish literature abounds in names
of grains—coirce (oats), eruithnecht and tuirenn (wheat), ith and arba, arbar
(corn), edrna (barley), segal (rye); some of these words carrying us back to
the Old-Irish period (seventh to tenth century),* and being without question
much older than that.°

O'Donovan, again, quotes a poem in which mills are mentioned, and the
grinding of oats and wheat, written about 651 a.p.; and he gives other
instances of the early prevalence of agriculture in Thieme 8

It is clear that from this point of approach very little that is dletinnitia is
to be learned concerning the standing of the many dubious plants now
found in our cultivated land; there can be little doubt that most of
them are very early introductions. But if we work back from the present,
we are in a more advantageous position. To do this we take the existing
flora, and from careful observation of the habitats and distribution of the
constituent species we can in many cases form an opinion as to their history
and standing. And a test which will in many cases help us in the forming
of a conclusion is to consider, in the case of each species of doubtful standing,
what would happen to it, so far as we can judge, were the influence of man
even now withdrawn.

It is essential for clear understanding that we should define what we
mean by such terms as “native” or “indigenous,” as compared with “alien,”
“introduction,” and so on. “Native” is used here in its strict sense. “A
species is only held to be native,” says Dunn,’ “in a natural locality to which

1 Tam indebted to Mr. George Cuffey and Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong for notes on this subject.

2 W. R. Witpe: Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities of stone, earthen, and vegetable
materials in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, p. 526. 1857.

3. W. G. Woop-Martin: The Lake-Dwellings of Ireland, p. 73. 1886.

4 T have to thank Prof. Carl Marstrander and Mr. R. I. Best for these notes.

5 This subject is treated more fully in Prof. Wilson’s report on Agriculture (Clare Island Survey,
part 5), published since the above was written.

6 Joun O'Donovan: Antiquity of Corn in Ireland. Dublin Penny Journal, i., 108-110, 282-
283. 1832-33.

7§. T. Dunn: Alien Flora of Britain, p. x. 1900.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 35

it has spread by natural means from a natural source.” This excludes all
interference by man, direct or indirect, as regards either the origin of the
seed or plant, its transport, or its subsequent development. But these tests
are not easy to apply, and cannot mostly be applied directly. We have
to rely rather on the absence of any evidence of introduction, making
“native,” in its application, a purely negative term, as Watson has
pointed out ;! and certain plants early introduced by man may now display
no jot of such evidence, and be ranked as native.» Every plant was
introduced to its present habitat by natural or artificial means at some
time; a native plant means tous a plant the record of whose introduction is
lost; but there is every reason to think that in the vast majority of cases
these “introductions” of native species took place before the beginning of
man’s activities. The only positive evidence that we can hope to obtain of
the “nativeness” of a plant is the discovery of its fossil remains in beds of
pre-human age; and on this subject the evidence is only beginning to
accumulate.

From the strictly native species we have a long series, descending to the
habitual and confirmed weed, introduced from cultivated land by human
hands into cultivated land; the various grades being well discussed by
De Candolle,? and exemplified from the British flora by Watson.‘

In the majority of English floras, “native” is not used in so strict a
sense as that quoted above, and generally includes individuals of species
truly native in the district or county, growing in either native or artificial
habitats °®; and in view of the fact that these two categories include between
them the range to which the native plants have spread by natural
dissemination, there is a good deal to be said in excuse for the practice;
though, I think, the only logical definition of the term “native” is the one
given above.

The extent to which human agency has interfered with the vegetation is
shown by the fact that Dunn’s “Alien Flora of Britain” contains 924 species
which that writer looks on as sometimes or always introduced. The greater
man’s activity in any area, the larger will be the percentage of non-native
plants, and vice versa. The true natives mostly shun man’s proximity, and
increase as we leave his works behind. In fact, if we divide our flora roughly
into “ anthropophobes ” and “ anthropophiles,” we shall find that the former

1H. ©. Watson: Cybele Britannica, iv., p. 65. 1859.

2 See A. pr CaANDOLLE: Origin of Cultivated Plants (English edition), p. 10.

3 A. pECANDOLLE: Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, ii., pp. 606-611. 185.

+ Tom. cit., pp. 71-77.

> An entertaining discussion on meanings of the word xadive, by an anonymous writer, appears in
The Phytologist, N.S.i., p. 938. 1855-6.

EK 2

10 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

group will correspond pretty closely with the native flora; while in the
latter we shall find almost all the species which are under suspicion of
introduction. The main sources of modern introduction are well summarized
by Dunn (pp. xili-xiv) and Adams (Joe. cit.).

In populous or highly tilled districts it is generally a very difficult
problem to determine which plants are indigenous, and which have been
brought in, directly or indirectly, by human operations. The problem is
simplified in an isolated and primitive area such as Clare Island, where the
conditions are tolerably uniform, and where the large proportion of ground
still remaining in a state approaching its primeval condition permits, at
least partially, of a reconstruction of the original surface, and of the vegetation
which it supported.

The doubtful section of any flora consists largely of annual plants, whose
life-history renders them especially suited for life in the cultivated lands.
They are abundant seeders ; the resting-stage during which they are dispersed
comes frequently ; and being short-lived, they can pass through a generation
between ploughings. The home of a large number of such plants is in the
Mediterranean region, whence they have worked their way northwards
across the cultivated lands. The dry soils of the south-east of England
possess a greater number of such species, both as natives and as introduc-
tions, than the north of England, or Scotland, where they appear mainly
as introductions; and some are native in eastern Ireland, which die out
or become dependent on man, as the light soils of the Leinster sea-board
graduate into the peaty soils of Connaught. As Dunn remarks (p. ix):
“The total range of any plant comprises all the countries in which it occurs,
and, in cases where artificial dissemination has enlarged the original area, the
total range may sometimes be satisfactorily divided into concentric zones
corresponding to the increasing dependence of the plant on man as it recedes
from its native centre.”

In remote areas in western Ireland many of the doubtful items are
eliminated. Such genera as Papaver, Fumaria, Silene, Lychnis, Trifolium,
Valerianella are rare or absent—at least as regards annual species; while
the annuals on the peninsula of Howth (44 square miles) on the east side
of Ireland include about 130 species, or 24 per cent. of its flora of 545
species, the annuals of Clare Island (64 square miles), the flora of which
comprises 389 species, comprise only 18 per cent. On Clare Island almost
every plant which is found on/y on cultivated ground may be ruled out as
either introduced by man, or dependent on him for its continued existence.
This is because the island, in its primitive condition, contained no open ground
such as gravelly wastes, sand-dunes, &c., on which these species might have

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 37

maintained themselves; nor, from a very remote period, can any native
grazing animals have been present, which might, at certain spots, have
enriched the land for the support of those plants which like gross feeding.

Among the groups of plants which are introduced by man, and come
under section (3) of the classification on p. 35, the more important are :—

(a) Plants deliberately brought in, as seeds or roots, for agricultural or
aesthetic purposes, or for food. These include trees planted for shelter,
crop plants and crop seeds; seeds, &c., used as human food, or for feeding
cattle, fowl, &e. ; and the contents of the kitchen-garden and flower-garden.

(6) Plants which come accidentally with these, especially as impurities in
seed. The main body of alien weeds comes under this head.

(c) Plants which arrive attached to animals, or to inanimate objects
brought in by man. Thus, men, cattle, and sheep may carry seeds attached to ~
their hair or feet; and clothing, timber, and many other materials brought
by man serve as carriers of seeds (see note on Matricaria discoidea, p. 47,
and on mud from the mainland, p. 54).

On Clare Island no portion of the vegetation can be claimed as absolutely
undisturbed, except that occupying certain portions of the sea-cliffs, where
the ubiquitous sheep are unable to climb, and one or two other spots (see
p. 40, znfra). Even on the great scarp of Croaghmore, among the alpine
plants, one comes on natural shelters under overhanging rocks, and here
the sheep have left their mark behind them in the little colonies of Pow
annua, Stellaria media, Cerastium glomeratum, &c., which are here clearly
exotic. Nevertheless, the heath area, which occupies about two-thirds of the
island, is still comparatively in its primitive condition. It is on the farm-
land that man’s influence is especially seen; here we get every gradation
from an almost undisturbed native flora to a flora which is wholly artificial.

In order to determine the standing of the doubtful members of the flora,
the range and habitat of each species on the island were studied, and the
means by which each is dispersed ; also its distribution and standing on
the adjoining mainland, in Britain, and on the Continent.! To discover
what plants are being introduced at the present day, samples of the seed
brought to the island for agricultural purposes were intercepted and
examined’; certain accidental means of introduction were also investigated.

In attempting to express with any accuracy the present standing of
species as regards their being native or introduced, we are really trying to

1 As regards observations on these points I would acknowledge the kind assistance I received
from Miss M. C. Knowles.

2T would acknowledge my great indebtedness to Dr. G. H. Pethybridge, in charge of the Seed-
testing Station of fhe Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, and his assistant,
Miss R. Hensman, for analyses of these samples.

10 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

express their past history. The test which we apply to them is of
necessity a three-fold one—source, dispersal, habitat. Dunn’s definition,
already quoted, of a native plant—a plant which has spread by natural means
from a natural source to a natural habitat—is the only possible one, if we
follow the matter to a logical conclusion. Now, a plant may fail to fulfil
any one, any two, or all three of these conditions—its source, its dispersal,
its habitat, may be any or all under suspicion. Hight combinations of these
three conditions are possible, and any of these eight combinations may occur
in nature, though some occur much more frequently than others. We may
tabulate these possibilities; and if we let N stand for uncontaminated condi-
tions, and * for contaminated conditions, then we can express the standing of
a plant as shown in the right-hand column :—

| Source. Dispersat. | Hasrrar. ~ Symzou.
Natural Natural Natural NNN
Natural Natural Artificial NN*
Natural Artificial Natural IN| 3 JN]
Natural Artificial Artificial IN
Artificial Natural Natural *=NN
Artificial Natural Artificial SINS
Artificial Artificial Natural ek N
Artificial Artificial Artificial FESS

The reader will easily select instances from his own experience in
which every one of these eight sets of conditions may occur or has
occurred. I hesitate to apply any of the existing terms for the standing of a
plant, such as “colonist,” “denizen,” &c., to any of these combinations, since
these have been used rather vaguely, and not always in the same sense ;
neither do I suggest names for them, since the formula itself is shorter than
any descriptive name would be, and definite and self-explanatory besides.

We need to be clear about our definition of each of the three tests.
A native source means one which has never been contaminated, thus carrying
us back to the pre-human period ; this category deals especially with the various
habitats which the plants’ progenitors may have occupied before arrival in the
present habitat. Natural dispersal in the same way must of necessity refer to
the continued dispersal of the progenitors of our chosen individual from the
beginning, and this category deals with the means by which the said progenitors
migrated from habitat to habitat until the present station was reached. The

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 39

third symbol deals with the present habitat and its condition ; a natural habitat
means one which has never been altered by man. But in certain cases
in all three categories, where the interference by man was of early date, all
trace of it may now be lost. The lines of investigation to be pursued in
attempting to apply these tests to our flora are well put forward by Adams
(doc. cit.).

The only point in which the formula suggested above fails to show
completely the standing of a plant from this point of view is that it deals
only with the plant’s history up to the present, and makes no prediction
as to the future—in other words, it does not express whether we believe the
plant to be established in its habitat, and likely to remain there indefinitely
without the assistance of man (as is the case with natives and naturalized
aliens)—or whether we believe the plant likely not to endure, as in the case
of the majority of agrestal species, casuals, &c. When we have an opinion
on this subject, we can express probable temporary occupation of the ground
by putting in brackets the triple symbol which expresses the plant’s past
history.

Of course, this system applies only to any particular individual we
choose to select; and another individual of the same species growing close
by may have a different history. A plant which we brand * ** may as
a species be N N N in the district all the time. But, it must be remembered,
we are dealing with a vegetation much disturbed by man, in which we are
endeavouring to distinguish the fragments of the aboriginal flora; our test
is applied to the individuals most nearly native that we can find, A species
is set down as native in a district even though ninety-nine out of every
hundred individuals may fail to pass the test, so long as there can be no
doubt about the hundredth. The various individuals of almost every species
in any area divide themselves among several of the categories given above ;
the standing of a species is indicated by the applicable formula which most
nearly approaches the native standard.

This method of analysis is not very satisfactory, especially since the N or *
which we assign is a matter of opinion, though founded on what evidence we
can gather. Itis easy to invent a reductio ad absurdum—tor instance, is the
progeny of a native plant never more to be allowed native rank, because at
some time in the past one generation was spent self-sown in a disturbed
habitat ? Nevertheless, the method will be found to clarify our ideas as to
the standing of plants in a great majority of cases, and large groups of
species can without difficulty be assigned their place in the system. Let us
return now to the consideration of the flora of Clare Island.

Maritime VEGETATION.—On the cliffs and sea-rocks, as mentioned above,

10 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

we find in places an almost undisturbed flora. The close maritime sward, too,
which occupies considerable exposed tracts near the sea, appears to be only
slightly influenced by grazing, and its limits remain unchanged. Among
the few spots on the island accessible to man, but inaccessible to sheep, are
some small sea-stacks which rise out of the sea beside Doontraneen near the
lighthouse, and Kinnatevdilla, or Beetle Head, the most westerly point of the
island. These were explored by swimming and climbing, but, owing to their
small size, not much can be learned from them. The dense, deep masses
of Festuca ovina and other plants in such places contrast strongly with the
closely nibbled grass of the adjoining slopes.

THE Moortanp.—The flora here has been disturbed by grazing, by
burning, and by turf-cutting; and grazing in particular has probably greatly
altered the appearance—if not so much the flora—of the far-extending moor-
land formation. Writing on the same question in the Faerdes, Ostenfeld
says :—“ Indeed, one wonders how the Faerdese vegetation would look if
there were no sheep. ... The character and features of the vegetation
outside the enclosures in the lower zones of the Faerdes are in a high degree
due to the grazing of sheep.” While on Clare Island it is difficult to point
to any particular species which has been driven from the heath-land area by
man or sheep, or to any, save a few annuals about fences or turf-stacks,
that owe their presence to the same cause, there can be no doubt that the
old original formations have been largely broken up and dispersed.

THE FARM-LAND occupies two areas: the one running for three miles
along the southern shore of the island; the other lying in a basin fronting
the north-eastern shore; their position and limits being determined by the
presence of a certain amount of soil and of shelter. Around the edges of these
areas, and on uncultivated knolls within them, a shrubby or grassy vegetation
is developed, and fields left untilled run back to a poor vegetation in which
grasses predominate; it seems clear that grassy scrub formed one of the
aboriginal types of vegetation. The remaining patches of native woodland,
consisting of low scrub, are found on steep or rocky places mainly within
this area. They have evidently been diminished by farming operations, and
largely by grazing, and are still (as along the north face of the ridge
running west from the harbour) being trampled and torn by cattle and sheep.
The indications are that a good deal of the drier and steeper slopes of the
farm-land area was formerly occupied by scrub, with a grassy woodland
undergrowth, the flatter and wetter parts being occupied by beds of willows.

As mentioned elsewhere, the remains of Scotch Fir and other trees, of

1 Botany of the Faerées, p. 894.

Clare Island Survey—-Phanerogamia. 10 41

large size in comparison with the present tree-vegetation, occur abundantly
in the peat in some places; but these belong to an earlier epoch, and there
are no indications that they were destroyed by man.

It is on the farm-land area that the flora has been most profoundly
altered, the operations consisting mainly of drainage and tillage. The ground
is wet almost everywhere, on account of the high rainfall and perennial
dampness of the air, and is usually peaty. The drainage of the land is very
primitive. Deep ditches have been dug in places along the edges of the
fields, and the material thrown up into high banks to give shelter. Over the
whole area of the fields parallel open trenches are dug, running with the
slope. These are about 6 feet to 10 feet apart, 2 feet to 3 feet wide, and 1 foot
to 3 feet deep. The material is thrown on the intervening ridges, and on
these “lazy beds” the crop is sown or planted. Wherever cultivation has
been practised, even at a remote time, the marks of these trenches and ridges
remain, giving the land a fluted appearance, and showing the high-tide mark
of tillage, which occurred before the dreadful famine year of 1846. Covered
drains were unknown on the island until a couple of years ago, and are still
looked on as a doubtful experiment. Loose stone walls are also built, to clear
the land and to give shelter. The result of all these operations is to diminish
the proportion of marsh plants, and to increase the mesophile vegetation. The
better drainage and shelter given by the ditches, banks, and walls, have, I
think, considerably increased the quantity of Bracken and of Brambles, for
instance.

The usual crops are potatoes and oats, with some barley, rye, turnips,
mangels, and cabbages. The weed flora is poor in variety. Among the
cereals Brassica Rapa var. Briggsii is the most conspicuous and abundant
colonist; B. alba is the next commonest Brassica; B. Sinapis is a rather
bad third. Other prevailing crop-weeds are Spergula arvensis, Polygonum
Persicaria, P. Hydropiper, and Euphorbia Helioscopia. Poppies, Valerian-
ellas, &e., are absent; Fumitories very rare. The human activity of the
island centres about the harbour, in the extreme south-east, and the chapel,
on the southern shore a couple of miles away. Around these spots are
grouped such species as Sisymbriwm officinale, Trifolium dubiwm, Calystegia
septum, Veronica polita, V. agrestis, V. Tournefortii, Lamiwm hybridum,
L. intermedium, Stachys arvensis, Polygonum Convolvulus, all of which must
on Clare Island rank as introduced plants.

When land is left uncultivated, it is rapidly invaded by the native flora ;
annual species disappear, and indigenous perennials soon form a closed
vegetation ; on the lower grounds, grasses become dominant, on the upper
grounds Calluna. A few examples of stages of this regeneration may be given.

RIA. PROC., VOL. XXXI, r 10

10 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Field of potatoes, not yet dug (October).

Among the more confirmed weeds,

such as Chickweed, Groundsel, and knot-weeds, were

Achillea Millefolium.
Angelica sylvestris.
Centaurea nigra.
Digitalis purpurea.
Heracleum Sphondylium.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris.
Leontodon autumnalis.

Lythrum Salicaria.
Potentilla Tormentilla.
Pteris Aquilina.
Rumex Acetosa.
Senecio aquaticus.
Viola Riviniana.

2. BETWEEN THE HarBouR AND THE CHAPEL.

Field sloping south, 100 feet elevation.

Thin, poor, loamy soil, capable of

bearing a crop only about once in ten years, when well manured. Old “lazy

beds,’’ second year out of cultivation.

Poa pratensis, v.c.
Ranunculus repens, c.
Potentilla Anserina, c.
Senecio Jacobaea, c.
8. aquaticus, c.
Prunella vulgaris, c.
Rumex Acetosella, c.
Holcus lanatus, c.
Achillea Ptarmica.
Agrostis alba.

A, vulgaris.

Anagallis tenella.

Arrhenatherum ayenaceum.

Cerastium triviale.
Cnicus lanceolatus.
Cynosurus cristatus.
Daucus Carota.
Epilobium obscurum.
Erythraea Centaurium.
Euphrasia officinalis.
Festuca rubra.

Vegetation almost closed.

Hypericum humifusum.
Juncus bufonius.

J. effusus.

J. supinus.

Lotus corniculatus.
Matricaria inodora.
Plantago lanceolata.
Polygonum aviculare.
P. Hydropiper.
Rhinanthus Crista-galli.
Rumex Acetosa.

R. crispus.

R. obtusifolius.
Sagina procumbens.
Scirpus setaceus.
Sonchus asper.
Spergula arvensis.
Stachys palustris.
Stellaria media.
Trifolium dubium.

T. pratense.

T. repens.

Just above, a portion of the same field was a year or two longer out of

cultivation. Here was a closer sward, composed mainly of grasses (Cynosurus
eristatus, Holcus lanatus, Poa pratensis chiefly), bright with the flowers of
Prunella vulgaris, Trifolium repens, Lotus corniculatus, Anagallis tenella,

Olure Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 43

8. Between THE HarBourR AND THE CHAPEL.

Field sloping steeply south, 300 feet elevation. ‘ Lazy beds,” at least ten
years out of cultivation. Soil peaty. Closed, patchy vegetation.

Calluna vulgaris

: dom.
Salix repens
Anthoxanthum odoratum, c.
Anagallis tenella, c.
Nardus stricta, c.
Potentilla Tormentilla, c.

Scabiosa succisa, c.

Achillea Ptarmica.
Bellis perennis.
Carex flava.

C. glauca.

Cnicus pratensis.
Cynosurus cristatus.

Galium saxatile.
Juncus lamprocarpus.
Leontodon hirtus.
Lotus corniculatus.
Luzula campestris.
Pinguicula vulgaris.
Plantago maritima.
Prunella vulgaris.
Ranunculus acris.
Sagina procumbens.
Senecio aquaticus.
Trifolium dubium.
T, repens.

The difference in quality between this invasion on the peat-area and the
last, which was on the loam, is very apparent. In both cases the number
of wet-soil plants on these well-drained slopes facing south conveys a good

idea of the dampness of the climate.

TREES AND SHrRuBS.—A few trees have been planted, mostly about
cottages near the east end of the island; but though some of. them are now
tolerably old, none have succeeded in attaining a greater height than about

12 feet. The species represented are

Acer Pseudo-platanus.
Prunus Cerasus.
Pyrus Aucuparia.'
Sambucus nigra.
Fraxinus excelsior.
Salix pentandra.

S. Smithiana.

8. viminalis.
Populus canadensis.
P. nigra.

Alnus glutinosa.

Near the harbour are some attempts at hedges, where we find—

Crataegus Oxyacantha.

Hippophie rhamnoides.

A few shrubs have been planted for ornament or use about cottages :—

Ribes Grossularia,
Fuchsia Riccartoni,

Ligustrum sp. ;

and at the little new hotel may be seen Ribes sanguineum, several New

Zealand Veronicas, Griselinia littoralis.

1 This is the only one of the eleven species listed which occurs also as a native on the island.

F2

10 i4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

CuLmyary Herps.—None of the herbs so generally seen about cottages
seem to be present on the island—no Mints, Horehound, Southernwood,
Tansy, Sage. Even Allium Babingtonii, so widespread on the west coast, is
absent.

GARDEN FLowERS.—These are practically absent, and none seem to have
escaped and established themselves. In front of the Lodge at the Harbour
one may see Sedum Telephium; also Antennaria margaritaca growing
with Agopodium Podagraria, the two having doubtless come together. At
the hotel a few small herbaceous things have been recently planted. Near
the chapel Laratera arborea and Papaver somniferum have been planted beside

a cottage.

Present Standing of the Native Species (NNN, NN*, N*N, N**).

Out of a total fiora of 393 species, about 338 may be accounted true
natives on Clare Island;' that is, they appear to have occupied the ground
continuously since before the human period, or, if arrived since, have done
so by natural means from a natural source; and they are still found in
certain habitats which have never been disturbed by man (N N N).

But very few of these species are found on/y in such habitats, z., few of
them are always N N N. As examples of such we may quote the following :—

(1) Certain alpines—Sazxifraga oppositifolia, Saussurea alpina, Salis
herbacea, Aspidium Lonchitis. These live on narrow ledges or in vertical
rock-clefts of the Croaghmore cliffs, where even the sheep cannot penetrate;
and their habitat is absolutely undefiled. Certain other less exclusive
alpines, such as Sedum Rhodiola and Oxyria digyna, have had oe distri-
bution considerably altered by sheep.

(2) Certain woodland plants, which, like the last group, occupy on the
island inaccessible rock-ledges ; such are Lychnis diurna, Orchis mascula.

(3) Certain plants of wet, undrained swamps, such as Drosera anglica and
Carex limosa, which grow where animals dare not venture.

(4) Certain hydrophytes, such as WVitella translucens, which grows in a
swampy lakelet undrained by man.

(5) Certain sea-coast plants found on rock-ledges—Crithmum maritimum,
Beta maritima.

But, of course, we cannot tell in what other habitats these plants may
have grown formerly in which they have been exterminated; so we cannot
be sure that their distribution has not after all been influenced by man.

The list of natives of the island can be obtained by striking out of the general list on pp. 25-27
the non-native species listed on pp. 46-47.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 45

The great bulk of the flora of the island consists of individuals which
must be classed as N N *—that is, they belong to species which are im sensu
stricto native somewhere on the island ; but they (the individuals in question)
occupy disturbed ground; they represent the invasion of the farmland by
the indigenous flora; and in less altered areas, such as the heath-land, they
represent the natural regeneration of the indigenous flora.

Native species brought by artificial means into a native habitat (N * N)
or into an artificial habitat (N **) form no recognizable part, I think, of the
flora of the island; though no doubt the sheep and cattle enlarge the range
of some of the native species by dispersing seeds, &c.

A few plants which I believe to be native on the island, though their
claim is not altogether clear, may be referred to here :—

Ulex ewropaeus.—Has its headquarters on rough stony ground at the east
end of the island, whence, I believe, it has spread to dry banks on which it
has the appearance of having been planted.

Senecio Jacobuea.—Except in very dry placesis replaced by S. aquadicus.
Many of the dry places in which it grows are artificial; but it is found on
isolated sea-stacks near Doontraneen, and its absence from some suitable
dry spots on the island is probably due to the sheep.

Arctium Newbouldi.—Native probably on the sands near the harbour,
which are its headquarters on the island. But in the case of a plant so
prone to ectozoic dispersal, certainty is impossible.

Bidens tripartita.—Grows mainly in a roadside ditch near the chapel—an
artificial habitat; but also in two places in wet ground on old grass-land,
where I think it is native. A few plants which appeared on the gravelly
beach inside the harbour in 1910 were probably brought from one of these
stations by means of the barbed seeds, which are so admirably adapted for
promoting dispersal by animals. But that one must be slow about assuming
such dispersal is shown by the following fact: B. cernua grows in great
abundance along the edges of the road leading from Louisburgh to Roonah,
along which much Clare Island traffic passes, and in autumn its barbed seeds
are ready in thousands for casual transport by man or animals. Yet it has
not succeeded in reaching the island. Did B. cernua instead of B. tripartita
(which is absent from the road-sides referred to) occur on Clare Island, one
would certainly have been tempted to ascribe, probably erroneously, its arrival
to the traffic by this route.

Lemna minor.—Occurs only in one ditch near the chapel. Probably
brought by natural means (? birds) into this artificial habitat. It occurs also
in a pool on Caher Island, long uninhabited.

10 46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Present standing of the non-native species (***, ** N, *N*, * NN).

Of the 55 or so species which, though not deliberately planted where they
now grow, may be looked on as not truly native on the island, a large majority
are full-blown aliens (* **), artificially brought from non-native habitats into
non-native habitats; and in most cases these are weeds of cultivated land.
Working backwards from those which are most dependent on man to those
which are less so, we may divide all the plants which are non-native on
the island as follows :—

(1) Planted species not reproducing themselves from seed nor otherwise
spreading ([* **]). In this category come the various introduced trees and
garden plants already referred to (pp. 43-44) and a few crop-plants hike Vicia
sativa and Loliwm perenne.

(2) Found mainly on cultivated land or in disturbed ground about
houses, and, though self-sowing, dependent on the continuance of cultivation,
&c., for their continued existence ([***]). Their relative abundance is
indicated below, as in the general list of species on pp. 25-27.

Fumaria confusa, 2. VY. Tournefortii, 2.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, f. Stachys arvensis, 2.
Brassica Rapa var. Briggsii, c. Lamium purpureum, /.
Brassica Sinapis, c. L. hybridum, 1.

B. alba, c. L. intermedium, 2.
Raphanus Raphanistrum, 3. Galeopsis Tetrahit, 1.
Stellaria media, 7. Chenopodium album, 7.
Spergula arvensis, v.c. Atriplex patula, 7.
Alchemilla arvensis, r. Polygonum Conyolvyulus, *.
Chrysanthemum segetum, 1. P. lapathifolium, 2.
Senecio vulgaris, c. P. Persicaria, f.

Sonchus asper, f. Euphorbia Helioscopia, f.
Anagallis arvensis, f. E. Peplus, 7.

Veronica agrestis, 2. Urtica urens, f.

V. polita, 2.

(3) Found chiefly on roadsides and banks, and in pastures. These are in
the main less dependent on man than the last group; and some of them, it
would appear, could now maintain themselves indefinitely in the absence of
man ([* * *] or ** *). Some (marked ?) may possibly be of native parentage
(NN *).

Sisymbrium officinale. Geranium dissectum.
? Senebiera Coronopus. Trifolium dubium.

Clare Island Survey— P hanerogamia. 10 47

Vicia hirsuta. Mentha arvensis.

Matricaria discoidea. Plantago major.

Cnicus arvensis. Rumex conglomeratus.

C. lanceolatus. Holcus lanatus.

Artemisia vulgaris. Poa annua.

Lapsana communis. Bromus mollis.
?Veronica arvensis. B. commutatus.

(4) Found chiefly about houses and gardens, apparently permanently
established (* * *).

Cireaea lutetiana. Calystegia sepium.
Conium maculatum. Symphytum officinale.
AXgopodium Podagraria. Urtica dioica.

(5) Miscellanea :—
Viola arvensis—sandy bay near the harbour, one patch ; probably ** N.
Crepis virens—a few plants only, on roadside, N * *, or * * *.

The other categories of non-native plants, no doubt, occasionally apply ; but
no groups of species can be placed under them. For instance, the seeds of
native plants which have invaded the farm-land of the adjoining mainland,
and are maintaining themselves there without the aid of man (N N *), may
be eaten by birds and so brought into natural (* N N) or artificial (* N *)
habitats on the island, or their introduction into a natural habitat may be
artificial (* * N); such cases are difficult to establish, and in any case they
play a very small part.

A few particular cases of introduction may be dealt with at this point.

Cotyledon Umbilicus.—Has spread apparently from one of its few native
habitats on the island to the walls of the old abbey, which now form its
headquarters. Spergularia rupestris and Asplenium marinum have done the
same. These species, elsewhere generally N N N, rank here as N N *.

Circaea lutetiana.—Only in dry-built walls in front of a cottage on the way
to the light-house—no doubt introduced, probably with some bygone garden
plant, but apparently established. ** *

Sambucus nigra.—Planted about cottages. Apparently not reproducing
itself from seed; but this is probably due to the prevalence about the houses
of donkeys and calves. [* * *]

Matricaria discoidea.—It is easy to see how this plant was introduced from
the mainland, where it is abundant on roadsides down to the edge of the sea.
In a very small amount of mud, scraped off my boots on arrival on the island
from Achill Sound in October, I found four seeds of this species. *** (In
this connexion see also p. 54.)

10 48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

To sum up, then: according to this analysis of the vegetation, the Clare
Island flora consists mainly of individuals of native origin, self-sown in ground
more or less disturbed by man; and of introduced species dependent for their
continued existence on the continuance of man’s operations. A few natives
still cling to aboriginal and undisturbed habitats, and a few aliens have
become established, independently of the continuance of man and his works.

Imported Weed-Seeds.

To come now to the question as to what plants are at present being
introduced to the island by farming operations. Up till 1907 the seed used
on Clare Island for agricultural purposes was purchased locally ; but since
that year seed of higher quality has been supplied through the Department
of Agriculture. In order to see what weeds were beifig brought into
the district along with seed, a number of samples of the seeds on sale at
Achill Sound (where much of the Clare Island trading is done) were
obtained in the spring of 1910, by the kindness of Professor James Wilson
and Mr. D. S. Simpson; at the same time, for purpose of comparison, samples
of the seed supplied by the Department of Agriculture were obtained on the
island; also a sample of the oats used for feeding horses and fowl. The only
other channel by which seeds are brought in any quantity into Clare Island
is in hay, which, on account of the lateness of the spring on the island, is
imported during the early months of the year from the adjoining mainland,
where it has been grown. After a boat-load of such hay, grown near Roonah,
had been landed on the quay and removed in March, 1910, I swept up some
of the fine material left behind. All these samples were, as has been said,
examined and reported on at the Department’s seed-testing station by the
kindness of Dr. G. H. Pethybridge, excepting the sample of oats referred to,
which was examined by Miss Knowles.

The Achill Sound samples, which were obtained from two sources, were as
follows :—

1 Red Clover. 6 Swede.

2 White Clover. 7 Turnip.

3 Perennial Rye-grass. 8 Yellow Aberdeen Turnip.
4 Italian Rye-grass. 9 Mangel.

5 Swede. 10 Yellow Globe Mangel.

In the lists of weed-seeds given below, the species which occur on Clare
Island are marked N or *, according as they are native there or of doubtful
standing (see p. 38).

Clare Islund Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 49

No. 1. Rep CiLover.—A satisfactory sample, with a purity of about 98
per cent. The impurities betray a southern or eastern origin.

* Chenopodium album. * Polygonum Persicaria.
Digitaria ?filiformis N Rumex Acetosella.
D. ciliaris or sanguinale. N BR. ?obtusifolius.
N Plantago lanceolata. Setaria glauca.
* P. major. S. viridis.
P. media or Rugelii.
N Polygonum aviculare.

Silene noctiflora.

No, 2. WuitE CLover.—Cannot be considered a good sample, its purity
being only about 95 per cent., instead of 98 per cent.
Plantago and Rumex Acetosella.
White Clover seed.
origin,

Contains too much
Cuscuta and Calamintha are not usual in
The impurities indicate a shghtly southern or eastern

Alyssum calycinum.

N Matricaria inodora.
Anthemis arvensis.

Myosotis sp.
* Papaver somniferum.
Phleum pratense.
N Plantago lanceolata.
N Prunella vulgaris.
N Rumex Acetosella.

Barbarea vulgaris.
Calamintha ?Acinos.
N Cerastium triviale.
* Chenopodium album.
Cuscuta Trifolii.

Erysimum ?cheiranthoides. * Spereula arvensis.

Galium sp. N Stellaria graminea.
N Geranium molle. * §. media.

Lychnis vespertina. Viola sp.

No. 3. PrrenNrIAL Ryz-Grass.—An inferior sample, with a purity of
only about 86 per cent., instead of 99 per cent. or more.

Contains far too
much Bromus mollis and Holcus lanatus.

Most of the impurities belong to
species which occur locally; the others would be accounted for by an English
origin.

N Anthoxanthum odoratum.

N Arrhenatherum avenaceum.

* Bromus mollis.

N Festuca sciuroides.

* Holcus lanatus.

N Hypochaeris radicata.

Myosotis sp.

N Poa ?trivialis.

N Ranunculus acris.
Trifolium agrarium.
T. 2procumbens.

No. 4. Iranian Rye-Grass.—Not a good sample;
per cent., instead of 99 per cent. or more.
R, I. A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, G

purity about 95
Over four-fifths of the impurities

10

10 50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

consist of Bromus mollis, Holeus lanatus, and Festuca sciwroides; almost all

the impurities are common local plants.

Alopecurus agrestis. N Plantago lanceolata.
A. pratensis. N Ranunculus ?acris.

N Anthoxanthum odoratum. R. ?bulbosus.

* Bromus mollis. N Rumex Acetosella.

N Cerastium triviale. : N Sherardia arvensis.

N Cynosurus cristatus. * Sonchus asper.

N Festuca sciuroides. Trifolium ?procumbens.

N Hypochaeris radicata.

Samples 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are reported as free from impurities, except
for a few Galium seeds in No. 7, and a few seeds of Polygonum Convolvulus in
No. 10.

Although these samples do not represent the seed being actually brought
into Clare Island at the present time (on account of the new régime referred
to), they do represent the kind of seed which has been in use there for many
years past—except that probably the samples have been often much more
impure.!. The impurities in the samples give us, therefore, some idea of the
alien seeds that have been showered down on the island year by year. Our
present object being the question of the introduction of alien seeds into the
district, we may take the various samples together as forming a single piece of
evidence.

Tt will be seen that the majority of the extraneous seeds belong to species
which are common on Clare Island, about half of them as natives, and half as
plants of the cultivated land.

The balance, which are not found on Clare Island, include—

Ranunculus ?bulbosus. Plantago media or
Barbarea vulgaris. P. Rugelii.
Erysimum ?cheiranthoides. Digitaria filiformis.
Alyssum calycinum. D. ciliaris or

Silene noctiflora. D. sanguinale.
Lychnis vespertina. Setaria glauca.
Trifolium agrarium. 8. viridis.

T. ?procumbens. Phleum pratense.
Anthemis arvensis. Alopecurus pratensis.
Cuscuta Trifolii. A. agrestis.

Calamintha ?Acinos.
Of these only four (Ranunculus bulbosus, Barbarea vulgaris, Phlewm

‘ For instances of the gross impurity of much agricultural seed before the passing of recent acts
and the founding of seed-testing stations, consult T. Jounson: The Principles of Seed-testing.
Science Progress, i, pp. 483-495, Jan., 1907; and H. C. Lona: Weeds (supra cit.), chap. xi.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 5i

pratense, and Alopecurus pratensis) can be reckoned as native in any part of
Ireland. The rest have almost all been found in Ireland, their standing
ranging from mere casuals like Alyssum calycinum and Alopecurus agrestis, to
established aliens such as Lychnis vespertina and Cuscuta Trifolii. These plants,
as a group, are light-soil species, with their headquarters far to the south and
east —Mediterranean xerophiles, Siberian steppe-plants, and so on; and they
testify to that artificial movement of seeds westward and northward to which
reference has been made already on p. 36.

The chance that any of these aliens will become established in the Clare
Island district even by repeated introduction is very remote, though some of
them have settled in the more eastern parts of Ireland, and many of them
in England, where climate and soil are more suitable for them.

This single group of samples shows the possibility not only of the intro-
duction into the farm-land of a number of plants already holding the island
as natives, but of the former importation into the island of many of the non-
native species now found on the tilled land there. It demonstrates the ease
with which these aliens are spread by the operations of husbandry, the
probability that many of them were introduced to the island along with seed
in earlier times, and also how their continuance is probably promoted by
periodical reinforcements.

The seeds of which samples were obtained on Clare Island were as
follows :—

11 Grass, ‘“‘ A ”’ mixture.! 16 Scotch Potato Oats.

12 Grass, “‘P ” mixture.' 17 Waverley Oats, Scotch.
13 Grass, “ T” mixture.! 18 Yellow Globe Mangel.
14 Barley. 19 Purple Top Turnip.

15 Banner Oats, Scotch.
No. 11. “A” mixture. Satisfactory sample: purity about 99 per cent.
The presence of Rudbeckia, Plantago Rugelii (if correct), and Amaranthus
indicates an American admixture.

Amaranthus sp. Plantago ?Rugelii.

* Bromus mollis. * Polygonum Convolyulus.
Carex sp. * P. Persicaria.

* Chenopodium album. Potentilla sp.

N Deschampsia caespitosa. Rudbeckia ?hirta.
Lycopus europaeus. N Rumex Acetosella,
Oenothera sp. Silene Cucubalus.

1 Composed as follows:—‘* A’? mrxtuRE—4 parts Lolium perenne, 23 L. italicum, 14 Festuca

pratensis, 13 Phleum pratense, 4 Dactylis glomerata, 4 Alopecurus pratensis, 1 Trifolium hybridun,
3 T. pratense, % T. repens. ‘P” mixturE—3} Loliwn perenne, 3 L. italicum, 1} Phleum pratense,
24 Dactylis glomerata, + Trifolium hybridum, 1 T. pratense, 3 TZ. repens. ‘‘'T” mixturE—2 Phleum
pratense, 1 Lolium italicum. G 2

10 52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

No. 12. “P” wixtuRE.—Satisfactory sample; purity about 99 per cent.
Panicum dichotomum and Rudbeckia show that some of the mixture is of
North American origin. Oenothera is not generally found as an impurity.

Alyssum calycinum. Plantago ?Rugelii.
Anthemis Cotula. Poa sp.

N Carex ?ovalis. Potentilla sp.

N Chrysanthemum Leucanthe- Rudbeckia ?hirta.

mum. N Rumex Acetosella.

Lychnis vespertina. Scrophularia ?vernalis.
Oenothera sp. * Sisymbrium ?officinale.
Panicum dichotomum. * Stellaria media.

N Plantago lanceolata. Verbena sp.

No. 13. “T? MEXTURE.

Satisfactory sample: purity about 99 per cent.
Cynodon Dactylon, Euphorbia Preslii,and Oenothera are unusual impurities.

The second, with Plantago Rugelii (if correct), indicates a North American
ingredient.

N Chrysanthemum Leucanthe- Oenothera. sp.
mum. N Plantago lanceolata.
Cynodon Dactylon. P. Rugelii or
Euphorbia Preslii. P. media.
N Hypochaeris radicata. Potentilla sp.

* Lapsana communis.
N Leontodon autumnalis.
Luycopus europaeus.

N Prunella vulgaris.
N Rumex Acetosella.
N Eleocharis palustris.
Samples 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 are reported as being practically pure.
This set of samples shows a change both in the nature and in the amount
of the introduced weed-seeds as compared with the Achill Sound set.
Although the list of species occurring in the samples which are absent
from Clare Island is still large—14 as against 20 in the Achill samples—
their quantity is much reduced, the total impurities averaging only about
*3 per cent. The species found in this batch of samples which do not grow

on Clare Island are

Alyssum calycinum.
Lychnis vespertina.
Silene Cucubalus.
Oenothera sp.
Anthemis Cotula.
Rudbeckia ?hirta.
Scrophularia ?vernalis.
Lycopus europaeus.

Verbena sp.

{Plantago Rugelii or
(P. media.
Amaranthus sp.
Euphorbia Preslii.
Cynodon Dactylon.
Panicum dichotomum.

The most striking feature in these lists is the North American ingredient

Clare Island Survey— Phaneroganaa. 10 53

in the grass-mixture samples; but none of these American plants are
species which have as yet effected a lodgment in Ireland. For the rest,
we find, as in the Achill samples, a number of species long since arrived
on the island as natives, and others which have followed agriculture
thither. The plants not known on the island indicate (exclusive of
the American ingredient already referred to) a southern and eastern origin
of the seed, as in the case of the Achill batch of samples.

Seeds out of hay from Roonah.—This hay was grown a mile from Roonah
on an old meadow bottom which had not been tilled for twenty years. The
last crop was oats, after which the grass was allowed to grow up naturally, no
seed being sown. The sweepings yielded seeds of the following species :—

N Ranunculus ?repens Myosotis sp.

Silene sp. N Rhinanthus Crista-galli.
N Cerastium triviale. N Prunella vulgaris.
* Stellaria media. N Plantago lanceolata.
* Spergula arvensis. Atriplex sp.

Trifolium ?procumbens N Polygonum Hydropiper.
N Heracleum Sphondylium. * P, lapathifolium.
N Bellis perennis. N Rumex Acetosa.
N Chrysanthemum Leucanthe- N Luzula campestris.

mum. N Carex ovalis.

Centaurea sp. 2 N Anthoxanthum odoratum.
* Lapsana communis. Holcus mollis.
N Hieracium Pilosella. N Arrhenatherum avenaceum.
N Hypochaeris radicata. * Bromus mollis.
* Crepis virens. N Agropyron repens.

It will be seen that the bulk of these plants (marked N) are natives on
Clare Island ; but that some others (marked *) are of doubtful standing, and
might have been originally introduced in some such manner as the present
case, in which the hay, being landed, is carried on pony-back along the roads
of the island, seeds being no doubt scattered in the process. The species
present in this sample which are absent from the island are almost ni/, the
doubtful plants belonging in all probability to common species occurring on
the island.

Oats for feeding horses and fowl—This was received as a fair sample of
the oats used for the purpose; and I was informed that no screenings or
very dirty oats are imported for feeding fowl. Purity about 98 per cent.
Nine-tenths or so of the impurities consisted of Galiwm Aparine, the full
list being

* Brassica Sinapis * Stellaria media.
Brassica sp. N Galium Aparine.

10 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

* Lapsana communis. N Rumex obtusifolius.
N Sonchus oleraceus. Festuca ovina or

* Atriplex patula. IP. rubra.

* Polygonum Persicaria. Grass, sp.

* P. lapathifolium.

It will be seen that all the seeds which could be identified belong to ~
species which already occur on the island, four of them as common natives ;
the rest, six in number, as weeds, mostly abundant.

Mud from the Mainland.—To see whether plants were being introduced
from the mainland by means of mud adhering to the feet of men or animals,
I had the boots of an island man (Pat Grady) scraped on his arrival on the
island in November from Carrowmore, after a couple of days spent in
Louisburgh. The material was sieved, and on being kindly examined by
Miss Knowles, yielded seeds as follows :—

Stellaria media, Polygonum ?aviculare,
Conium maculatum, : Juncus ?bufonius,
Sonchus asper, Juncus sp.,

?Anagallis arvensis, Holcus lanatus,

and about six more species, indeterminable.
It will be noted that these are all plants common about houses and road-
sides, and the list is suggestive as indicating the ease with which roadside
plants attain ectozoic dispersal.

6. ORIGIN OF THE FLORA.

In attempting to arrive at a conclusion as to the manner in which the
present flora reached and became established on Clare Island—whether by
means of a former land-connexion, or across the existing three-mile strait that
separates the island from Achill on the north or the Roonah district on the
south-east—we may, without having recourse to geological evidence, learn
much from a study of the plants themselves. For this purpose we turn our
attention to the means by which the species composing the flora increase, and
spread, and migrate, and especially to the question of seed'-dispersal. In
the case of the majority of the lower plants—Algae, Lichens, Fungi, Mosses,
Liverworts, Horsetails, and Ferns—their spores are extremely minute and
light, and are known to be capable of almost limitless dispersal by air
currents ; indeed, these spores may almost be reckoned as one of the normal
constituents of atmospheric dust in temperate and tropical regions. The

1 T follow the example of Bentham and others in applying the term seed to what, as Clement Reid
says, is its ‘‘ popular and original use’’—i.e. that which is sown; in other words, the unit of
dispersal. Nothing is to be gained from the pedantic repetition of the phrase ‘‘ seeds or fruits’’
oyer and over again in the pages which follow.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 55

evidence supplied by these groups does not, for this reason, help us much as
regards the question of a land-bridge as against the alternative of air-
carriage. It is among the Flowerimg Plants, where the species are com
paratively large and their distribution well known, and where the seeds also-
are of fair size, plants and seeds both lending themselves to observation and
experiment, that we may look for results. Many seeds possess characters
which fit them for dispersal by special means across distances both of land and
water, while others—and these constitute the majority—have no such special
apparatus. If the whole flora of the island, or the bulk of it, be pre-Glacial,
its origin stretching back indefinitely into the Tertiary Period, it cannot be
proved that all the plants did not, in the course of the immense period of
time thus placed at their disposal, one by one succeed in crossing the barrier
of water (assuming its continuous existence) by one or other of the fortuitous
opportunities that might offer. But the hypothesis of the pre-Glacial origin
of the bulk of the flora is improbable. Geological evidence as to the con-
ditions prevailing during the Ice Age in the district points to a state of
things which would almost certainly have involved the extinction of at least
the greater part of the then existing vegetation of the island, except perhaps
that of the steep sea-scarp of Croaghmore, where an alpine flora still lingers.
But whatever flora survived on Croaghmore, it could not possibly have
included the number and variety of species which now colonize the island.
It is probable that the present flora as a whole migrated into Clare Island
after the Ice Age.

The question of the ability of plants to cross barriers of sea is one on
which much has been written. Led by Darwin! and Wallace,’ many botanists
have looked on occasional long-distance dispersal as accountable for most
island floras, even in the case of the most remote islands on the globe; while
others, following Forbes,? cannot accept these exceptional means as sufficient
to account for existing island faunas and floras, and advocate migration
across bygone lands. If we are to keep clear of the now exploded theory of
multiple origins, a choice must be made between these two explanations
although both are beset with difficulties. If we accept the theory of the
permanency of the ocean basins, then we have to call in all manner of
accidental and exceptional means of distribution, to account for the presence
of thousands of organisms on oceanic islands hundreds of miles from their
original homes ; even though, as Darwin himself has remarked, “it is poor

2C. Darwin: Origin of Species, chaps. xii, xiii.

2 A. R. Waurace: Island Life, chap. v.

3 Epwarp Forsrs; On the Connexion between the Distribution of the existing Fauna and
Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological changes which have affected their area, especially
during the epoch of the Northern Drift. Mem, Geol. Sury. Great Britain, i, pp. 336-432. 1846.

10 56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

work putting together the merely possible means of distribution.”? If, on
the other hand, we cannot believe that the island populations have crossed
wide expanses of sea, we must invoke vast changes in the distribution of sea
and land, usurping, to quote Darwin again, the right “to make continents
as easily as a cook does pancakes,” and “sinking imaginary continents in a
quite reckless manner.’*

In the present paper it is permissible to refer to those aspects of the
subject only which have a bearing on the question of the Clare Island flora ;
but even from this limited standpoint it will be seen that much evidence on
both sides can be quoted, and that certainty is not easily arrived at, though
the barrier to be crossed in this particular instance consists of only a few
miles of sea.

Eyen a narrow channel is, without doubt, a serious obstacle to plant
dispersal. “ Décidément,” says De Candolle,* “les transports au travers d'un
bras de mer, quelque petit quil soit, par des causes naturelles, sont
infiniment rares.” “ Au travers d’un bras de mer comme la Manche, et 4 plus
forte raison, au travers d’un Océan, ces causes de transport ont été ou nulles,
ou sans effet, depuis que ’homme observe.”

This is the opinion of many students of the question. Save by
dissecting captured birds, seeds have hardly ever been taken at sea, or
observed arriving on land at a considerable distance from their point of
departure under conditions where colonization was possible.’ But much
observation and experiment are still required, and in the meantime opinion is
not unanimous.

Sernander,® for instance, in Scandinavia, holds, against Hult, Blytt, and
Gunnar Andersson, that stretches of sea do not present serious barriers to
plant-migration. Blytt,’ on the other hand, strongly emphasizes the slowness
and overland nature of plant migration. He affirms that seed-conveyance to
small distances is the rule, and long migration the exception; and he holds
with Wallace® that discontinuous distribution signifies age, not long-distance
dispersal.

Forbes, in his classic essay, is strongly of opinion that the flora of Great
Britain and Ireland migrated thither over bygone land-surfaces; while

1 Life and Letters of C. Darwin, ii., p. 82. 2 [bid., ii., p. 74. 3 [bid., iii., p. 230.

4A. px CanpoLtie: Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, ii, pp. 708, 801-802. 1855.

5 The casting up of tropical American seeds upon the coasts of Ireland or Norway, for instance,
could neyer haye effected colonization.

® Rureer SernanDer: Den Skandinayiska Vegetationens Spridningsbiologie, p. 456. 1901.

7A Bryrr: Immigration of the Norwegian Flora, p. 31, &c.

8 A. R. Wattace: Island Life, p. 69.

® Loc. cit., p. 399.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia, 10 57

Clement Reid considers that wind and water migration, plus the “accumulated
accidents of some thousands of years,” are sufficient to account for the intro-
duction of the whole present flora of the British Isles across the existing
seas.’

These instances will suffice to show how much opinion is divided on
this subject, and how students of the problem have arrived at very different
conclusions.

If the flora of Clare Island came across a barrier of sea, we might hope
to find, if we analyze it, that plants especially fitted for crossing such a
barrier are well represented, and, vice versa, that species to which such a barrier
would be a serious obstacle are conspicuous chiefly by their absence. This
will lead us to attempt a classification of the local flora according to the means
by which the constituent species are dispersed.

But it must be conceded at once that no more than a hint as to the origin
of the flora is to be hoped for from so simple an analysis. As Wallace long
ago pointed out, plants have existed long enough in most cases to have been
carried to all suitable localities, and the determining factor of their distribution
is to be found in their powers of adaptation to their new conditions. Guppy,
commenting on this, observes that time has long since discounted the means
of dispersal, and that as regards explaining plant-distribution, the study of
the means of dispersal is often superfluous. The process of dispersal is ever
going on; but its results are mainly determined by the reception the plant
receives in its new country.

Thus it is seen that the present distribution of plants in our islands is but
in a slight degree the result of the relative facility for dispersal which the
constituent species possess. We notice, for instance, that plants with flying
seeds, or, whose seeds are being continually scattered by birds, are no more
widely nor abundantly spread than are those which possess neither these
nor other special facilities for dispersal. Neither does the existence of a
land-bridge involve the conclusion that all the plants at one end of it will
eventually reach the other. Even where competition is reduced, suitability
of habitat is an all-important consideration. And where, as is usually the
case, competition comes keenly into play, suitability of habitat becomes a
much more stringent term, for a plant can then spread and form a lodgment
on new ground only where the conditions are not only fitted for its growth,
but better fitted for its growth than for the growth of the other plants of
similar habitat which are holding the ground on its arrival, or arrive along

1Cnement Rerp: The Origin of the British Flora, p. 31, 1899, and paper read at British
Association meeting, 1911.

2H. B. Guppy: The Distribution of Aquatic Plants and Animals. Scottish Geographical
Magazine, ix, pp. 28-33. 1898.

R.L.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, H 10

10 58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

with it. De Candolle emphasizes this point as an important one often over-
looked. Speaking of the arrival of a plant in new ground, he says :—“ Enfin,
si les conditions physiques du pays lui permettent de vivre, et de produire des
grains, il faut encore qu'elle puisse lutter, dans ses moyens de propagation,
avec les espéces antérieures. Ceci mérite une sérieuse attention, et on l’oublie
presque toujours.”

Nevertheless, all plants must take their part in the battle of life, and the
species which, owing to superior means of dispersal, can rain its seeds down
on a piece of country, especially if this tract be isolated, and consequently
relieved of part of the pressure of competition, will probably have the better
chance of effecting a lodgment.

The means of dispersal which might be effective in a case like the present,
where a barrier consisting of several miles of sea has to be crossed, can be
grouped under three heads :—

1. Transport by water.

2. Transport by flying creatures.

3. Transport by wind.
Before considering in detail each of these possible means of dispersal, it may
be pointed out that many of the methods of increase that are most efficient
in extending the range of plants on land cease to be operative where a water-
barrier has to be faced. For instance, a large number of species extend their
range largely through vegetative growth—the Bracken, Strawberry, Bramble,
Bilberry, and many water-plants are cases in point. This mode of increase is
ineffective where sea has to be crossed. Perhaps the only case in which
vegetative reproduction may materially assist dispersal across sea occurs in
species in which bulbils or detachable buds are produced. It is conceivable that,
when these are of small size, they may be transported by birds, by becoming
attached to their feet or feathers, or by being eaten. Again, many species have
moreor less explosive fruits, in which, owing to unequal growth or shrinkage of
the seed-coverings, the seed is eventually expelled suddenly, and cast to some
distance—the Violets, Crane’s-bills, and many Leguminosae are examples.
This device is also ineffective—at least directly; though indirectly it may
occasionally aid by casting the seed into a stream, or against a passing
creature. Indeed, it may be granted at once that every device which tends
to scatter seed increases the chances of eventual dispersal across a water-
barrier ; but the real difficulties begin only where this preliminary distribu-
tion ends.

Even for seeds which succeed in crossing a barrier, the odds against

1 A, DE ConpoLLE: Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, ii, pp. 623-4.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 59

them are enormous. The mortality among seeds is very great. Familiar
illustrations will be found in various works—how out of every hundred
thousand seeds of Foxglove only one reproduces a fruiting plant’; how in
three generations one plant of Sisymbriwm Sophia, if seeding unchecked, would
be the ancestor of a multitude which would cover the whole land surface
of the globe two thousand times over? ; and so on.

The chances against a seed of the majority of our native species producing
a mature plant under natural conditions is probably many thousands to one.
The reader will find this point well discussed by De Candolle*; and Blytt*
remarks :—“A single seed or a few seeds which might accidentally be
imported by birds, ocean currents, or otherwise, into a country already
overgrown with a native flora, must undeniably have extremely little chance
of being able to grow and extend further.’ But he goes on to point out
that the chances of colonization would be increased were the area more or
less bare of vegetation, as may have been the case with Clare Island in
early post-Glacial times.’ “ Numerous unsuccessful attempts at colonization,”
says Wallis Kew, “have been recorded; and these are of significance, I think,
as helping us to understand how very small must be the chance of the
ultimate establishment of a new colony as the result of transportal—often,
no doubt, to very unsuitable spots—of a solitary specimen or a few individuals
by accidental means under nature.” ®

“Tt is fully admitted,” says Scharff,’ “that many plants and animals are
easily transported to new countries by accidental means or voluntarily by man ;
but, in most cases, they have not been able to retain a permanent footing in
their newly adopted home. There are innumerable instances on record of
species haying been planted on spots where they did not previously exist, and

1G. BenrHam: Anniversary Address, in Journ. Linn. Soc. (Botany), x, p. lxx, 1869. ©

* A. Kerner: Nat. Hist. of Plants, ii, p. 878. -

3 A. de CANDOLLE: tom. cit., p. 6238.

4A. Buyrr: Immigration of the Norwegian Flora, p. 32. 1876.

5 I do not feel convinced that this last suggestion can be applied to any but those exceptional
cases in which ground fitted for the support of vegetation is swddenly laid bare. There is no reason
to believe that the pressure of competition is less in desert regions or other thinly populated tracts
than in tracts with a dense plant population. In the case of ground left bare by the retreat of ice,
due to a gradual climatic change, plant dispersal is treading all the time on the heels of the retreating
ice, and at any stage it seems likely that the ground is colonized up to its full capacity. I fancy that
plant dispersal can work more quickly than any normal geological or climatic change, and that in this
way plant competition is maintained at its full working pressure. Under exceptional circumstances,
secular change may get ahead of plant dispersal, resulting in a sudden release of vegetation-
pressure, and a consequent inrush of plants. Such an instance is discussed later on (p. 92) in the
case of Krakatau. Here a volcanic eruption depopulated an area jitted for the support of a large
vegetation—with the result that this vegetation was reconstructed by one means or another in an
amazingly short time.

6 H. W. Kew: The Dispersal of Shells, p. 183. 1893.

7R. F. Scuarrr: On the origin of the European Fauna. Proc. R. I. Acad. (8), iv, p. 435. 1896.

H2

10 60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the introducers claim that it is highly interesting to watch their progress. In
the great majority of cases we find that fortunately these species utterly
vanish after a few years.”

We may now turn to the three principal means of dispersal across a
sea-barrier, which have been already referred to.

TRANSPORT BY WATER.

With regard to the possibility of the introduction of the flora by sea,
through the medium of surface-drift or currents; it was long since shown
by Darwin,’ Martins,’ and Thuret® that few seeds are able to remain long
afloat in water, even if they float at all; though many are not killed by
the sea-water. Darwin’s conclusion in this matter is that, even when dried
seeds and dried branches bearing seeds are taken into account, not more than
10 per cent. of any flora is capable of a long sea journey and subsequent
germination. We may turn to the observations recorded by H. B. Guppy.‘
This naturalist records the results of experiments (made mostly by himself)
on the floating power of 333 species of British flowering plants. General-
izing from these results, he concludes that about 90 per cent. of British
Phanerogams have non-buoyant seeds—that is, they either sink at once,
in water either fresh or salt, or sink after immersion for a day or two. The
seeds are found to be usually either considerably heavier or considerably lighter
than water. The balance of 10 per cent., in which the seeds are buoyant, consists
almost entirely of river-side or marsh plants on the one hand, and sea-side plants
on the other, the former class largely predominating; but buoyancy is not
characteristic of the seeds of the majority even of the plants of such
situations.© While without question sea-dispersal has played a prominent
part in plant-distribution in the Tropics, Guppy remarks that “ dispersal by
currents seem to be mainly restricted to warm latitudes.’ “There is very
little effective dispersal by currents in temperate regions.’’® “ Ocean currents,”
says Blytt,’ speaking of northern latitudes, “ without drifting ice, are
certainly no powerful means of transport.” Guppy argues that buoyancy and

1 Darwin: Origin of Species, 6th ed., pp. 506-508.

2 Ch. Martins: Expériences sur la persistence de la vitalité des graines flottant a la surface de
la mer. Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, iv., 1857, pp. 324-337.

3 Gustave TuHuRET: Expériences sur les graines des diverses espéces plongées dans l’eau de
mer. Bibl. Uniy. et Revue Suisse, Genéve, N.P., xlvil., 1873, pp. 177-194.

4H. B. Guppy: Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899. Vol. ii.,
Plant-Dispersal. Note 10, pp. 535 538. 1906.

5 Ibid., pp. 24, 25.

6 Ibid., pp. 429, 432.

7A. Buyrr: dom. cit., p. 30.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 61

non-buoyancy, as such, are merely fortuitous characters; that the structure of
the fruits or seeds has been determined by causes other than the relation of
their specific gravity to that of fresh or salt water; and that while seed-
buoyancy has in some cases greatly assisted dispersal, it has played no part,
through the agency of natural selection, in moulding the fruit or seed to its
present form!—an opinion divergent from that expressed by Schimper? and
others. However this may be, we see at once that the absence of buoyancy
in the seeds of the bulk of the flora renders it impossible that the present
vegetation of Clare Island was derived by sea-transport from the mainland,
across the existing water-barrier.

Again, if we analyze the local flora according to Guppy’s buoyancy tables,
we obtain the following result. Of the 353 British species experimented on
by him, 79; or 23-7 per cent.,? were found to possess the power of floating for
a week or more. Out of these 333 species, 115 grow on Clare Island; and
of these, 37, or 24-3 per cent., belong to the floating section. This group of
537 species represents 94 per cent. of the phanerogamic flora of Clare
Island. For lack of information respecting the specific gravity of the seeds
of many other local plants, this analysis is incomplete. Nevertheless we
see that, so far as the information takes us, the flora of Clare Island shows
no significant preponderance of species which bear buoyant seeds, and which
might therefore have been introduced by sea. The proportion is a little
higher than that suggested by Darwin for floras in general, and by Guppy
for the British flora.

It may be pointed out also that in the case of Clare Island, geographical
and meteorological conditions are against the introduction of plants by
water. In the first place, the seeds of land-plants reach the sea mainly by
the agency of rivers. The enormous number of seeds carried by a consider-
able stream flowing through a region with a dense plant population is!
evident from Guppy’s study of the Thames as an agency of plant-dispersal.
But as regards Clare Island, a glance at a map shows us that along the whole
Mayo shore the rivers are insignificant, owing to the fact that the watershed
lies close to the coast. Between the Moy and the Corrib no river of any
importance enters the ocean; and on the mainland adjoining Clare Island the
streams are especially small. Again, while the current setting into and out
of Clew Bay with each tide no doubt carries flotsam to or past the island,
the prevailing wind, westerly (north-west to south-west) for some 183 days

1H. B. Guppy, Joc. eit., chap. xiii.

2 A. F. W. Scuimper: Plant-Geography (English ed.), p. 28. 1903.

5 The high percentage is due to the fact that seeds likely to float were especially studied.

4H. B. Guppy: The River Thames as an Agent in Plant-Dispersal. Journ. Linn. Soc.
(Botany), xxix, pp. 333-346. 1893.

10 62 Proceedings oj the Royal Lrish Academy.

during the year,’ greatly diminishes the chance of seeds being floated to
the island. Further, while it is easy to conceive of seeds stranded on
sandy beaches being blown up by the wind to places where they might ger-
minate, and possibly eventually establish the species, it is otherwise in the
case of a rock-bound island like that under consideration. That seeds either
floating at the base of the rocks or cliffs, or left stranded in the interstices of
the boulders, should be lifted by the agency of wind or wave and deposited
above the lower limit of terrestrial vegetation (which on Clare Island varies
from about 10 feet in the most sheltered spots to 100 feet above high-water
mark), is a suggestion of a highly speculative character. Finally, assuming
that all these improbabilities come to pass, we have still to face the very
slight chance which our immigrant seeds have of being lodged in a suitable
habitat, and of succeeding in obtaining a footing.’

The one sandy beach on the island faces east, and is therefore unlikely to
receive floating seeds, since the wind is generally blowing off-shore. An
examination of the drift left by the tide during east winds in spring and
autumn gave a negative result; nor did the summer flora of the beach
contain any plants which suggested recent arrivals by sea—unlike, for
instance, the sandy beaches at the mouth of the River Liffey, where one
may find plants of oat, potato, &c., brought down by the river from the city
of Dublin, and washed or blown up the beach, where they have germinated.

It would therefore seem that the non-buoyancy of the seeds of the bulk
of the flora of the island at once precludes some 90 per cent. of the vegeta-
tion from the possibility of having arrived at the island by sea; while as
regards the remainder, the absence of considerable streams on the adjacent
mainland, the prevalence of westerly winds, and the cliff-bound character of
the coast, greatly diminish the chance of their introduction by water.

But that a few species did reach the island by sea is of course probable.
Perhaps Avenaria peploides and Crithmum maritimum are the most likely
plants to have arrived in this manner. The seeds of both could easily reach
the sea ; they can float for months, unharmed by salt water ; and the possibility
of their being cast by wave or wind where they might effect a lodgment is
in their case ata maximum. I do not say that these plants arrived by sea ;
but as regards them we are not met with so overwhelming an array of
difficulties as confronts us in the case of the bulk of the flora.

1 I am obliged to Mr. W. J. Lyons, who is studying the meteorology of Clare Island, for a tabular
view of the Clare Island winds during the last four years. It shows that west winds (N.W. to S.W.)
reach a maximum in July and August (amounting to an average of 21 days per month), and
minima in April (12 days per month), and October (9} days per month).

2 Seeante, p. 59.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 63

TRANSPORT BY WIND.

In the wind we have an agent which has been generally awarded
the premier place as a means of plant-dispersal. KEkstam,' discussing the
Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla floras, places the wind first as an agent of
seed-dissemination, the bird second, awarding to water a very subordinate
place; and De Candolle remarks : “Le vent est la cause la plus générale et la
plus ordinaire de dissémination des espéces sur toute la surface d’un pays.”?

Many seeds have attached to them structures which render them especially
suited for distribution by means of the wind; yet, as has been observed by
many writers, this extreme ease of dispersal does not usually result in
wider or more thorough distribution.

“In Compositae,” says Bentham,’ “several species of Helipta, Hlephantopus,
Anthemis, Lapsana, &c., without any pappus at all, have a much more wide-
spread distribution than the great majority of Senecios, for instance, with
their light seed and broad pappus.”

Or, to take a local example, Typha latifolia, which produces hundreds of
thousands of tiny seeds, with a higher capacity for remaining afloat in the air
than those of any other plume-seeded British species, is a less universal plant
in pools and streams than Sparganiwm ramoswm, which bears in much
smaller numbers large and comparatively heavy seeds, quite incapable of
wind-dispersal (and generally considered to be spread by being eaten by
water-fowl).

An exception is instanced by Bessey,’ who finds, from a study of the Nevada
flora, that the plants with seeds suited for wind-dispersal are more widely
- distributed than those with fleshy or globular fruits, which are restricted in
their range.

It is quite true, as Kronfeld*® points out, that certain recent American
introductions, such as Hrigeron canadense, Stenactis bellidiflora, and Galinsoga
parviflora, have rapidly achieved a wide dispersal in Kurope by means of their
pappus-seeds; but other recent arrivals can be quoted, such as Matricaria
discoidea, which, without such means of dispersal, have spread equally fast.

Nevertheless, there can be no doubt of the high efficacy of the wind in
dispersing seeds, though, as yet, we know little of the distance over which this

10. Exstam: Joc. cit., p. 59; and Hinige bliitenbiologische Beobachtungen aut Novaja Semlja.
Troms6 Museums Aarshefter, xviii, p. 191. 1897.

2 A. de CANDOLLE, tom. cit., p. 613.

3G. BentHam: Anniversary Address, Joc. cet., p. xix.

4(C. E. Bessry: Plant Migration Studies. University Studies, Univ. of Nebraska, v, pp. 1-27.
1905.

5 M. Kronrexp: Studien iiber die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen. Theil. 1. Windfriichtler.
Leipzig: Engelmann, 1900, Abstract in Justs Bot, Jahresbericht, xxix 2 (1901), pp. 687-8,

10 64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

can be effectually carried out (see ixjra). In another section of the present
paper (pp. 72-80) are given the results of some experiments made to
determine the relative efficiency for dispersal of the seeds of some British
planis.

Seeds which are capable of wide dissemination by wind are found in many
different natural orders, and in plants of very varying stature, and of a wide
range of habitat. They occur in forest trees, and in herbs only a few inches
in height: in plants which grow in dry ground and in water; on mountains
and on plains. The seeds owe their effectiveness for dispersal to a variety of
causes. In the British flora the most conspicuous group of wind-borne
seeds is found in the Compositae, and mostly among the thistle group. Here
dispersability is due to the feathery shutilecock-like pappus—the modified
calyx-limb—which crowns the seed. Feathery appendages of a simpler nature
which act in the same way, are found in plants of various other orders—for
instance, in the Pasque-flower (Ranunculaceae), the Hare’s-foot Trefoil
(Leguminosae), the Mountain Avens (Rosaceae), the various Willow-herbs
(Onagraceae), and so on. A membranous or coriaceous wing, regularly or
irregularly disposed around the seed, is also sometimes effective, as in the
Elm (Urticaceae), Ash (Oleaceae), Scotch Fir (Coniferae), or Cow-Parsnep
(Umbelliferae). Or again, the very smali size and lightness of seeds may
promote dispersal, as in the case of the Orchids, Rushes, and Broom-rapes ;
though, as shown below, reduction of size is in the Phanerogams not carried
far enough to render this device very efficient, as it is in the Cryptogams.

The seeds which possess characters rendering them specially capable of
being dispersed by the wind may be classed as

1. Plume seeds.
2. Wing seeds.
3. Powder seeds.!

While no doubt can exist as to the efficacy of plumed and winged seeds
for conveying the coming generation well beyond the influence of the parent
plant—especially when these seeds are borne at some height above the
ground—the tendency of the majority of recent writers is to discount their
efficacy in long-distance dispersal. T’o quote a few observations and
opinions :—

Over half a century ago, before Darwin’s and Wallace’s advocacy of long-

1A more minute classification, with examples, of wind-dispersed seeds will be found in
G. E. Marrer: Aeronautica Vegetabile. Bull. orto. bot. univ. Napoli, i, fasc. 3, pp. 311-331
(figures), 1902. (Abstract in Bot. Jabresbericht, xxxii, abt. 2, p. 491). Alsoin P. VoeLer
Uber die Verbreitungsmittel der schweizerischen Alpenpflanzen. Flora, Ixxxix, pp. 1-137. 1901.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 65

distance dispersal, De Candolle,| from a careful review of the evidence,
expressed his disbelief in the efficacy of wind-carriage as a means of
dissemination across considerable obstacles.

Bentham, writing eighteen years later of the plumed seeds of the Com-
positae, which are of all other groups best fitted for wide dispersal, says?: “ The
most violent winds will not carry them above two or three miles: the
moment the pappus gets into a damper atmosphere it collapses, and when
once the seed has fallen to the ground it is very rarely again raised by the
wind.”

Kerner,’ from’a series of observations on the seeds deposited on the
moraines and glaciers of the Alps, comes to the conclusion that the crossing
from one to the other side of a valley is the most that the wind-borne
seeds achieve among the mountains. He suggests that light seeds are
caught in upward currents in hot weather, and remain high in the air during
the day, but in the evening fall close to the point of ascent. Humboldt
quotes a similar observation by Boussingault, grass and straws being carried
up some thousands of feet. Vogler and Pittier also place importance on
these vertical air-currents in the mountains.* But this phenomenon would
require a stronger and more continuous ascending current, due probably to
more intense insolation, than we ever get in these islands, coupled with an
absence of horizontal currents.

Dewey,‘ in a good general account of the means of dispersal of plants,
writes: “ The distance which this class of seeds may be carried by the wind
may easily be exaggerated, being ordinarily not more than two or three miles,
or in hurricanes perhaps ten or fifteen.”

Willis and Burkill,’ in a very interesting paper on the plants found
growing on the tops of the pollard willows in the Cambridge district, find
that while about three-fourths of the eighty species observed were plants
specially adapted for dispersal by wind or birds, nevertheless the seeds were
rarely carried by their distributing mechanism to a distance of more than

1A. pE CANDOLLE: Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, ii, pp. 6138-14. 1855.

2G. BentHam: On the Compositae (swpra cit.), p. 578.

3A. Kerner: Der Einfluss der Winde auf die Verbreitung der Samen im Hochgebirge.
Zeitschrift des Deutschen Alpenvereins, ii, pp. 144-172. Epitomized in Gardeners’ Chronicle,
1872, pp. 148-144; and in Nature, vi, pp. 164-165. 1872.

4 A. von Humpotpr: Tableaux de la Nature (English ed.), ii, pp. 33, 34. 1849.

5 P. VoaueER, loc. cit.

6. H. Dewry: Migration of Weeds. Yearbook of the Dept. of Agriculture, U.S.A., 1896,
p. 267.

7J. C. Wiutts and I. H. Burxtty: Observations on the Flora of the Pollard Willows near
Cambridge. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., viii, pp. 82-91. 1895.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. I 10

10 66 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

a few hundred yards. Their results correspond with those obtained by
Loew! from similar observations in Germany.

To take a case from the Tropics. Ridley? finds that the winged seeds of
tall forest-trees in the Malay Peninsula are carried by strong winds only
from 10 to 60 yards from the parent. Plumed fruits and seeds are more
efficient, and powder-seed still more so. He points out that in tropical insular
floras plants which possess winged seeds constitute only 2 per cent. of the
flora, and plume-seeded species are also extremely rare. The proportion of
powder-seed plants in oceanic islands is usually very large, even if cellular
plants are excluded: “ Powder-seed has the most rapid transit probably of
any form of seed, and is most widely diffused.”

Vogler; in a searching paper on the dispersal of plants in the Alps,
advocates long-distance dispersal. He considers wind-carriage of seeds for
hundreds of kilometres a possibility, and carriage of from 3 to 20 kilometres
of practical importance in seed-dispersal. It may be pointed out that most
of the examples on which he bases his conclusion are /eaves, such as those of
the Beech, which have been carried high up the mountains or over considerable
distances. Similar cases are quoted by Beauverd* But withered leaves are
much less perishable than most flying seeds. Leaves may be blown along the
ground for considerable distances easily and without injury, and in windy
weather may make a whole series of flights: the ring or group of hairs that
form the fiying mechanism of the larger wind-dispersed seeds are, on the
contrary, easily injured, and easily entangled; and their efficiency is probably
almost always confined to a single flight in dry weather, as Bentham long
since pointed out. Vogler’s other instances relate to the transport of com-
paratively heavy bodies by hurricanes or whirlwinds. Such phenomena,
while they undoubtedly occur, and may even be frequent in alpine regions,
have probably very little practical bearing, though they show that wide
dispersal of even heavy seeds by the wind is not beyond the range of
possibility. Staufiacher’s case, quoted by Vogler (oc. cit., p. 90), in which new
plants appeared in an isolated valley where they had not been seen before,
is, to my mind, vitiated by the impossibility of proving the negative which he
affirms. Seeds buried in the soil, which unquestionably retain their vitality

1 E. Lorw: Anfange epiphytischer Lebensweise bei Gefasspflanzen Norddeutschlands. Verhandl.
d. bot. Vereins der Prov. Brandenburg, xxxiii, pp. 63-71. 1892.

? H. N. Rintey: On the Dispersal of Seeds by the Wind. Annals of Botany, xix, pp. 351—
363. 1905.

> Paul Vocter, Joc. cit.

“ Gustave Beavverp: Quelques cas de dissémination des graines par le vert. Buil. Herb.
Boissier, (2), i, pp. 633, 634. 1901,

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 67

for long periods of time (see p. 93), might be present, even if plants could not
be found. Of the disappearance and reappearance of plants in certain stations
many strange instances are on record.

While it may be freely admitted, then, that the frequent and violent
squalls and storms in mountain regions may transport even heavy seeds
far up and down the slopes, these occurrences are probably even there
exceptional, and have very little bearing on the question of dispersal across
undulating or level country. The presence of lofty buildings similarly
produces eddies and miniature whirlwinds, and aids seed-dispersal in towns.
Prof. Gwynne Vaughan has told me that in Chancery Lane, on a summer
day, with a light wind, a couple of years ago he has seen the air full of seeds
of Hpilobium angustifolium, probably brought by eddies from the waste
ground at the Strand, where this plant appeared in quantity.! Had
buildings been absent, a much smaller number of these seeds would have
been lifted sufficiently to enable them to travel so far. Over flat country,
and especially over water, such upward eddies must be still fewer and less
powerful ; this point is discussed on a subsequent page (p. 72).

In hot regions, the results of tornadoes, sand-storms,and kindred phenomena
prove that seed-transport over many miles is possible there; but the lesson
drawn from these hardly applies to our latitudes.

Plume Seeds.

The most striking examples are to be found among the Compositae.
Indeed, in beauty and delicacy, the pappus of the Thistles and their allies
surpasses any other wind-dispersal mechanism found in the vegetable
kingdom. The question whether the pappus or other flying-mechanism
has been evolved by natural selection as an aid to dispersal does not concern
us here. It is by many writers considered so; but it may be noted
that Bentham’ says:—“That the pappus, indeed, is really and solely a
provision for the transport of the seed will scarcely be maintained, when we
consider, first, that in the great majority of more or less unisexual Com-
positae the pappus is much more developed on the male or sterile achenes
than on the female fertile ones, and that in a large number of Cynaroideae,
and even in many Cichoriaceae, the pappus separates so readily from the
achene that the down we see floating in such quantities over a field of thistles
has, for the most part, left the achene enclosing the seed behind.” And
Goebel remarks :—“ Many arrangements which have hitherto been considered

1 See Journal of Horticulture, lv, p. 122. 1907. * Compositae, supra cit., p. 573.
12

10 68 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

merely as a parachute-apparatus on the ripe fruit are in my view to be con-
sidered as a transpiration-apparatus for the ripe fruit, and these subsequently
can be used for distribution, but are not necessarily for this.” Guppy, as
already mentioned (p. 60), is inclined to treat dispersal-mechanisms as
by-products, so to speak, in the plant’s life-history. The reader dipping into
the subject of the pappus may also consult the papers of Taliew,? Hirsch,’ and
Stein brinck.*

The pappus reaches its most beautiful development in some of the
Cynarocephaleae, such as the common Spear Thistle. Here the comparatively
large and heavy seed is surmounted by a beautiful shuttlecock of stiff spines,
eight times the length of the seed, each spine clothed with short branches, which
greatly increase its efficacy; while the seed alone falls 12 feet in less than one
second, the presence of the pappus reduces this velocity to about ~;th (12 feet
in 14seconds). The pappus alone takes 28 seconds to fall the same distance.
An attempt to calculate the efficacy of the pappus and deduce the velocity of
fall in the allied C. arvensis is made by Dandeno®; but his result is only about
half the observed rate. The lightness of these parachute-seeds is shown by
Bessey’s calculation that a Dandelion seed weighs “00044 gramme, or about
one-millionth of a pound.®

In the case of this and many other Composites, the hairs of the pappus are
stiff and elastic; but in the Sow-thistles (Sonchus), as well as in very
efficient fiying seeds of other orders (e.g., Epilobium), the hairs are lax, and
cling easily to any surface except a very smooth one—thus supplying a second
means of dispersal, such as is possessed by seeds furnished with hooks or
barbs. Frieb’ believes that animal-dispersal is effective in the case of many
pappus-bearing species; and Kronfeld* points out that in some cases, 2g.,
Taraxacum—the pappus assists water-dispersal by keeping the achene afloat.

But in the Compositae we are again faced by the fact that apparently
distribution bears no proportion to ease of dispersal We may arrange a

1 Goebel: Organography of Plants (English ed.), ii., pp. 570, 571. 1905.

2 W. Tatiew: Ueber das hydroskopische Gewebe der Compositen-Pappus. Kazan, 1894 (in
Russian). Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, Ixiii., pp. 320-324. 1895.

3Amold Higscu: Ueber den Bewegungsmechanismus der Kompositenpappus. 1901. Abstract
in Bot. Centralblatt, lxxxix., p. 248.

4 C. Sremnpursce: Zum Bewegungsmechanismus der Kompositenpappus. Berichte Deutsch. Bot.
Gesellschaft, xix., pp. 514-515. 1901.

SJ. B. Danpexo: The Parachute Effect of Thistle-down. Science (N.Y.), N.S., xXXii,
pp. 568-572. 1905.

®C. E. Bessey: Weight of Dandelion-down. Science (N.Y.), N.S., xx., p. 119. 1904.

7 R. Fares: Der Pappus als Veroreitungsmittel der Compositenfriichte. Oest. Bot. Zeitschrift,
Wien, li., pp. 92-96. 1901.

8 Moriz Kronrenp: Uber einige Verbreitungemittel der Compositenfrichte. Sitz. k. Akad. der
Wissensch., Wien, Math.—Nat. Klasse, xci., Abth. i, pp. 414-428. 1885.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 69

series of species whose seeds bear every gradation of pappus, from an elaborate
parachute down to an almost microscopical ring of bristles; yet as many
common and widespread species will be found at oneend of the series as at
the other (see also p. 63). Neither does any phylogenetic relationship exist
among the pappus-bearing species. “Constant or nearly so in each species,
with very few exceptions,” says Bentham,’ “the pappus will often, in a most
natural genus, so vary from species to species, as to make it a most difficult
task to decide whether it should be neglected altogether” as a diagnostic
character.

As already mentioned, many of the plume-seed plants rely on structures
simpler than the pappus to aid them in wind-dissemination—such as the long
feathery awn in Clematis Vitalba and Dryas octopetala; but there is no need
to go into the forms displayed in different species, or their morphological
significance. Their relative efficiency, which is the point that mainly concerns
us, is discussed later on.

Wing Seeds.

Regarding these not much need be said. Even when a very expanded
wing is present, as in Pinus sylvestris, Heracleum Sphondyliwm, or Ulmus
montana, its efficiency as an agent of dispersal cannot compare with the
pappus. This is shown by the results given below (p. 77). Except in
very high winds, winged seeds cannot be carried more than a short distance
from the parent (see also p. 66, supra).

In one important respect the behaviour of these flat bodies in wind is
different from that of the plumed seeds. In accordance with mechanical
laws, they tend to turn their flat surface towards the direction of greatest
resistance. When falling in still air, therefore, or in air moving uniformly,
while the course of the seed is usually a zigzag or spiral, the flattened surface
tends to maintain a horizontal position all the time—which is also the position
which is most effective in restraining the velocity of fall. But if the wind is
gusty, and the seed is subjected to forward and backward jerks, then each of
these puffs will tend to cause the flattened seed to present its surface to
the direction in which it is impelled. In consequence, its edge will tend to
be directed towards the ground, and the velocity of fall will be increased
accordingly. When the motion of the air is irregular, then, the efficiency of
such seeds for dispersal is reduced.

Powder Seeds.

“In the dispersal of seeds and fruits by wind over long distances,”
remarks Ernst, “structural adaptations to flight are of less importance

1 Compositae, supra cit., p. 34. 2 A, Ernst: The New Flora of Krakatau, p. 66.

10 70 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

than reduction in weight.” In this connexion see the remarks of H. N. Ridley
quoted on p. 66. Very minute seeds provide the most effective of all
devices for plant-dispersal. It is in the spores of Cryptogams that we find
minuteness and lightness developed to the highest degree, rendering them
infinitely more fitted for wide dispersal than even the most complicated
and efficient of parachute-seeds.

The behaviour of small particles falling in air differs from that of larger
bodies, inasmuch as, with continued reduction in size, the impelling force (the
action of gravity) becomes rapidly smaller in comparison with the decrease
of resistance offered by the air, so that very small velocities result. A
mathematical expression for the velocity of fall of microscopic spheres in a

viscous medium was deduced by Stokes,’ and is known to physicists as Stokes’s
Law :-—

where V = the terminal velocity,
p = the density of the sphere,
o = the density of the medium,
g = the acceleration due to gravity,
a = the radius of the sphere,
u = the viscosity of the medium.

In recent years several series of experiments have been carried out with
a view of providing a practical verification of Stokes’s Law. Zeleny and
McKeehan? have experimented with Lycoperdon, Polytrichum, and
Lycopodium spores. The velocities of fall which they observed were about
one-half of those given by the formula. It has been suggested by Buller,
and more recently by Miss Stoney, that the shape of the spores of
Lycopodium, which are four-sided and have sculptured walls, may account
for their retardation. A. B. Basset? has suggested a mathematical explana-
tion of this want of agreement. Subsequently Zeleny and McKeehan have
announced’ that further experiments with small spheres of paraffin wax, a
black wax, and mercury, give results which are in close agreement with
those obtained from Stokes’s formula. Buller’ experimented with the spores

1G. G. Sroxes: On the Effect of Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendulums.
Cambr. Phil. Trans., ix, part 2, pp. 8-106, 1856. Abstract in Phil. Mag. i, pp. 337-339. 1851.

? J. Zeveny and L. W. McKegeuan; An Experimental Determination of the Terminal Velocity of
Fall of Small Spheres in Air. Paper read before the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science.
Abstract in Science, N.S., xxix., p. 469, 19th March, 1909; and The Terminal Velocity of Fall of
Small Spheres in Air. British Association Report for 1909, pp. 407, 408. 1910.

% Nature, lxxx., pp. 186-187. 1909. 4 Tbid., \xxxii., p. 279. 1910.

5 Thid., \xxxiii., p. 521. 1910. ® Tbid., lxxxii., p. 158. 1909.

7 A. H.R. Butter: Researches on Fungi. chap. xy. London, 1909.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 71

of the Hymenocyte fungus Amanitopsis vaginata, which are spherical and
smooth, and about one-third the diameter of Lycopodium spores. The
average terminal velocity of fall obtained was 6:07 mm. per second, which
is 46 per cent. greater than that deduced from Stokes’s Law. The author
suggests that the excess over the calculated velocity may be due to surface
slip. Professor J. A. McClelland has suggested to me that the method of
calculating the density of the spores may be at fault.

The effect of the great reduction in size of spores of Cryptogams is to
give them a very low rate of fall in comparison with the seeds of Flowering
Plants, and a consequent power of very wide dispersal by air-currents. Buller!
finds the velocity of fall of the spores of Hymenomycetes to range from 0°3 to
6:0 mm. (= ,& to $ inch approximately) per second—a velocity only about +;
te y2-, of that of a Dandelion seed, one of the more efficient of plume-seeds.
Further, these spores are in many Cryptogams produced in vast numbers.
A large example of the Giant Puff-ball (Lycoperdon bovista) is estimated to
discharge 7,000,000,000,000 spores, and a Common Mushroom (Psalliota
campestris) of 8 em. diameter to contain 1,800,000,000. So that, as was
said at the beginning, these spores are to be reckoned as a common constituent
of atmospheric dust; and it is no exaggeration to say that they are probably
carried by the wind to the most remote corners of the globe.

None of the seeds of the Flowering Plants attain such small dimensions as
the foregoing; but nevertheless a number are exceedingly minute and light.
For instance, a seed of Habenaria conopsea weighs :000008 gram, and one of
Parnassia palustris ‘00003 gram.* Furthermore, “to enable these seeds to
float in the air for as long a time as possible, they are more or less flattened,
and their centre of gravity is so placed that they always present the broad
side to the direction of descent.” But most of the minute seeds among our
native plants—for instance, those of the smaller Caryophyllaceae and
Cruciferae, the Poppies, &c.—are roundish in shape, and devoid of special
adaptations for wind dispersal ; they fall with comparatively high velocities,
as will be seen later. To pursue this line of thought, it may be remarked that
despite the advantage as regards dispersal afforded by small seeds, as
compared with large, these are not the rule in our flora. Clement Reid*
reckons 17:6 per cent. of the phanerogamic flora of the British Islands as
having “small seeds,” and 24:5 as having “ large seeds,” the balance of 57:9
having seeds of intermediate size. The low percentage of small-seeded
species would seem to show that the size of seeds is determined by factors
other than ease of dispersal.

1A. H. R. Butter: The Production, Liberation, and Dispersion of the Spores of Hymeno-
mycetes. Brit. Assoc. Report for 1909, pp. 675, 676. 1910.
2 BULLER: loc. cit, 3 Kerner: Nat. Hist, of Plants, ii., p. 851, 4 Tom. cit., p. 21.

10 72 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The Efficiency for Dispersal by Wind of the Seeds
of some British Plants.

The mechanics of wind-transport, or, at least, of so much of them as have
a practical bearing on the question of seed-dispersal, are very simple. If the
motion of the air were uniform, then a seed once started on a wind-journey
would have no motion relative to the air but the vertical motion due to
gravity. In all seeds efficient for wind-dispersal this motion is uniform
practically from the moment of liberation of the seed, the resistance of the air
neutralizing almost at once the acceleration due to gravity.

Were there no wind the course of the seed would be downward from the
point of detachment from the plant. either in a straight line, or in some zig-
zag or spiral course, according to the shape of the appendages. Were the
wind a uniform horizontal air-current, the course of the seed would be a
straight line (or zigzag, &c., as aforesaid), sloping from the place of detach-
ment of the seed down to the ground, the angle of slope depending upon the
strength of the wind and on the rate of fall of the seed, the resulting course
of the seed and its actual velocity being displayed graphically by the diagonal
of a “ parallelogram of velocities.” This being so, it is clear that for any given
kind of seed, with a fixed rate of fall, the distance to which it will be
transported depends on the velocity of the wind, and on the presence or
absence of upward or downward eddies that may prolong or curtail its flight.
And the majority of seeds fall so fast in comparison with the velocity of
any wind which they are likely to encounter that this question of eddies
becomes of great importance, as it is only by their aid that any kind of long-
distance dispersal can be hoped for.

While the motion of the air over rough land, especially near the ground,
is very irregular and full of eddies, occasioned by irregularities of the surface

see p. 67, ante), it does not follow that the same holds when the wind is
blowing across uniform surfaces such as water. On the contrary, there seems
every reason to believe that at sea upward or downward eddies are unimpor-
tant under usual conditions. Experiments on this point which I attempted
by liberating small parachutes at sea from the mast of the Fisheries steamer
“ Helga ” were unsuccessful, owing to the eddies caused by the ship, which
drew the parachutes at once down into the water. But observation of the
passage of the smoke of steamers, and also of the dense smoke of kelp-burning
across many miles of sea, in both light and strong winds, gave but slight
indication of eddies. On another occasion thistle-down was watched half a
mile from the shore blowing seaward, and in every case its course was
practically a straight line.

Mr. R. G. K. Lempfert, of the Meteorological Office, has kindly given

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 73

me information on this subject. He emphasizes the fact that sea winds are
much more steady than those over land, instancing the diagrams bearing on
this question given in a recent report by W. N. Shaw on “ Details of Wind
Structure,” &c.1. He adds that it is unlikely that the wind will become
absolutely steady over the open sea; and remarks, “Of course every upward
motion must be compensated somewhere by a downward motion; but I
suppose it is quite possible that an individual seed might by good luck
make use of more upward motions than downward ones, and so get
transported over a considerable distance.”

It is to be noted that eddies, therefore, will tend equally to shorten
and to lengthen flight, bringing in a possibility of extended flight, but leaving
the average the same. Also that the longer the flight the greater the
chance of upward and downward eddies equalizing each other, tending to
make the length of flight approximate to the theoretical distance which
would be attained in a horizontal air-current.

Again, the narratives of airmen, as recorded in the press, refer to strong
downward eddies experienced when travelling seaward over steeply-shelving
shores, which suggests a high mortality among seeds drifting seaward. All
of these facts point to the conclusion that without a high initial elevation
attained by means of eddies over the land, it is not probable that flying seeds
will, under any kind of ordinary conditions, succeed in crossing considerable
stretches of water. We are again driven towards the “occasional” theory,
and have to call in whirlwinds and tempests to give what assistance they
can.

The actual distance which a wind-borne seed of any species will travel thus
depends on several factors, some of them determinate, others indeterminate.
The conditions under which a seed is launched forth include the height above
ground at which it is liberated, but just as important are the exact situation and
surroundings of the particular plant bearing the seed. The greater the height
above ground at which a seed is borne, the further will it probably be carried ;
but particular conditions affecting local air-currents may place a low herb in
as favourable a position for seed-dispersal as an adjacent forest tree.

The next factor, and one which is determinate, is the rate at which a seed
falls.

The most important factor to be reckoned with, and one which is in each case
quite indeterminate, is the wind itself. During those stormy periods when
seed-dispersal is most likely to reach its maximum of efficiency, the motion
of the air—at ‘least over rough land—is most turbulent. One seed, liberated

1 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Reports and Memoranda, No. 9. 1909.
R.I.A. PROO., VOL. XXXI. K 10

10 74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

from the parent plant, will be at once dashed to earth, while another will
be whirled a hundred feet up into the air; and all will be projected forward,
and arrested, and flung to this side and that, in a very irregular manner.

But whether in a steady wind or in the turmoil of a storm, the flying seed
is all the time subject to the influence of gravity, and, relative to the air in
which it is at any moment suspended, it is falling at a rate which is uniform
for each species, and which is easily measured, being (except in certain cases
already referred to, see p. 69) the same rate at which the seed would fall in still
air. And over and above all accidents of original position or of wind or
weather, this rate of fall truly measures the relative capacity of the seeds of
different species for dispersal by wind. All the seeds are equally open to the
chances and dangers offered by the wind, and these tend in the long run to
equalize themselves. As against them, the advantage or disadvantage of
original position probably counts for little, especially for long-distance
dispersal. But the rate of fall for each species acts steadily throughout, and
is thus the determining factor. If the seeds of species A fall at half the rate
of those of species B, the chance of the A seeds reaching any boundary that
we may set are approximately double those of the B seeds; or to express it
differently, the chances are that double the number of A seeds will be carried
to any given distance, as of B seeds.

As pointed out on previous pages, the characters which render seeds
capable of dispersal by wind range themselves under three main heads :—
(1) the possession of a plume of hairs or bristles; (2) the possession of a
flattened wing; (3) reduction in size. Some discussion of these three types
has been given already (pp. 67-71); it remains to put certain examples of each
to a practical test. Not much experimental work on the fall and carriage of
seeds appears to have been carried out. The best discussion of the subject
will be found in Dingler’s' essay. He divides wind-borne seeds into twelve
types, varying from powder seed to parachute and winged seeds ; and reducing
these to conventional forms, he calculates their theoretical velocities of fall,
and compares these with the velocity of fall of actual examples of each type
as measured by experiment. But as most of the seeds experimented on
belong to foreign species, his results do not directly assist the present inquiry.

In order to test the relative capacity for wind-dispersal of the seeds of
some British plants, an apparatus was devised by which the seeds were
allowed to fall freely through still air for a certain distance (12 feet), and the
time occupied measured by a stop-watch. At the top, the seeds were
liberated by means of a small tilting platform worked from the base of the

1 Hermann Dincter: Die Bewegung der pflanzlichen Flugorgane, ein Beitrag zur Physiologie
der passiven Bewegungen in der Pflanzenwelt. Pp. 10+ 342. Taf. i.— viii, Munchen, 1889.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 75

apparatus, where their arrival was observed on a sheet of black or white
paper strongly illuminated. The behaviour of the seeds in their downward
course could be watched by an observer stationed at the top. Freshly
gathered seed was used wherever possible ; in only a few cases was seed a
season or more old employed. Comparison made as to the rate of fall of old
and new seed of a number of species showed no appreciable difference
between the two. This result corresponds with that obtained in his flotation
experiments by Guppy, who found very little difference in buoyancy between
fresh and dried seeds. Twenty to forty seeds, taken in almost all cases at
different dates from several different plants, or from different portions of the
same plant, were tested in the case of each species. Care was taken to see
that the pappus or wing (when present) was complete and uninjured, and
that the seed was mature; in a few doubtful cases the seeds were afterwards
germinated. To the naked eye, a difference in the size and shape of the seed
or of the pappus or wing was often obvious, producing even in seeds selected
for their perfect pappus a variation in the velocity of fall sometimes
amounting to as much as 50 per cent.; in the majority of cases the results
were uniform as regards seeds of any one inflorescence; but the degree of
expansion of the pappus was found to vary greatly even in seeds quite
mature and in the course of being shed naturally, and this sometimes caused
a variation of as much as 100 per cent. in the velocity of fall; in such cases
the seeds tested were those in which the pappus was most expanded. It was
found that warming the seeds before a fire immediately before the experiment
tended to expand the pappus and increase the efficiency. This would happen
in nature in hot sunlight.

Where the plume is stiff as in most of the pappus-bearing Compositae,
there is but little variation in the rate of fall; but where it is lax, as in the
Willow-herbs, Willows, and Cotton-grasses, the variation is much greater,
and a number of different gatherings ought to be tested—more in some cases
than I had at my disposal—before one can feel assured that the maximum
efficiency has been found. Probably, in order to obtain the practical
maximum efficiency of seeds matured and liberated under the most favour-
able conditions, we might safely add 5 per cent. to the figures given below
for stiff-pappus seeds, and 10 per cent. for the lax-pappus seeds.

Tn some minute seeds also, a large variation in the rate of fall was found.
In some of the Orchidaceae, for instance, this amounted to as much as
100 per cent., depending apparently on variation in the disposition of the
loose netted testa. The difference in the proportion of the figures below
for a 12-foot and a 40-foot fall, may in some cases be due to the fact that

different batches of seed were experimented on in the two cases.
K 2

10 76 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

For the testing of the more rapidly falling seeds—those of many
powder-seeded species, for instance—a much longer fall, amounting to forty
feet, was given, to ensure more accurate results, and also because in these
cases acceleration due to gravity extends over an appreciable period. For
this purpose, one of the stairways at the Royal College of Science for Ireland
was utilized.

In the following lists, the actual times taken to fall the distances
measured are recorded, since, in the case of many even of the smallest seeds
destitute of appendages, acceleration is undoubtedly no negligible factor (as it
is with the more efficient plume and wing seeds), and, in consequence, we
are not dealing with a uniform rate of fall, and cannot deduce the time taken
to fall one distance from the time taken to fall another.’

PLUME SEEDS.

Time taken to fall twelve feet.

Seconds.
RANUNCULACEAE— Clematis Vitalba, 5:4
LEGUMINOSAE— Trifolium arvense, 5:0
ROsACEAE— Dryas octopetala, 6:5
ONAGRACEAE— Epilobium hirsutum, 19:0
E. montanum, 20:0
E. palustre, 23°7
COMPOSITAE — Kupatorium cannabinum, 16:0
Aster Tripolium, 8:0
Solidago Virgaurea, 77
Erigeron acre, 38
Inula salicina, 13°5
I. crithmoides, 4:5
Pulicaria dysenterica, 10:0
Senecio vulgaris, 12'8
S. sylvaticus, 17:3
S. Jacobaea, 10:0
Carlina vulgaris, 4:5
Carduus pycnocephalus, 50
Cnicus lanceolatus, 12:4

1] have to thank Mr. John Adams, m.A., for kind assistance in this latter series of experiments.

2 To convert the figures in the following lists into miles per hour (approximately), invert them
and multiply by 8 where a 12-foot fall is referred to, or by 27 for a 40-foot fall. The result will be
almost correct for slow-talling seeds; but for fast-falling seeds the results will be too small, since the
figures in the list represent something less than the terminal yelocity of fall.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia.

PLUME SEEDS—continued.

ComposITAE—cont.— C, arvensis,

PLUMBAGINEAE—
AMENTIFERAE—

TYPHACEAE—
CYPERACEAE—

ACERACEAE—
UMBELLIFERAE—

OLEACEAE—

Crepis biennis,

C. paludosa,

C. taraxacifolia,
Hieracizm boreale,

H. umbellatum,
Hypochaeris radicata,
Leontodon autumnalis,
L. hirtus,

Taraxacum officinale,
Lactuca virosa,
Sonchus oleraceus,
Tragopogon pratensis,
Armeria maritima,
Salix pentandra,

S. aurita,

S. repens,

Typha latifolia,
Eriophorum angustifolium,

Wine SEEDs.

10 77

Seconds.

14:0
3°8

Time (seconds) taken to fall
12 feet

Acer Pseudo-platanus,
Angelica sylvesiris,
Pastinaeca sativa,
Heracleum Sphondylium,
Fraxinus excelsior,

SCROPHULARIACEAE— Rhinanthus Crista-galli,

POLYGONACEAE —

ULMACEAE—
CONIFERAE
LILIACEAE—

Rumex nemorosus,
R. erispus,

R. obtusifolius,
Ulmus montana,

Pinus sylvestris, 6°

Narthecium ossifragum,

40 feet
9-2

10 78 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

POWDER SEEDS AND MISCELLANEA.
Time (seconds) taken to fall

12 feet 40 feet
PAPAVERACEAE— _ Papaver dubium, ios 44
CRUCIFERAE— Erophila vulgaris, 37 —
Sisymbrium Sophia, 15 46
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 15 5-0
Brassica Rapa var. Briggs =9— 2-0
VIOLACEAE— Viola arvensis, — Soll
CARYOPHYLLACEAE— Arenaria verna, 2-0 =-
A. serpyllifolia, 18 6:0
Sagina procumbens, 35 —
LinacEAE— Radiola linoides, 40 —
HYPERICACEAE— Hypericum pulchrum, 24 6-0
H. hirsutum, 2:0 6-4
LEGUMINOSAE— Lathyrus pratensis, — 12
SAXIFRAGACEAE— — Parnassia palustris, a —
ComPosITaE— Arctium minus, _ 22
Matricaria discoidea, 2:0 —
CAMPANULACEAE— Jasione montana, 28 12
ERICACEAE— Dabeocia polifolia, 2-0 5-5
Calluna vulgaris, 3-2 —
Erica Tetralix, 3D —
E. cinerea, 1:5 =
PRIMULACEAE— Samolus Valerandi, 28 —
SCROPHULARIACEAE—Verbascum Thapsus, — 5:0
Scrophularia nodosa, 16 52
Bartsia Odontites, 1S 7/ 54
OROBANCHACEAE— Orobanche minor, 75 25°6
O. Hederae, 6-0 =
ORCHIDACEAE— Epipactis palustris, 22:0 —
Orchis incarnata, 12:0 =
Habenaria conopsea, 12-0 —
LILIACEAE— Scilla verna, — 2°5
J UNCACEAE— Juncus effusus, 3°6 —
J. balticus, DD, 7:0
J. glaucus, 28 —
CYPERACEAE— Carex vulpina, — 48
C. glauca, 15 =
C. flava, = Deo
GRAMINEAE— Deschampsia caespitosa, — 16°8
Dactylis glomerata, 15 45
Glyceria festucaeformis, 2°5 —
Bromus asper, = 5:2"

Clare Island Survey—P hanerogamia. 10 79

It will be seen that as a whole the plume seeds experimented with are
better adapted for wind-dispersal than either the wing seeds or powder seeds.
Of the plume seeds, the place of honour belongs, not to the group with
elaborate parachutes, but to Typha latifolia, which is followed—at some
distance—by the Epilobiums and Willows; these in buoyancy slightly
exceed the best of the Compositae, which form a long series extending down
to species quite devoid of parachute apparatus. Lriophorum angustifolium
is nearly equal in efficiency to the most buoyant of the Compositae, and in
relation to the same group, such seeds as Clematis Vitalba, Dryas octopetala,
and Trifoliwm arvense occupy a low place, and are possibly chiefly useful in
promoting dispersal by animals.

As regards wing seeds, the best of them, such as Ulmus montana and
Pinus sylvestris, cannot compare with even the second or third grade of
the plume seeds. Ash and Sycamore are again far behind Elm and Pine;
while, in the case of wing seeds such as the Docks, the appendages must
be much more useful in promoting dispersal by animals than in aiding wind-
dispersal by checking the velocity of fall.

Coming to the powder seeds, we find that mere reduction in size is not
carried far enough in the Flowering Plants to produce an efficient dispersal
device. The small hard roundish seeds that occur in so many species fall
with a high velocity. They have a high specific gravity—all which were
tested sinking at once in water—and they possess no device for restraining
their rate of fall. Elongated seeds, such as those of Hypericum and Juncus,
have a rather lower rate of fall (occasioned in part by a less specific gravity).

- The great elongation in the case of Narthecium has a marked effect in this
direction. It is only in Orchidaceae, where minuteness is combined with
looseness of tissue, that (among Phanerogam powder seeds) a really low rate
of fall is found; but even these seeds cannot compete as regards buoyancy
with the more efficient of the plume seeds. A few of the larger roundish
seeds, such as those of Brassica Rapa, Lathyrus pratensis, and Scilla verna,
tested for comparison, have a very high velocity, falling 40 feet in between
1 and 3 seconds.

To get an idea of what are the possibilities of seeds reaching Clare Island
by the agency of wind, let us take a very favourable case. A seed with a high
index of efticiency—say, Epilobiwm montanum, which takes 20 seconds to
fall 12 feet (an efficiency even higher than that of any Composite parachute
seed)—is liberated at a spot within 5 miles of the island, with a favourable
gale blowing at 50 miles per hour. The seed would take only 6 minutes to
traverse the horizontal distance; but during that time its fall would amount
to 216 feet. This represents the height to which the seed must be raised by

10 80 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

a lucky preponderance of upward gusts over downward ones if it is to cross
the channel safely. It will be only one seed out of a large number which will
in all probability encounter such good fortune. But if tens of thousands of
seeds are given such a chance occasionally during tens of thousands of years,
a probability of colonization may be granted by the most severe critic. The
high efficiency of this seed for wind-dispersal is the outstanding constant
factor which allows us to concede to it a fair chance of success. Many seeds
furnished with a tolerably large pappus or wing have only about one-fifth
the capacity for maintaining themselves in the air which is possessed by
the species chosen ; to such as these only a possibility of transport to the
island by wind can be conceded. What are we to say of the chances of many
of the round-seeded species, whose seeds fall ten to forty times as fast as
those of the Epilobium ? |

TRANSPORT BY BIRDS.

The inquiry as to the efficacy of the agency of flying creatures in reference
to the flora of Clare Island practically limits itself to the case of birds. Bats
are so rare in the district as to be a negligible factor; and as regards flying
insects, while they have often been suggested as possible transporters of
small seeds, and in a few cases (e.g. locusts)! shown to be so, there is a lack
of evidence so far as native insects are concerned. As regards birds, they
are unquestionably a potent agent in plant-dispersal.

Instances of birds being taken carrying in their crops or intestines, or on
their feet or plumage, the seeds of various plants, are given by almost all
writers on plant-distribution. To quote a few modern instances, Guppy’
took 828 seeds, representing at least ten species, from the stomachs and
intestines of thirteen ducks. Ekstam* found the crops of Ptarmigan in
Spitzbergen in August filled with vegetable matter, including seeds and
bulbils of many species. Holmboe* obtained seeds of fifty-three species of :
plants from the alimentary canal of eighteen species of birds. Or again,
from one pound of dried excrement of Corvus americanus taken from the
ground under the crow-roost at Arlington, U.S.A., 4764 seeds were obtained,
belonging to over half a dozen species. This material represented the deposit
lying on four square feet of ground out of about fifteen acres occupied by the
roost. The seeds displayed a very high capacity for germination. Many of

1 Darwin: Origin of Species, 6th ed., p. 511.

2H. B. Gurpy, Science Gossip, N.S.,i, p. 145. 1894.

30. Exsram: Einige bliitenbiologische Beobachtungen auf Spitzbergen. Tromsé Museums
Aarshefter, xx, p. 52. 1897.

4 Jens Hotmpor: Notizen tiber die endozoische Samenvyerbreitung der Vogel. Nyt Magazin
Naturvidenskaberne, xxxvili, pp. 305-320. 1900. Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, lxxxviii, p. 81.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 381

the seeds were probably disgorged rather than excreted.’ In a subsequent
paper? on the ré/e of the American Crow in agriculture, confirmation of this
disgorging habit, and much further information concerning the food of the
crow, will be found.

Yet, when we sift the evidence available, we find it difficult to arrive at
any definite conclusion regarding the actual ré/e of birds in practically
effecting the local dispersal of plants. The possibilities of bird-dispersal are
very large indeed. While the efficacy of wind and water are strictly limited
by questions of seed-buoyancy, we have in the bird an agent which is capable of
transporting, in one way or another, the seed of any British plant. Even the
Oak, one of the heaviest-seeded of native species, is spread in this way. But
the great body of evidence necessary for definite pronouncements as to what
birds actually do in this direction is not yet existent, and in the meantime
we need to avoid the danger of using isolated instances as general facts,

Take, for instance, the case cited by W. O. Focke.* A pigeon was killed
by some preying animal in his garden in the winter, and in the spring from
among its feathers appeared a number of seedlings of Vicia Faba. “In this
observation he detected the normal method of the dispersal of the
Leguminosae by birds.”® One feels, on the contrary, that this was quite an
abnormal occurrence—that a bird which had just swallowed uncrushed a
number of perfect seeds should be killed, and then abandoned, on a spot
where the conditions (in this case wholly artificial) permitted the seedlings
to obtain a footing. Focke himself considered such means of dispersal quite
exceptional—“ man entschliesst sich jedoch schwer dazu, zu glauben, dass
dieser Weg der Verbreitung ein normaler sei” (oc. cit.). Indeed, this observer
in another place draws attention to the short range of normal endozoic dispersal,
and considers that such dispersal is usually much more local than is often
asserted :—-“ Die meisten Arten [der Pflanzen] werden niimlich viel weniger
weit verschleppt als man glauben sollte.”® But it may be noted that Clement
Reid observed an instance similar to that which has been just discussed.”

Furthermore, as a practical aid towards the solution of our particular
problem, it is not enough that a Teal is found, on dissection, to have eaten a

1 W. B. Barrows: Seed-planting by Birds. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S.A.,
1890, p. 283.

2 W. B. Barrows and E. A. Scuwarz: The Common Crow of the United States. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Division of Ornithology, &c., Bull. no. 6, pp. 24, 72, &e. 1895.

3 Clement Rerp, tom. cit., p. 29; and Nature, liii, p.6. Nov., 1895.

4 Naturw. Verein Bremen, Abhandl., y, p. 650. 1876.

> Guppy, Naturalist in Pacific, ii, p. 150.

5 W. 0. Focxr: Die Verbreitung beerentragender Pflanzen durch die Vogel. Naturw. Verein
Bremen, Abhandl., x, p. 140. 1889.

7 Tom. cit., p. 30.

R,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. L 10

10 82 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

number of Carex seeds. That only demonstrates a possibility, and almost
everything is possible. We need to know what is the usual food of the Teal,
at different times of year and in different circumstances, and which of the
seeds which it eats are capable of subsequent germination. We would like to
know what is the food of the Teal, and what its movements, in the particular
district we are considering; though even this will not, after all, help us to
determine what would be more important for our inquiry, namely, whether
there were Teal in the district, and what they ate, and how they moved,
say, 20,000 years ago, or after the close of the Ice Age, when possibly the
island was being re-colonized by vegetation. The animal world isso dependent
on the plant world that, if we attempt to deal with a time when the distribution
of plants was different from what it isat present, we must remember that the
distribution of animals is sure to have been different also.
Seeds are transported by birds in two different ways :—

1. By being devoured, and subsequently lected:
2. By adhering to feathers or feet.

The first or endozoic method concerns those birds which do not crush the
seeds in eating them; and concerns the harder seeds and fruits, which are
protected by an impervious coat from the action of the digestive juices ;
though it should be noted that, as pointed out by Altum!' and others, some
birds (e.g. the Mistle-Thrush and Rook) cast up in their pellets, prior to
digestion, the harder portion (7.e. stones, &c.) of fruits. The reader may also
consult a correspondence on the subject in Nature, 1898.* (See also p. 81, supra.)
The second or ectozoic category concerns chiefly seeds which possess barbed or
hooked bristles, downy hairs, a sticky surface, or other characters which cause
them to adhere easily; small seeds which may be mixed with mud which
adheres to the feet of birds may also be included.

Many birds feed largely on seeds, others again on juicy fruits; and it
would appear from American observations that many of the most pronounced
insect-feeders also devour much vegetable matter. The importance of birds
as plant-dispersers depends largely on whether they crush and digest the
seeds they eat or not. On this point, Barrows* remarks—“ The seed-eaters
are not the seed-planters; on the contrary, the insectivorous birds more often
sow seeds than the true seed-eaters.” “Seeds which simply contain nourishment
are eaten and destroyed, while seeds which are contained in nowrishment are
eaten and survive.”

1B. Attum: Zur Verbreitung der Pflanzen durch Vogel. Monatsschr. Deut. Ver. Schutz der
Vogelwelt, xxiii, pp. 13-17. 1898.

? John Lowe, E. M. Lanerey, Howard Fox: Nature, lix, pp. 77, 149. 1898.

° W, B, Barrows: Seed-planting by Birds, Joc. cit., p. 281,

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogumia. 10 83

Kerner’s experiments regarding the condition in which birds expel
seeds which they eat may be quoted here.’ Seventeen species of birds,
belonging to many different families (and also a few mammals), were fed
with seeds and fruits of 250 different species of plants, and the seeds were,
after ejection, examined and sown. As a result, he divides his series of
birds into three groups. The first, which includes, among others, the Pigeon,
several Finches, Titmouse, and Duck, grind up even the hardest fruits and
seeds in their “gastric mills.” “No seed capable of germination was found
under ordinary circumstances in the excrement of these birds.”? But by
forcibly overfeeding some of the birds, a few seeds capable of germination
were obtained. In the second group, which consisted of the Raven and the
Jackdaw, hard-coated seeds and fruits passed through the intestine uninjured,
while all soft-coated ones were destroyed. The third group included the
Blackbird, Song-thrush, and Robin. Of the seeds which passed through the
intestines of these birds (some seeds were refused, and others were thrown up
after having been swallowed) over 80 per cent. germinated. Kempsi,3 again,
experimenting with mammals and birds with a view of determining their réle
in weed-dispersal, finds many cases of germination, but considers that many
birds, such as Doves, Quails, Larks, Finches, and Sparrows, are more efficient
as seed-destroyers than as seed-dispersers.

The German Government, also, is publishing‘ a series of papers on birds’
food, especially as regards insects and weed-seeds, which are a storehouse of
detailed information, though we cannot yet generalize from them as regards
our local species.

From the above observations it would appear that many of our common
birds can disseminate seeds by eating them, though the list is far from
complete. If we knew what seeds were included in the normal diet of the
commoner birds of our district, we would be in a strong position as regards a
pronouncement on the question of the part played by the local birds in seed-
dispersal. But as regards the vegetable food of birds, our information is
still most incomplete. That certain of the more conspicuous birds eat the
more conspicuous fruits, such as berries, is of course a matter of common

1 A. Kerner: Nat. Hist. of Plants, ii, pp. 862-864.

2 This result differs from that obtained by Guppy (Science Gossip, N.S., i, p. 146, Sept., 1894,
and “ Naturalist in Pacific,’’ ii, pp. 369, 513), who found that seeds of Sparganium, Potamogeton, and
Cyperaceae eaten by ducks germinated readily. Again, Kerner states as a result of his experiments
that germination is usually retarded by passage through birds, while Guppy, Barrows (loc. cit.), and
others find that it is hastened.

3 E. Kempst: Uber endozoische Samenyerbreitung und speziell die Verbreitung yon Unkrautern
durch Tiere auf dem Wege des Darmkanals. Rostock, 1906. (Abstract in Justs Bot. Jahresbericht,
xxxiv, 3, pp. 264-265).

4 Arbeiten aus der biologischen Abtheilung fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft.

L2

10 84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

knowledge; but it is otherwise respecting the smaller birds and the myriad
smaller fruits and seeds. The best collection of observations on this subject
in our own islands is that made by Newstead,! which includes over 1,100 records
relating to 128 species of British birds, and derived mostly from post-mortem
examinations in Cheshire. The seeds, &c., found in the birds were deter-
mined as far as possible; but any attempt to discover the probability of
germination after ejection by the bird lay outside the scope of the inquiry,
which was directed mainly towards the economic value of birds. This series
of observations, it is to be hoped,-will prove the nucleus of a solid body of
fact which will at length let us see clearly the relation between our native
birds and the dispersal of plants. In the meantime, Newstead’s and the
other existing records—many of the latter being isolated observations—tell
us part of the food of part of the avifauna during part of the year; and a
few facts may be excerpted. Finches and their allies are large eaters of
seeds, particularly of species of Brassica; the Bullfinch has a very general
diet of seeds. But as regards the Finches, Newstead’s conclusion coincides
with that formed by Kerner, that all the seeds are crushed and digested.
Many waterside birds, again, appear to feed on the seeds of Carex (Guppy
also found a number of Wild-Ducks filled with the seeds of Cyperaceae,
Sparganium, and Potamogeton); and Polygonum seeds are devoured by
birds of various families. Hawthorn seeds are eaten extensively by the
Thrush and Finch families; Finches and other birds frequently eat rose-seeds.
And so on. But it will be seen that, to assist any definite conclusions
in our particular inquiry, much fuller information would be required. All
we can say at present regarding our special problem is that there is very
little doubt that many of the local birds eat the seeds of many of the local
plants, some of which occur on the island, and some of which do not; and
that these seeds are, in a number of cases, ejected in a condition which makes
germination possible.

As regards the second mode by which birds may convey seeds—by the
seeds becoming entangled in or attached to their feathers or legs,—while we
are without local evidence bearing directly on our problem, well-known obser-
vations on the point have been made by various naturalists. Thus, from a
64-ounce pellet of mud taken off the wounded leg of a Red-legged Partridge,
Darwin germinated 82 specimens of plants belonging to at least five species.
This well-known instance was of course an exceptional occurrence; it was
the broken leg, not any normal feature, that brought about the collection of

} Rosert Newsreap: The Food of some British Birds. Journal of the Board of Agriculture,
xv, No. 9, Supplement. 1908.

Clare Island Survey—P hanerogamia. 10 85

seeds. To show the richness of pond-mud which birds might carry on their
feet from place to place, he germinated 537 plants from a sample of it weighing
62 ounces.*

Kerner lists 21 species “ whose fruit or seeds I found most frequently in
the mud taken from birds”; but remarks that “the number of species of
plants which is dispersed in this manner is, it is true, but small. For the
most part they are waterside, and of these chiefly small annual species.””

About 10 per cent. of all flowering plants bear fruits or seeds armed
with hooks or hairs by which they may easily become attached to any
rough surface; and, unquestionably, birds carry many seeds in this manner.
Again, Guppy’ lists nearly 20 British phanerogams which have been observed
to become sticky when wetted, and which, on drying, adhere, often very firmly,
to any contiguous surface. This character must also tend towards the dispersal
of seeds by birds. But how far this occasional transport of seeds actually
affects the distribution of plants is, to a large extent, a matter of speculation.

The local information which we can apply to the particular case of the
Clare Island flora is very scanty. The present avifauna of the island and of
the district is comparatively limited; but it may have been larger when
much of the adjoiming mainland supported pine forests and deciduous woods,
and when groves of trees flourished on the island. As regards purely local
movements, the ornithologists have little to tell us. We do not know what
species of birds fly frequently to and fro between the island and the
mainland, nor at what seasons. ;

In July I have observed a flock of about one hundred Rooks on the
island. They flew about the higher parts, and left in the evening for the
mainland. Whether similar incursions occur regularly we do not know, but
in summer and autumn Rooks may be constantly seen on the island. The
nearest rookery is at Louisburgh.

W. E. Collinge’s recent inquiry‘ into the food of the Rook throughout
the year, in England and Wales, shows that the present food of this bird
consists mainly of cultivated grain. Surprisingly few other seeds were
found ; in twelve birds, out of 631 examined, were a few seeds of Charlock
and dock; in sixteen, seeds of knot-grass, goose-grass, &c.; eighty-four con-
tained “remains of fruit,’ mostly acorns, with a few currants and goose-
berries. No germination tests were carried out. From this it will be
seen that the Rook is at present, in England and Wales, a very poor

1 C. Darwin: Origin of Species, 6th ed., pp. 512, 386-387.

2 A. Kerner: loc. cit., ii, p. 868.

* Guppy: Naturalist in Pacific, ii, p. 567, 568.

4 W. E. Conuince: The feeding-habits of the Rook. Report to the Council of the Land
Agents’ Society. London: 1910.

10 86 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

seed-disperser: but it is held by the author that its present grain-eating
propensity is due to the too great abundance of the bird; so we cannot,
with safety, apply the English figures to the West of Ireland, where the
Rook is less abundant. Much less can we assume that in past times grain
formed so large a proportion of its food.

The great bird colonies of the island consist of Guillemots, Razorbills,
Puffins, Kittiwakes, Herring-Gulls, and Shags, with a few Black Guillemots,
Great Black-backed Gulls, &c.; none of these can be looked on as efficient
agents of seed-dispersal. It is true that Lagerheim' found that, in Arctic
Europe, gulls are greedy consumers of berries such as those of Empetrum ;
but we have no evidence of this habit locally, nor should we expect such in
view of the rarity of ground berries, and the easier conditions of existence as
regards food-supply. Perhaps the Chough, which replaces the Jackdaw on
the island, is a more hopeful subject; but we have no definite local
information concerning its food.

The most important of all bird-movements—namely, the seasonal migra-
tions—may be eliminated so far as Clare Island is concerned. The island lies
outside the main migration routes. From the tens of thousands of records
of migrating birds given by Barrington,” Clare Island is conspicuous by its
absence. The present light-keepers confirm the fact of the singular absence
of migrating birds at the lighthouse throughout the year.

In any case, a large body of evidence goes to show that migrating birds
travel with empty stomachs and clean externally. On this point the Danish
observations, referred to on p. 90, may be quoted. But it ought to be stated
that there are not wanting observations which suggest that this may not be a
universal rule. Thus Duval-Jouve,? examining the migratory swimming
birds exposed in the market at Strasbourg, “trouve presque toujours des
débris de plantes accolées contre le poitrail, et plus souvent encore aux
pattes,” and lists twelve species of marsh- or water-plants identified! And an
anonymous writer states’ that, in Sicily, birds on both the northern and
southern migrations bring many seeds, in their crops and also on their feet,
He lists some of the species found with each bird, and says that it is
customary to sow the contents of the alimentary canal of Quails, and thus to
obtain unfamiliar plants.

1 Q. Exstam: loc. cit., p. 51.

2 R. M. Barrineton: The migyation of birds as observed at Irish lighthouses and lightships.
London and Dublin. [1900.]

3 Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xi, p. 265. 1864.

4 In this case there seems to be a lack of evidence that the seeds may not haye become attached
by contact with the ground or with packing, &c., after death.

5 Zugvogel als Pflanzenverbreiter. Osterr. Forst- und Jagdzeitung, xxi., p. 140. 1903.
Abstract in Bot. Centralblatt, xcii, p. 561.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 87

To come back to the main question, we have to admit that we are not ina
position to say definitely whether birds could have introduced that very large
proportion of the flora of Clare Ireland which could not owe its presence to
wind or water. Out of 393 species inhabiting the island, not more than 15
are at all likely to have been introduced by water, nor more than 50 by
wind. We must also deduct about 55 species which were or may have been
introduced directly or indirectly by man. It seems unlikely that the total
balance, numbering about 270 species, belonging to many different orders,
and possessing seeds and seed-vessels of all sizes, shapes, and characters, were
brought over by the rather scanty avifauna, even though the distance from
the mainland is not great.

We must remember at the same time that many species arrived on the
island probably in early times, when the local distribution of plants was
different from what it is at present. Thus, I doubt if anyone would claim
that Saxifraga Gewm was introduced directly by either natural or artificial
agency from Kerry, or Silene acaulis from Sligo; but they might have been
introduced, say, by birds, from former neighbouring colonies which are long
since extinct. By the majority of naturalists, discontinuous distribution is
regarded as being generally relict distribution, not incipient colonization due
to long-distance dispersal (see ante, p. 56).

A case which came under my own notice may be quoted,! as it shows both
how conspicuous a part birds may play in plant-dispersal, and how little right
one has to generalize from a particular instance. Near Frankford in King’s
County a colony of Black-headed Gulls was breeding in the centre of a large
peat-bog, about half a mile from the surrounding farm-land. The guano and
trampling of the birds had in some spots destroyed the bog-vegetation, and in
its place a coarse herbage sprang up, which comprised—

Ranunculus acris. Veronica Chamaedrys.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris. V. arvensis.
Cerastium triviale. Prunella vulgaris.

C. glomeratum. Plantago major.
Sagina procumbens. Atriplex sp.

Trifolium repens. Polygonum Persicaria,
Epilobium obscurum. Rumex Acetosella.
Daucus Carota. Juncus effusus.

Bellis perennis. Holecus lanatus.
Senecio vulgaris. Poa annua.

Hypochaeris radicata.

Not one of these plants was native on the bog, while all were common on

1 PrazcEr, Irish Topographical Botany, p. xxxviil, 1901,

10 88 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the farm-land; and although one or two of them are fitted for wind-dispersal,
the probability is that all were brought by the birds—probably by means of
seeds adhering to their feet or plumage, as the Black-headed Gull is only
very sparingly a vegetable feeder. This case may seem to show the ease
with which plants may be introduced by the movements of birds. But the
conditions when studied are seen to be very special. In the first place,
the great concentration on a very small area of ground must be considered.
Assuming that only a hundred pairs of breeding birds formed this colony, the
feeding of the young involved some hundreds of thousands of journeys direct
from the farm-land, where grubs and worms were obtainable, to an area only
a few perches in extent. Again, the guano was probably as beneficial to the
growth of the weed-flora as it was inimical to the bog-vegetation, so that the
seeds arrived on ground unoccupied by a pre-existing competitive flora. A
little consideration will show how different the case of this bird-colony is from
acase such as that afforded by Clare Island, where we have to rely on the
casual visits of the members of a scanty avifauna. But, on the other hand,
that scanty avifauna has had a very long period in which to do its work.

PROBABILITY OF A LAND-BRIDGE.

Tt has been seen that examination and analysis of the vegetation of Clare
Island show that only an insignificant fragment of it could have arrived by
water, and that wind-dispersal could not reasonably be held responsible for
the balance. If the plants arrived across a channel of sea, birds must be
held accountable for the introduction of the bulk of the indigenous flora.
Birds, no doubt, have played an important part ; and we may without hesitation
put down a number of the hard-seeded plants to their credit. But there still
remains a large portion of the flora; and local conditions, such as the clifty
character of the shore and the prevalence of westerly winds, tend to discount
the efficacy in this case of other accidental or occasional dispersal. It has
been seen also (pp. 5-9) that analysis of the flora of this and the adjoining
islands seems to show a general invasion by the mainland plants, for the
island flora exhibits no predominance of species specially fitted for over-sea
dispersal, every section of the mainland flora being represented as far as the
habitats existing on the islands allow.

Neither does the list of common mainland plants absent from the group
of islands show a predominance of species unfitted for over-sea dispersal.
This list (given on p. 10) is seen to contain indifferently representatives of
all the modes of dispersal—plants whose seeds float unharmed in sea-water
(Siwm angustifolium, Bidens cernua, Alnus glutinosa, Sparganium simplex,

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 89

Potamogeton perfoliatus, Carex remota); plants with plumed seeds adapted
for air-carriage (Hpilobiwm hirsutum, Crepis paludosa, Salix caprea, Typha
latifolia); powder-seeded plants (Hrophila vulgaris, Sagina apetala, Habenaria
bifolia, Hquisetum sylvaticum) ; plants with seeds which may be distributed by
being eaten by birds (Rubus Idaeus, Rosa tomentosa, Viburnum Opulus); or
by adhering to their feet or feathers (Geum urbanum, Epilobium hirsutum,
Asperula odorata, Bidens cernua, Typha latifolia, and the powder-seeded
species).

Another argument which may be used against the introduction of the
flora of Clare Island or of the adjoining islands across water, or indeed across
any barrier, is the fact that the flora of all of these islands is actually richer
than that of most, if not all, equal areas of the adjoining mainland. Had the
flora any difficulty to encounter in its passage to the islands, we should
undoubtedly expect it to be reduced in variety. The comparative richness of
the island floras is the result of the greater variety of conditions prevailing
there. It seems, however, probable that the mainland flora was as rich as, or
more likely richer than, that of the islands before the period of the main
growth of the bogs. I would suggest that the vast blanket of peat which is
spread over so much of the mainland locally exterminated many plants there;
while on the islands, where peat never formed to so great an extent, these
species have survived.

The doubtful factor as regards the migration of the flora is the question of
the practical efficacy of “accidental” means of dispersal. These have been
discussed tolerably fully above; and they do not seem to me, in this case, to
offer sufficient chances for the arrival of the large proportion of the flora
which, in the present state of our knowledge, we should have to put down to
their account. Iam therefore inclined to think that overland migration is
accountable for the introduction of the bulk of the flora. The zoological and
geological evidence bearing on this point is discussed elsewhere by other
writers.

Within the last few years the results of two important investigations
respecting the origin of island floras, one in our own latitudes and one in the
Tropics, have been published. Both are suggestive in connexion with the
smaller investigation dealt with in these pages; and it may be permissible to
refer to them.

The Case of the Faeroes.

The case of the Faerdes is an interesting one, and one which appeals to
us, since the flora approximates to that of the northern portion of our own
islands. This island-group lies about 180 miles W.N.W. of the Shetlands,

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. M 10

10 90 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

270 miles S.E. of Iceland, and 360 miles west of Norway ; their collective area
is about 480 square miles; their surface is mountainous; and they support
a population of 15,000. The flora is very closely related to that of Scotland,
the nearest land; less nearly to the Scandinavian flora; and least to that of
Iceland. This appears from the thorough investigations in recent years of
Danish botanists, whose results have been published in a volume of over a
thousand pages.! In this volume the origin of the vegetation is discussed first
by Ostenfeld and afterwards by Warming; and it is interesting, as showing
the difficulties involved, to find that while Ostenfeld believes that the flora
migrated over a former land-bridge, Warming holds that over-sea migration
is responsible for it.

As regards the age of the flora, both writers consider that it is post-
Glacial. This decision follows from the presumption that the whole of the
flora was destroyed during the Glacial Period.* They also agree that dispersal
by sea has been ineffective, Ostenfeld pointing out that a strong extension of
the Gulf Stream, coming from the open Atlantic, flows between the Faerées
and Scotland, effectually cutting off dispersal from the latter country, and
bringing nothing but an occasional West Indian fruit. “The ocean currents
in these parts,” he concludes, “ are of no consequence whatever in the matter
in question” (p. 116). As regards birds, also, both authorities maintain that
they likewise have been ineffective. Evidence is given that the migratory
flight of birds over the Faerées is not considerable ; and an extensive series of
observations in Denmark, involving thousands of migrants, shows that the
birds migrate on empty stomachs, and are almost always clean externally
when they travel.

There is left the wind; and the choice lies between this and a former
land-bridge. Warming expresses the view that the wind is responsible for
the introduction of almost the whole flora; while Ostenfeld prefers the alter-
native. We need not consider here the geological evidence, but may say that
valuable testimony is adduced both in favour of and against the hypothesis of
a post-Glacial land-connexion. But turning to the botanical evidence,
Ostenfeld bases his conclusions on the non-efficacy of the wind. The direction
of the wind at the Faeroes, in percentages for the year, is :—

N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. W. .NW. CALM.
Wey, 12 ib 8 iO Wd dy wd 6 11

1 Botany of the Faerées, based upon Danish investigations, 1901-1908.

2 On the possibility of the survival of at least part of the flora of northern areas during the
Ice Age, see Scuarrr: On the Origin of the European Fauna. Proc. R.I. Acad., (8) iv, pp. 488,
489. 1897.

Clare Island Survey —Phanerogamaa. 10 91

Ostenfeld lays stress on the prevalence of winds useless for seed
introduction, and on the fact that, in contradistinction to truly insular floras,
only a small section of the Faerdese plants are adapted for wind-dispersal.
(Out of 277 species, 71 have small seeds, and only 27 have flying apparatus—
total 35:5 per cent. of the flora.) In view of these facts, he cannot admit the
efficacy of the wind for bringing in the mass of the flora; and he is driven to
the adoption of the land-bridge hypothesis.

Warming, advocating wind-dispersal, quotes several remarkable recent
instances of the wind-carriage of plants and even of stones, notably one of the
transport of Erica and Calluna plants across the Kattegat.? But these cases are
clearly, and indeed admittedly, exceptional. He points out that the S., S.E.,
and E. winds of the Faerdes amount to 28 per cent.; and he thinks that the
flora includes “not many species which have seeds large enough, and heavy
enough to prevent them being carried along by a gale.” This last statement
includes the whole crux of the problem, and is referred to, in the lght
of certain experiments, in the succeeding paragraph. He states that he is
“fully convinced that the whole of the flora—at least, all the more highly
organized land-plants--have immigrated, after the glacial period, across
the sea, and from the nearest countries, lying east, especially Great Britain ”
(p. 681). It need only be added that Wille and Borgesen, for instance, are
in agreement with Warming’s view; while Nathorst and Drude, as well as
Forbes and Geikie, are advocates of a Faerdese land-connexion.

Harking back for a moment to the experiments on the actual rate of fall
of seeds (see pp. 76-78, ante), let us see what is the chance, as shown by these
experiments, of seeds being carried to the Faeroes from the nearest land—
namely, Shetland. Let us again take a very favourable case—seed of the highly
efficient Epilobiwum montanum, liberated with a 50-mile-an-hour gale blowing
continuously and directly in the right direction. The amount which this
seed would need to be raised by abnormal means to keep it afloat during its
journey of 3 hours and 36 minutes from nearest point to nearest point would
amount to 1:45 mile. But most of even the pappus seeds are not nearly so
efficient as Hpilobvwm montanum. The many plants with seeds of the Papaver
type could not get across unless the seed was raised during the passage by a
total amount of at least 22 miles. Yet many of the Faerdese plants have
seeds which fall faster than these, and which. would require considerably
greater assistance.

1 This equals 26 per cent. of the flora—which may be compared with the figure (17°6 per cent.)
arrived at by Clement Reid (Hist. British Flora, p. 21) for the much less insular area of the British
Isles ; but we do not know how far the definition of a ‘‘small seed ’’ agreed in the two cases.

2 See E. Warmine: Uber Grénlands Vegetation. LEngler’s Bot. Jahrbiicher, x, 1888-9, p. 407.

M2

10 92 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In view of these facts, it seemed difficult to endorse Warming’s view
already quoted, that few Faerdese plants “have seeds large enough and heavy
enough to prevent them being carried along by a gale.”

The Case of Krakataw.

The interesting case of the flora of Krakatau has been made widely
known by the publication of Ernst’s recent book, and its translation into
English.’ The vegetation of this island and an adjacent islet, as well as a
considerable portion of the land-surface of Krakatau itself, was wiped out by
a terrific eruption in 1883, which submerged portion of the island, and
covered the remainder with a layer of hot pumice and ash averaging thirty
métres in thickness. Verbeek’s party, visiting the island two months later,
could find no trace of vegetation left. In 1886 Treub found on the island
fifteen Phanerogams and eleven Ferns, divided into two almost independent
croups, the strand flora and the flora of the interior, the inland flora con-
sisting of numerous Ferns (eleven species) and in small quantity eight
Phanerogams. The island was again visited by Treub and others in 1897,
when fifty-six Phanerogams and twelve vascular Cryptogams were found,
the ground being now in some places completely covered with vegetation,
The visit of Ernst and his party in 1906 showed that the number of Phanero-
gams had risen to 92, and that a dense vegetation was re-established. It is
held by Treub and Ernst that the entire new flora immigrated since the
eruption, by means of water, air, or flying creatures. The only loophole of
escape from this conclusion has been pointed out by Scharff*—namely, that it
was not (nor indeed could it be) proved that vegetable germs had not survived
the eruption. It is quite true that Treub, as a result of his visit in 1886, is
positive on this point. ‘“ En premier lieu il est indispensable de prouver que
la flore actuelle doit étre considérée comme nouvelle et quelle n’est pas issue
des restes de la végétation luxuriante qui occupait Vile avant |’éruption.
Rien n’est plus facile Wailleurs que de fournir cette preuve. Lors de
Véruption les arbres terrasés ou brisés par de violentes rafales ont di étre a
moitié carbonisés, vu le température extrémement élevée qui a certainement
regné sur toute litle. En suite Krakatau a été couvert, depuis le sommet
jusque bien au de la du niveau de la mer, d’une couche de cendres et de pierre
ponce brulantes. Cette couche a une épaisseur variant entre wn métre et

1 A. Ernst; The New Flora of the volcanic lsland of Krakatau. Cambridge, 1908.
*R. F. Scuarrr: On the Evidences of a former Land—bridge between northern Europe and
North America. Proc. R. I. Acad., xxviii, Sect. B., pp. 8-9. 1909.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 93

soivante métres. Dans ces conditions-la il est clair qu’aucun vestige de la
flore n’a pu subsister aprés le cataclysme. La graine la plus persistante et le
rhizome le mieux protégé ont di perdre a jamais toute vitalité.”

Nevertheless, we must remember that a rich vegetation had been shedding
its seeds on the island uninterruptedly until the catastrophe destroyed it; that
floods, landslips, and other agencies must previously have buried countless
seeds, some to a considerable depth; that seeds long buried in the soil are
often capable of germination as soon as opportunity arises; and that the
rains (reckoned at 98 inches per annum, falling mainly in four months), which
rapidly denuded the beds of ash, cutting “deep valleys and gorges” within two
months (p. 4), must also have cut into the old surface, which had been left in
some places even devoid of volcanic covering (p. 4), though usually buried ;
many seeds might thus become exposed and scattered, which might germinate,
for heat does not readily penetrate downward, and seeds can survive a high
temperature.*

1M. Trev: Notice sur la nouvelle flore de Krakatau. Ann. du Jardin Bot. de Buitenzorg,
vii, 1888, pp. 214, 215.

2 For instances of the vast number of seeds which the soil may contain the reader may consult
H.C. Long (Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden, p. 26. London, 1910), who took 1,050
seedling weeds off one square yard of well-weeded garden soil, and who quotes EK. Korsmo’s
observations (Kampen mod Ugraesset, 1906) of 1755, 10,332, and 33,574 seeds capable of germina-
tion, each contained in the soil of one square métre of agricultural land. From an Irish sample,
Adams has calculated 4,012,360 weed seeds as contained on an acre of ground (Irish Nat., xiv,
p. 80. 1905.)

3 Long ago, A. P. de Candolle (Physiologie Végétale, ii, 620. 1832) concluded that seeds buried
sufficiently deep in the soil to be protected from the action of air and moisture would have their
vitality much prolonged. Later C. de Candolle (Bibl. Universelle, Archives des Sciences Phys. et
Nat. (3), xxxili, pp. 497-512. Genéve. 1895) and Giglioli (Nature, lii, pp. 544, 545. 1895) have
shown that seeds can display very remarkable resistance to severe conditions enduring many years.
In this connexion see also Duvel (U.S. Dept. Agriculture,- Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 58,
p- 80. 1904). Good instances of the vitality of seeds after many years’ burial will be found in the
Irish Naturalist for 1904 and 1905, in communications by J. Adams and others. The cases quoted
by Clement Reid (/.c., p. 32) as instances of the rapid immigration of plants, in which Poppies and
Corn Marigolds appeared in quantity in ground laid bare in the making of new railways near Cromer
and Brockenhurst, would appear to be certainly due to this cause. A case similar to this last, and,
no doubt, correctly ascribed to long-buried seeds, is mentioned by Messrs. Sutton and Sons (Lawns,
p- 9- 1909) where a large rabbit-warren in Oxfordshire was dug and levelled, no extraneous
material being used, with the result that in the first year a dense growth of Brassica Sinapis appeared,
followed in the succeeding season by a crop of Lychnis vespertina. On the other hand, Ewart’s tests
in Australia of six hundred different sorts of old seeds, from herbarium and similar sources, showed,
on the whole, a very low vitality. (Quoted in G. H. Cuark and J. Fuercuer: Farm Weeds of
Canada, p. 13. 2nd ed. 1909.) Duvel’s experiments (J. W. T. Duvet: The Vitality of Buried
Seeds. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plaat Industry, Bull. 83. 1905) in burying seeds
suggest that this failure may have been due to temperature and moisture fluctuations. He buried
seeds of 109 species in porous flower-pots at various depths at Arlington, U.S.A., and found that
after a year, while the average germination was reduced to about one-half, that of the seeds buried
36-42 inches was half as high again as that of the seeds buried 6-8 inches. This result has an
obvious bearing on the point under discussion. Peter records the springing up of a great variety of
field plants after the removal of a forest which had occupied the ground for forty-six years.
(Quoted in Strasburger’s Text-book of Botany, 3rd English ed., p. 322. 1908.)

+ For the literature of this subject—the resistance of seeds to high and low temperatures—see

10 94 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

However this may be, there can be no doubt that many of the plants of
the new flora immigrated from the surrounding islands, which lie to the
north, east, and south, at distances of about 20 to 80 kilometres. Analyzing
the total new Phanerogamic flora, Ernst arrives at the conclusion that

39 to 72 per cent. have been introduced by sea-currents ;
10 to 19 per cent. have been introduced by birds ;
16 to 30 per cent. have been introduced by air-currents.

The migration of strand plants by sea is a well-known and often-studied
phenomenon in the Tropics. A rich vegetation extends to the verge of these
warm seas ; and fruits and seeds of many kinds form a conspicuous part of the
abundant piled-up jetsam of the beaches. As regards bird-dispersal, the
figure arrived at is based to a considerable extent on observed facts of
endozoic distribution in other places, but no information is given as to the
avifauna of Krakatau or its movements. When we compare the distance of
the adjoining lands, and the speed of birds, with the known rate of digestion
(about 4 to 3 hours), we see that there is not a large margin of time left ; but
a bird flying to Krakatau just after a meal might easily drop seeds on the
island. As regards wind-dispersal one would like further information con-
cerning those plants which are not powder-seeded. There seems no reason to
doubt that the Cryptogamic flora was wind-borne, and also some Phanerogams,
such as Orchids, with very minute seeds.

The Krakatau example has been referred to at some length because it is
unigue as an observed example of the rapid re-colonization of an isolated
land area. But even if we accept the theory that the whole of the new flora
was of extraneous origin, we must be very chary of applying its lessons to a
case such as that of Clare Island. In Krakatau we have a spot in the Tropics,
surrounded by a luxuriant vegetation (though at a distance that would prove
a serious obstacle in our latitudes), which, in a very short period, has simply
overwhelmed the island once more. But the only time when Clare Island
may, by depopulation, have offered a more or less bare and competition-free
habitat to immigrants was after the Glacial Period, when the conditions were
rigorous, and the flora of the adjoining tracts probably as decimated as that of
the island itself, and when, as I have pointed out (p. 59), in spite of a reduced
flora, the pressure of competition was probably not less than under normal
conditions. What was accomplished in a year on Krakatau may well have
taken centuries on Clare Island, and even then would have been accomplished
by agents working under very different conditions.

J. W. Tf. Duvet: The Vitality and Germination of Seeds. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Bulletin 48, p. 25. 1904. Seeds are found to withstand temperatures ranging
from 100° C. to—280° C.

Olare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 95

Perhaps a nearer parallel to the incoming of the Clare Island flora after the
Ice Age, if we accept a Glacial extinction of the flora, may be found in Spitz-
bergen; the results of Ekstam’s' researches there are that he hypothecates
a land-bridge to the eastward (as Nathorst* did before him), suggesting that a
few Scandinavian species which occur on Spitzbergen, but not on Nova
Zembla to the eastward, may have been brought direct by birds.

The whole question of plant-migration across barriers centres round the
oft-debated point of the efficacy of “accidental ” or “occasional” dispersal :
the advocates on the one side taking their stand on the lack of direct evidence
and the lack of actual observation of the accomplishment of long distance
dispersal by these means ; the other side demanding any other explanation of
certain facts of distribution, and pointing out the immense period of time
available for colonization by “accident.” The older students of distribution,
led by Darwin and Wallace, argued that such dispersal must have taken
place, calling to witness the fauna and flora of oceanic islands, and pointing
out the undeniable wide possibilities. Later naturalists, adhering to Forbes’s
view that overland migration was the rule, sought for actual instances of
over-sea dispersal, but finding none, or next to none, were tempted to condemn
the whole “occasional ” hypothesis—what was not taking place now did not
take place in the past. But, came the reply, we cannot hope to see these
things actually happening—to find condensed into the limited period of our
own experience what has been spread over tens of thousands of years.
Nature, as A. R. Wallace has said,* can afford to wait. Man, dressed in a
little brief scientific experience, cannot thus discount the influence of the
ages.

In August was the Jackal born ;
‘The Rains fell in September ;

‘¢Now such a fearful flood as this,”’
Said he, ‘‘ I can’t remember!”

In the absence of any body of direct evidence, we are driven to an attempt
to estimate probabilities; and here again we are at fault, for we have not the
facts and figures which would allow of even an approximate estimate being
made. So the question resolves itself into a matter of opinion, based on a
general survey of the case; and from such opinion we cannot eliminate the
personal equation.

But we must remember that there is all the difference in the world
between possibilities and probabilities; and it seems to me that in many

10. Exstam: Spitzbergen, oc. cit., p. 56.

2A. G. Narvorsr: Studien tiber die Flora Spitzbergens. Englers Bot. Jahrbiicher, iy,
pp. 432-448. 1883.

3 Geographical Distribution of Animals, i, p. 32.

10 96 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

cases of presumed accidental dispersal each possibility involved is to be
represented by so small a fraction that, 1f a few of these possibilities are
superimposed one on the other, as in the case of Focke’s hawk-slain pigeon
(ante, p. 81), there is but little possibility left. One may invoke a formula
to express this thought; it cannot be denied that

A possibility x a possibility x a possibility ...=0:!
Even the multiplication of whatever resulting fraction there may be by the

big time-factor that it is permissible to draw on, will not, in many cases, give
us a very hopeful result.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
List oF BoOKS AND PAPERS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS PAPER.

References to further bibliographies of the subjects dealt with will be found
below under the names Apams, Borany, Duvet, Exstam, Entior, Ernst, Guppy,
Hemstey, Macteop, Prarcer, ScHARFF, SCHIMPER, SERNANDER, VOGLER.

Apams, John:
On the vitality of seeds buried in the soil. Irish Nat., xiii, pp.253-255. 1904.
On the vitality of seeds buried in the soil (Second Article). Irish Nat., xiv,
pp. 80-82. 1905.
Further note on the Vitality of Seeds, Irish Nat., xiv, p. 163. 1905.
On the possibility of distinguishing between native and alien species of plants
in Ireland. Irish Nat., xviii, pp. 128-132. 1909. (Bibliography.)

Autum, B.:
Zur Verbreitung der Pflanzen durch Vogel. Monatsschr. Deut. Ver. Schutz
der Vogelwelt, xxiii, pp. 18-17. 1898.
Arbeiten aus der biologischen Abtheilung fiir Land- und Forstwirthschaft. 8vo.
Berlin.

Barrineton, R. M.:
The migration of birds as observed at Irish lighthouses and lightships... .
8yo. London and Dublin. [1900.] ;
The Vitality of Seeds. Irish Nat., xiv, pp. 69-70. 1905.

Barrows, W. B.:
Seed Planting by Birds. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S.A.,
1890, pp. 280-285.
Barrows, W. B., and BE. A. Scuwanrz:
The Common Crow of the United States. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division
of Ornithology, &c., Bull. 6. 1895.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 97

Basset, A. B.:
The Descent of a Sphere in a Viscous Liquid. Nature, Ixxxiii, p.521. 1910.
Brat, W. J.:
Seed Dispersal. Syvo. Boston: Ginn & Co. [1898.]
A good popular introduction to the subject, written for use in American schools.
BEAvveRD, Gustave :
Quelques cas de dissémination des graines par le vent. Bull. Herb. Boissier,
(2),1, pp. 683-634. 1901.
Brentuam, George :
Anniversary Address. Journ. Linn. Soc. (Botany), x, pp. lxvy-c, 1869; and
Ann. Se. Nat. (Botanique) xi, pp. 299-345. 1869. (In French.)
Notes on the Classification, History, and Geographical Distribution of the
Compositae. Journ. Linn. Soe. (Botany), xiii, pp. 835-577, tab. 8-11. 1873.
Bessey, C. H.:
Weight of Dandelion-down. Science (N.Y.), N.S., xx, p.119. 1904.
Plant Migration Studies. University Studies, Univ. of Nebraska, v, pp. 1-27.
1905.
Buytt, A.:
Immigration of the Norwegian Flora. Christiania. 1876.
Botany of the Faerées, based upon Danish investigations. Svo. Copenhagen, &c.
1901-8. (Bibliography.)
Brapsuaw, A. P.:
The distribution of fruits and seeds. Trans. Microsc. Soc. Manchester, 1902,
pp. 65-75.
Brown, Robert:
Our Karth and its Story, vol. ii. 1888.
Good general account of seed dispersal.
Bucwenav, Franz :
Ueber den Reichtum des Culturlandes unserer Stiidte an Pflanzensamen.
Hin Beitrag zur Lehre yon der Verbreitung der Pflanzen. Festschrift fiir
P. Ascherson, pp. 27-86. Berlin: Borntraeger. 1904.
Butter, A. H. R.:
Researches on Fungi. 8vo. London. 1909.
The Rate of Fall of Fungus Spores in Air. Nature, lxxx, pp. 186-187,
15 April, 1909.
The Production, Liberation, and Dispersion of the Spores of Hymenomycetes.
Brit. Association Report for 1909, pp. 675-6. 1910.
Burxixu, I. H.:
Notes on the Plants distributed by the Cambridge dust-carts. Proce.
Cambridge Phil. Soc., vil, pp. 92-95. (1893). 1895.
See also under Wittuis, J. C.
R.1.A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, N 10

10 98 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

CanpottE, Alphonse de:
Géographie botanique raisonnée, i-ii. Svo. Paris. 1855.
Origine des Plantes cultivées. 8yo. Paris. 1883.
CanpotiE, Augustin Pyramus de:
Physiologie Végétale, ii, p. 620. S8vo. Paris. 1832.
CanpoLiE, Casimir de:
Sur la vie latente des grains. Bibl. Uniy. Archives des Sciences Phys. et
Nat., (8) xxxiii, pp. 497-512. Geneve. 1895.
Cuark, George H., and James Frercner :
Farm Weeds of Canada. 8yo. Ottawa. 2nded. 1909.
Cotean, N.:
Notes on Irish Topographical Botany, with some remarks on floral diversity.
Trish Nat., x, pp. 283-240. 1901.
Cotzince, W. E.:
The feeding habits of the Rook. |Report to the Council of the Land Agents’
Society. London. 1910.

Danveno, J. B.:
The parachute effect of thistle-down. Science (N.Y.), N.S., xxii, pp. 568-572.
1905.
Darwin, C.: :
The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. 6th ed. London:
Murray.
The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin... Edited by his son, Francis
Darwin, vol. i-lil. 1887.
More Letters of Charles Darwin ... Edited by Francis Darwin, vol. i-ii.
1903.
Dewey, L. H.:

Migration of Weeds. Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agric., 1896, pp. 263-286.
Good general paper.
Dixeier (Hermann) :
Die Bewegung der pflanzlichen Flugorgane, ein Beitrag zur Physiologie der
passiven Bewegungen im Pflanzenreich. 8vo., pp. 10+ 342. ‘Taf. i-viii.
Miinchen: T. Ackermann, 1889.

Dreyer, A.:
Verbreitung und Zahigkeit der Unkraiiter. Festschrift fiir A. Orth., pp. 14-20.
Berlin. 1905.

Dunn, Stephen Troyte :
Alien Flora of Britain. 8yvo. London. 1905.
Duvau-Jouve, J.:
(Letter on discovery in Brittany of Coleanthus subtilis.] Bull. Soc. Bot, de
France, xi, p. 265. 1864,

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 99

Duvet, J. W. T.:
The Vitality and Germination of Seeds. U.S. Dept. Agric., Bureau of Plant
Industry, Bulletin 58. 8vo. 1904. (Bibliography.)
The vitality of buried seeds. U.§. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant
Industry, Bulletin 838. 1905.

Dyer, W. T. Thiselton :
See under Tuiseutron-Dyer, W. T.

Dynes, T. Alfred:
The dispersal of the fruits and seeds of British Plants. Report Microsc. Soc.
Kaling, 1900-1, pp. 83-38.

Exstam, Otto:
Einige bliitenbiologische Beobachtungen auf Novaja Semlja. Tromso
Museums Aarshefter, xviii, pp. 109-198. 1895. (Bibliography.)
Hinige bliitenbiologische Beobachtungen auf Spitzbergen. Tromsé Museums
Aarshefter, xx. 1897. (Bibliography.)
Exuior, G. F. Scott:
Nature Studies (Plant Life). Svo. London: Blackie, 1908. (Bibliography.)

General account of seed-dispersal, &c.

Ernst, A.:
The New Flora of the volcanic island of Krakatau. 8yo. Cambridge, 1908.
(Bibliography.)
Evans, Sir John:
The Ancient Stone Implements . . . of Great Britain. London. 1897.

FLetover, James:
See under Crarg, George H.

Foors, W. O.:
Die Verbreitungsmittel der lLeguminosen. Abhandl. naturw. Verein,
Bremen, v, pp. 649-650. 1878.
Die Verbreitung beerentragender Pflanzen durch Vogel. Abhandl. naturw.
Verein, Bremen, x, p. 140. 1889.

Forses, Edward:

On the Connexion between the Distribution of the existing Fauna and Flora
of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which have affected
their area, especially during the epoch of the Northern Drift. Mem. Geol.
Surv. Great Britain, i, pp. 886-482. 1846.

Fox, Howard:
Birds and Poisonous Fruit. Nature, lix, p. 149. 1898.
Fries, Robert :

Der Pappus als Verbreitungsmittel der Compositenfrichte. Oest. Bot.
Zeitschrift, Wien, li, pp. 92-96. 1901.

N2

10 100 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Giextoit, Italo:
Latent Vitality in Seeds. Nature, lu, pp. 544-5. 1895.

Gopron, A.:
Considérations sur les Migrations des Végétaux et specialement de ce qui,
Etrangers au sol de la France, y ont été introduits accidentellement. Mém.
Acad. Stanislas, Nancy, 1858, pp. 829-367 ; and Mém. Acad. Montpellier,
ii, 1851-4, pp. 167-197.
GoEBEL, Karl Eberhard :
Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen, i-ii. Marburg. 1889-93.
Organography of Plants. (English ed.), ii. Svo. Oxford. 1905.

Grout, Abel Joel:
Some Vegetable Airships. Harper's Monthly Mag., ev, pp. 256-260. 1902.
Guppy, H. B.:
The Distribution of Aquatic Plants and Animals. Scott. Geograph. Mag., ix,
pp. 28-33. 1893.
The River Thames as an Agent in Plant Dispersal. Journ. Linn. Soc.
(Botany), xxix, pp. 333-346. 1893.
Water-Plants and their Ways. Science Gossip, N.S., i, pp. 145-147, 178-180,
195-199. Sept., Oct., Nov. 1894.
Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899. Vol. ii.
Plant Dispersal. 8vo. London: Macmillan. 1906. (Bibliography.)

Hauer, Ernst:
Die Vegetation auf Helgoland. 2nded. Hamburg. 1863.

Hemstey, W. B.:

Report on Present State of Knowlege of various Insular Floras. Challenger
Expedition: Botany,i. 1885. (Hatenswe Bibliography.)

Report on the Botany of Juan Fernandez, the South-Eastern Moluccas, and
the Admiralty Islands. Appendix. On the dispersal of plants by oceanic
currents and birds. Challenger Expedition, Botany, iii, pp. 277-318.
1884.

Hensman, Rachel :
See under Jounson, T.
Herman, Otto:

The Food of Birds. (Abstract of a paper published in “ Aquila,” vol. x1,
1904, on “Reports on the investigation of the food of Birds since 1900.”)
Proc. 4th Internat. Ornith. Congress (‘‘ Ornis,” vol. xiv), pp. 6380-635.
1907.

Himpepranpd, Friedrich :
Die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen. 150 pp. Leipzig. 1873.

“The best and most complete treatise we have seen.’’—Hill in ‘‘ American Naturalist.’’

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 101

lahavin, 1d, do 8
Means of Plant Dispersal. American Naturalist, xvii, pp. 811-820, 1028-1034.

1883.

Good general account.
Hirson, Arnold:
Ueber den Bewegungsmechanismus des Kompositenpappus. 39 pp., 1 plate.
8vo. Berlin: E. Ebering. 1901.
Hotmeor, Jens:
Notizen iiber die endozoische Samenverbreitung der Vogel. Nyt Magazin
Naturvidenskaberne, xxxyill, pp. 805-3820. 1900.

Howarp, L. O.:
The spread of land species by the agency of man ; with especial reference to
insects. Science (N.Y.), N.S., vi, pp. 882-3898. 1897.

Good general account of the introduction of both animals and plants.

Hourcuinson, R. R. :
Dispersion of Seeds. Sci. Gossip, N.S., viil, p. 244. 1902.
Jenorc, A.:
Verbreitungsmittel der Friichte und Samen (Vortrag). Wiener illustr.
Gartenzeitung, xxvi, pp. 271-281. 1901.

Jounson, T.:
The Principles of Seed-testing. Science Progress, i, pp. 483-495. 1906-7.

Jounson, T., and Miss R. Hensman :
Agricultural seeds and their weed impurities: a source of Ireland’s alien flora.
Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., N.S., xu, pp. 446-462, plates xxii, xxiii.
1910.

Kenpest, E.:
Uber endozoische Samenyerbreitung und speziell die Verbreitung yon
Uukraiitern durch Tiere auf dem Wege des Darmkanals. 172 pp. Rostock.

1906.

Kerner von Marmaon, A. :

Der Einfluss der Winde auf die Verbreitung der Samen im Hochgebirge.
Zeitschr. des Deutschen Alpenvereins, ii, pp. 144-172. 1871. Epitome
under title ‘‘ On the Influence of the Wind on the Distribution of Seeds in
mountain regions” in Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1872, pp. 148-144; and do. by
A. W. B{ennerr] under title “The Dispersion of Seeds by the Wind,”
Nature, vi, pp. 164-165. 1872.

Natural History of Plants (English ed.), ii, pp. 790-878. 1902.

Good illustrated general account of dispersal, &c.
Kew, Harry Wallis:

The Dispersal of Shells: An inquiry into the means of dispersal possessed by

fresh-water and land mollusea. S8yo. London. 1893.

10 102 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Knowzes, Miss M. C.:
A contribution towards the alien flora of Ireland. Irish Nat., xv, pp. 148-150.
1906.
Kronen, Moriz:
Uber einige Verbreitungsmittel der Compositenfriichte. Sitz. K. Akad. der
Wissensch., Wien, Math.-Nat. Klasse, xci, Abth. 1, pp. 414-428, Taf. I.
1885.
Studien uber die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen. Theil i, Windfichitler.
42 pp., 5 fig. leipzig: Engelmann. 1900. Abstract in Just’s Bot.
Jahresbericht, xxix, 2, pp. 687-638.
Laneiey, HB. M.:
Birds and Poisonous Fruit. Nature, lix, p. 149. 1898.
Lees, Edwin:
Records of Observations on Plants appearing upon newly broken Ground,
raised Embankments, deposits of Soil, &c. Phytologist, iv, pp. 131-137.
1851.
Loew, E.:
Anfange epiphytischer Lebensweise bei Gefasspflanzen Norddeutscllands.
Verhand. d. bot. Vereins der Prov. Brandenburg, xxxiii, Abhandl., pp. 63—
71. 1892.
Lone, Harold C.:
Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden. 8yo. London. 1910.
Lowe, John:
Why Birds are not killed by Eating Poisonous Fruit. Nature, lix, p. 77.
1898.
Lussocr, Sir John:
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. 8Svo. London. 1886.
Lupwie, Friedrich :
Lehrbuch der Biologie der Phanzen. Stuttgart. 1895.
Lye, Sir Charles:
Principles of Geology, chap. x1.
Good general discussion of plant dispersal.
Macponatp, Alexander :
Water-borne seeds. Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist., xii, pp. 34-6. 1904.
M‘Keenan, L. W. :
See under Zeeny, J.
Mac Leon, F.:
Lijst van Boeken, Verhandelingen, enz. over de Verspreidingsmiddelen der
Planten yan 1878 tot 1890 verschenen, met een Bijyoegsel en eene alphabe-
tische Lijst der Plantennamen. Botanisch Jaarboek, Gent, iii, 1891,
pp. 192-231. (Eztenswe bibliography.)

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 103

Marsx, George P.:
Man and Nature, or physical geography as modified by human action. 8vo.
London, 1864.
Chaps. ii and iii contain many facts and instances regarding dispersal.
Martins, Charles:
Expériences sur la persistence de la vitalité des graines flottant 4 la surface de
la mer. Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, iv, pp. 824-337. 1857.
Marret, G. E.:
Aeronautica vegetabile. Bull. orto bot. univ. Napoli, i, fase. 3, pp. 311-331,
fig. 1902.
Gives a good classification and lists of wind-dispersed seeds.
Mratx, Li. C. :
Round the Year. A Series of short nature-studies, pp. 200-208. S8vo.
London. 1898.
Mors, A. G.:
Report on the Flora of Inish-bofin, Galway. Proc. R. I. Acad, (2), Science,
il, pp. 553-578. 1876.
Natuorst, A. G.:
Studien tiber die Flora Spitzbergens. Hnglers Bot. Jahrbicher, iv, pp. 482-
448. 1883.
Nevrevter, Franz:
Die Wanderungen der Pflanzen. Hin Kapitel aus dem Leben der Pflanzen-
welt. (Naturw. Jugend- und Volksbibliothek, x.) Regensburg. 1904.
Newsreap, Robert :
The Food of some British Birds. Journ. Board of Agriculture, xv, No. 9,
Supplement. 1908.
O’Brien, R. D.:
The Vitality of Seeds. Irish Nat., xiv, pp. 41-42. 1905.
O’Donovan, John:
Antiquity of corn in Ireland. Dublin Penny Journal, i, 108-110, 282-288.
1832-3,
Pammet, L. H.:
The Delayed Germination of Seeds. Brit, Assoc. Report for 190Y, pp. 673—
674. 1910.
Percevat, John:
Agricultural Botany, Theoretical and Practical. Svo. London. 4th ed. 1910.
Prarcer, R. Lil. :
On types of distribution in the Irish flora, Proc. R. I. Acad., xxiy, sect. B.,
pp. 1-60. 1902.
Trish Topographical Botany. S8yo. Dublin: R. I. Academy. 1901.
(Extensive bibliography.)

10 104 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Prazcer, R. Ll. :

The Flora of Clare Island. Irish Nat., xii, pp. 277-294. 1908.

Studies in the British Flora. 1. Plant Colonists. Knowledge, xxv, pp. 16-19.
1902.

The Flora of Achill Island. Irish Nat., xiii, pp. 265-289. 1904.

The Flora of the Mullet and Inishkea. Ivish Nat., xiv, pp. 229-244. 1905.

The Flora of Inishturk. Ivish Nat., xvi, pp. 118-125. 1907.

Notes on the Flora of Inishbofin. Ivish Nat., xx, pp. 165-172. 1911.

Rew, Clement:

The Dispersal of Acorns by Rooks. Nature, liii, p.6. 7 July, 1895.

The Origin of the British Flora. S8yo. London: Dulau, 1899.

Remarks on the Nationality or Nativity, Denizenship, or Citizenship of Plants.
Phytologist, N.S. i, pp. 8398-899. 1855-6.
Rivtey, H.N.:

On the Dispersal of Seeds by the Wind. Annals of Botany, xix, pp. 351-363.

1905. ’
Scuarrr, R. F.:

On the origin of the Huropean Fauna. Proc. R. I. Acad. (8) iv, pp. 427-514.
(1886), 1887.

The History of the European Fauna. 8yo. London. 1899.

On the evidences of a former land-bridge between northern Europe and
North America. Proc. R. I. Acad., xxviii, sect. B., pp. 1-28. 1909.
(Bibliography.)

Scummeer, A. F. W.: :

Plant-geography upon a physiological basis. (Hnglish ed.) 8vo. Oxford.
1903. (Bibliography.)

Scuwarz, BE. A.:

See under Barrows, W. B.
Scorr Exxiort, G. F.:

See under Exxiort, G. F. Scott.
SERNANDER, Rutger :

Den Skandinayiska Vegetationens Spridningsbiologie, pp. 4-460. Upsala and
Berlin. 1901. (Hxitensive bibliography.)

STEmsBRINcE, C.:

Zum Bewegungsmechanismus des Compositenpappus. Ber. Deutsch. bot.

Gesellschaft, xix, pp. 514-515. 1901.
Stewart, §. A.:
The Vitality of Seeds. Irish Nat., xiv, p.19. 1905.
Sroxgs, G. G.:

On the Effect of Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendulums,

Cambr. Phil. Trans., ix, part 2, pp. 8-106. 1856.

Clare Island Survey— Phanerogamia. 10 105

Stoney, Miss Edith A. :
The Terminal Velocity of Fall of Small Spheres in Air, Nature, Ixxxii,
p- 279. 6 Jan., 1910.

Strassurcer, Eduard, &c.:
A Text-book of Botany. 38rd English ed. London, 1908.

Surron and Sons:
Lawns. 8yvo. 1909.
Taurew or Tatierr, W.:
Ueber das hydroskopische Gewebe des Compositenpappus. (In Russian.)
Kazan, 1894.
TatsELton-Dyrr, Sir W. T.:
Geographical Distribution of Plants. Jn Darwin and Modern Science, edited
by A. C. Seward, pp. 298-818. Cambridge, 1909.
THURET, GUSTAVE:
Hixpériences sur les graines des diverses espéces plongées dans l’eau de mer.
Bibl. Univ. et Revue Suisse (Genéve), N.P., xlvii, pp. 177-194. 1873.
Tra, J. W. H.:
Florula of a piece of waste ground near Aberdeen. Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist.,
V, pp. 231-245, 1896; vi, pp. 24-31, 237-245, 1897; viii, pp. 221-280,
1899.
Trevs, M.:
Notice sur la nouvelle flore de Krakatau. Ann.du Jardin Bot. de Buitenzorg,
vii, pp. 218-223. 1888.
Utes, E.:
Verschiedenes tiber den Hinfluss der Thiere auf das Pflanzenleben. Ber.
Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xviii, pp. 122-130. 1900.
VoeteEr, Paut :
Uber die Verbreitungsmittel der schweizerischen Alpenpflanzen. Flora,
Ixxxix, pp. 1-187. 1901. (Bibliography.)
Wie weit kénnen Samen durch Luftstromungen getragen werden? Naturw.
Wochenschr. (Jena), xviii, pp. 187-9. 1902.
Wattace, Aurrep Russet :
The Geographical Distribution of Animals, i-ii. London. 1876.
Island Life. 2nded. London, Macmillan, 1892.

Warmine, EH. :
Uber Grénlands Vegetation. Englers Bot. Jahrbiicher, x, pp. 364-409.

1888-1889.
Oecology of Plants . . .. English edition by Percy Groom and J. Bayley
Balfour. Oxford, 1909. (Hatensive bibliography.)

O 10

R.1,A, PROC., VOL, XXXI,

10 106 Proceedings of the Reyal Irish Academy.

Watson, H. C.:
Cybele Britannica, vol iv, pp. 65-125. London, 1859.

~Westett, W. Prerctvat:
The Vitality of Seeds. Irish Nat., xiv, pp. 40-41. 1905.

Wild Flowers in the Strand. Journal of Horticulture, lv, p. 122. 8 Aug., 1907.

Woe, Sir W. R.:
A descriptive catalogue of the antiquities of stone, earthen, and vegetable
materials in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Dublin, 1857.

Wuus, J. C., and Il. H. Burrm:
Observations on the Flora of the Pollard Willows near Cambridge. Proc.

Cambridge Phil. Soc., viii, pp. 82-91. (1893), 1895.
Woop-Marrin, W.G.:
The lake dwellings of Ireland: or ancient lacustrine habitations of Erin,
commonly called crannogs. Dublin, 1886.

WooprurFre-Pracoor, BK. A.:
Nativesand Aliens. Journ. Bot., xlvi, pp. 840-846. 1908.

Worsbetu, W. C.:
How plants scatter their seeds. Gardener’s Chronicle (8), xxxiv, pp. 54,
86-7, 101-2. 1903.
Zeveny, J., and L. W. McKernan :
An Experimental Determination of the Termcal Velocity of Fall of Small
Spheres in Air. [Paper read before the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement
of Science.] Abstract in Science, N.S., xxix, p. 469, 19 March, 1909.
The Terminal Velocity of Fall of Small Spheres in Air. Nature, Ixxxii,
p. 158. 9 Dec., 1909.
The Terminal Velocity of Fall of Small Spheres in Air. Brit. Assoc.
Report for 1909, pp. 407-408. 1910.

Zugvigel als Planzenyerbreiter. Osterr. Forst- und Jagdzeitung, xxi., p. 140.
1903.

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia.

10 107

8. INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES.

REFERRED TO ELSEWHERE THAN IN THE GENERAL LIST ON PP. 25-27.

The nomenclature used is that of ‘‘ Cybele Hibernica,’ 1898, and “ Irish
Topographical Botany,” 1901.

Acer Pseudo-platanus, 43, 77,
79
Achillea Millefolium, 42
Ptarmica, 42, 43
Aegopodium Podagraria, 6, 44)
47
Aethusa Cynapium, 8
Agrimonia Eupatoria, 8
Agropyron junceum, 7, 8, 15
repens, 53
Agrostis alba, 42
canina, 6
vulgaris, 42
Aira praecox, 17, 18
Ajuga reptans, 6, 21
Alchemilla arvensis, 8, 46
vulgaris, 6, 28
Alisma Plantago, 6
ranunculoides, 6, 14
Allium Babingtonii, 6, 44
Alnus glutinosa, 10, 43, 88
Alopecurus agrestis, 50, 41
geniculatus, 6
pratensis, 10, 50, 41
Alyssum calycinum, 49, 50, 51,
52
Amanitopsis vaginata, 71
Amaranthus, 51, 52
Anagallis arvensis, 46, 54
tenella, 17, 18, 19,21, 42, 43
Andromeda Polifolia, 20
Anemone nemorosa, 6, 21, 23
Pulsatilla, 64
Angelica sylvestris, 16, 23, 24,
42, 77
Antennaria dioica, 4
Iargaritacea, 44
Anthoxanthum odoratum,
43, 49, 50, 53
Anthemis, 63
arvensis, 49, 50
Cotula, 52
Anthyllis Vulneraria, 4
Anthriscus sylvestris, 7
Apium inundatum, 7
Arabis ciliata, 8, 9

22,

Arctium minus, 78
Newbouldii, 16, 45
Arenaria peploides, 15, 16, 62
serpyllifolia, 8, 78
verna, 78

Armeria maritima, 12, 13, 17;

24, 77

Arthenatherum ayenaceum, 42,

49, 53
Artemisia Abrotanum, 44
vulgaris, 47
Arum maculatum, 10, 11
Asperula odorata, 10, 11, 89
Aspidium aculeatum, 6
angulare, 6, 21
Lonchitis, 3, 6, 23, 31, 44
Asplenium, 33
Adiantum-nigrum, 21
marinum, 5, 16, 17, 24, 47
Ruta-muraria, 6, 13, 14
Trichomanes, 6, 21
viride, 4, 6, 23, 29
Aster Tripolium, 76
Athyrium Filix-faemina, 16
Atriplex, 13, 15, 53, 87
Babingtonii, 8
hastata, 12
patula, 46, 54

Ballota nigra, 44
Barbarea vulgaris, 10, 49, 50
Bartsia Odontites, 78

viscosa, 8

Bellis perennis, 16, 17, 43, 53,

87
Beta maritima, 12, 16, 44
Betula pubescens, 8, 19, 21

Bidens cernua, 10, 11, 44, 88,

89
tripartita, 7, 45
Blechnum Spicant, 16
Botrychium Lunaria, 8
Brassica, 53, 84
alba, 41, 46
nigra, 8

Brassica Rapa, 41, 46, 78, 79
Sinapis, 41, 46, 53, 85, 93
Briza media, 10
Bromus asper, 78
commutatus, 47
giganteus, 10, 11
mollis, 16, 47, 49, 50,51, 53

Cakile maritima, 8
Calamagrostis Epigejos, 4, 8
Calamintha Acinos, 49, 50
Callitriche hamulata, 7
verna, 8
Calluna vulgaris, 13, 17, 20, 21,
22, 41, 43, 78, 91
Calystegia sepium, 41, 47
Campanula rotundifolia, 7, 23
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 46, 78,
87
Cardamine hirsuta, 8
pratensis, 28
Carduus nutans, 4, 29
pycnocephalus, 76
Carex, 51, 82, 84
ampullacea, 7, 19
arenaria, 7, 8, 16
binervis, 22
dioica, 4
distans, 17
disticha, 10
flava, 43, 78
glauca, 4, 17, 21, 23, 43, 73
hirta, 10, 11
Hornschuchiana, 8
limosa, 5, 20, 44
Oederi, 17, 18, 31
ovalis, 52, 53
paniculata, 8, 21
pilulifera, 8, 22
remota, 10, 11, 89
sylvatica, 6, 21
vulgaris, 13
vulpina, 78
Carlina vulgaris, 7, 76
Catabrosa aquatica, 8

02

10 108

Centaurea, 53
nigra, 42
Scabiosa, 8, 9
Centunculus minimus, 6
Cephalanthera ensifolia, 3, 6, 16,
30
Cerastium glomeratum, 37, 87
tetrandrum, 17
triviale, 17, 18, 238, 42, 49,
50, 58, 87
Ceratophyllum demersum, 4
Ceterach officinarum, 8, 9
Chenopodium album, 46. 49, 51
Chrysanthemum Leucanthe-
mum, 52, 53
segetum, 46
Chrysospienium oppositifolium,
8, 21
Circaea lutetiana, 8, 47
Cladonia, 22
Clematis Vitalba, 69, 76, 79
Cnicus arvensis, 13, 47, 68, 77
lanceolatus, 13, 42, 47, 68,
76
palustris, 16
pratensis, 19, 43
Cochlearia groenlandica, 3, 5, 28
officinalis, 12, 13, 17, 24
Conium maculatum, 7, 47, 54
Conopodium denudatum, 19
Conyolvyulus arvensis, 4, 7
Corylus Avellana, 8, 19, 21
Cotyledon Umbilicus, 8, 47
Crataegus Oxyacantha, 7, 10,
43, 84
Crepis biennis, 77
paludosa, 10, 11, 77, 89
taraxacifolia, 77
virens, 47, 55
Crithmum maritimum, 16, 17,
44, 62
Cuscuta Trifolii, 49, 50, 51
Cynodon Dactylon, 52
Cynosurus cristatus, 16, 17, 42,
43, 50
Cystopteris fragilis, 3, 6, 23, 31
Cytisus scoparius, 10

Dabeocia polifolia, 78

Dactylis glomerata, 51, 78

Daucus Carota, 16, 42, 87

Deschampsia caespitosa, 8,51, 78

Dicranum majus, 23

Digitalis purpurea, 6, 42, 59

Digitaria ciliaris, 49, 50
filiformis, 49, 50
sanguinale, 49, 50

Drosera anglica, 7, 20, 44
intermedia, 7
rotundifolia, 20, 22

Dryas octopetala, 64, 69, 76

Eclipta, 63
Elatine hexandra, 8
Eleocharis multicaulis, 20
palustris, 19, 52
Elephantopus, 63
Empetrum nigrum, 4, 16, 22, 86
Epilobium, 64, 68, 75, 79
angustifolium, 67
hirsutum, 10, 11, 76, 89
montanum, 76, 79, 91
obscurum, 42, 87
Epipactis palustris, 76, 78
Equisetum limosum, 19
maximum, 6, 19
palustre, 8
sylyaticum, 10, 11, 89
Erica, 91
cinerea, 20, 21, 22, 78
mediterranea, 3, 4, 6, 16, 30
Tetralix, 13, 20, 21, 22, 78
Erigeron acre, 76
canadense, 63
Eriocaulon septangulare, 8
Eriophorum, 20, 75
angustifolium, 22, 23, 77,79
vaginatum, 7, 22
Erodium cicutarium, 8
Erophila vulgaris, 10, 11, 78,
89
Eryngium maritimum, 8
Erysimum cheiranthoides, 49,
50
Erythraea Centaureum, 17, 42
Euonymus europaeus, 9
Eupatorium cannabinum, 6, 16,
76
Euphorbia Heliosvopia, 41, 46
hiberna, 4, 7
Peplus, 46
Preslii, 52
Euphrasia officinalis, 16, 17, 18,
22, 30, 42

Festuca elatior, 8

ovina, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21,
22, 40, 54

pratensis, 51
rottboellioides, 5, 16
rubra, 42, 54
sciuroides, 49, 50

Filago germanica, 6

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Fragaria vesca, 21, 58
Fraxinus excelsior, 6, 21, 43, 64,
77, 79
Fuchsia Riccartoni, 43
Fumaria, 36, 41
confusa, 28, 46
pallidifiora, 6

Galinsoga parviflora, 63
Galium, 49, 50
Aparine, 53, 85
palustre, 19
saxatile, 18, 22, 43
Galeopsis Tetrahit, 46
Geranium, 58
dissectum, 46
molle, 16, 49
Geum rivale, 6, 21, 23
urbanum, 10, 11, 89
Glaux maritima, 16
Glyceria festucaeformis, 78
maritima, 6, 13, 14
plicata, 8
Gnaphalium sylvaticum, 6
Griselinia littoralis, 43

Habenaria bifolia, 10, 89
conopsea, 71, 78
Viridis, 8
Helianthemum guttatum, 4, 6
Heracleum Sphondylium, 42, 53,
64, 69, 77
Hieracium anglicum, 6, 23, 30
boreale, 77
hypochaeroides, 4, 6, 30
Pilosella, 17, 63
umbellatum, 77
Hippophaé rhamnoides, 43
Hippuris vulgaris, 10, 11
Holcus lanatus, 17, 42, 47, 49,
54, 87
mollis, 7, 53
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 17, 20, 42
Hylocomium loreum, 23
proliferum, 23
Hymenophyllum unilaterale, 7,
23, 24, 31
Hypericum, 79
elodes, 20
hirsutum, 78
humifusum, 42
pulchrum, 23, 28, 78
Hypochaeris radicata, 17, 49, 50,
52, 53, 77, 87

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia.

Tlex Aquifolium, 8, 19, 21
Inula crithmoides, 76
Helenium, 8
salicina, 76
Tris Pseud-acorus, 18
Isoetes echinospora, 8
lacustris, 7

Jasione montana, 16, 18, 21,23,
78

Juncus, 20, 54, 64, 79
balticus, 78
bufonins, 42, 54
conglomeratus, 8
effusus, 19, 42, 78, 87
Gerardi, 16
glaucus, 10, 78
lamprocarpus, 43
maritimus, 13
obtusiflorus, 4, 6, 16
squarrosus, 21, 22
supinus, 20, 42

Juniperus nana, 3, 4, 5, 30

Koeleria cristata, 17

Lactuca virosa, 77
Lamium hybridum, 41, 46
intermedium, 5, 41, 46
purpureum, 46
Lapsana communis, 47, 52, 53,
54, 63
Lastrea aemula, 4, 5, 16, 19, 21,
24
dilatata, 19, 23
Filix-mas, 19
Latbyrus pratensis, 78, 79
Lavatera arborea, 44
Lemna minor, 7, 14, 45
Leontodon autumnalis, 16, 30,
42, 52, 77
hirtus, 4, 16, 43, 77
Ligustrum, 43
Linaria Cymbalaria, 10, 11
Listera cordata, 6, 22
ovata, 8, 16, 30
Littorella lacustris, 20
Lobelia Dortmanna, 3, 6, 7
Lolium italicum, 51
perenne, 46, 51
temulentum, 6
Lonicera Periclymenum, 19
Lotus corniculatus, 16,17, 42, 43
uliginosus, 6, 19

Luzula campestris, 7, 18, 43, 53
maxima, 21, 22
Lychnis, 36
diurna, 4, 8, 21, 24, 28, 44
vespertina, 49,50, 51, 52, 93
Lycoperdon, 70
bovista, 71
Lycopodium, 70, 71
inundatum, 8
Selago, 8
Lycopus europaeus, 51, 52
Lythrum Salicaria, 18, 19, 42

Malva rotundifolia, 8
sylvestris, 8
Marrubium vulgare, 44
Matricaria discoidea, 5, 29, 37,
47, 63, 78
inodora, 42, 49
Medicago lupulina, 10, 11
Melampyrum pratense, 10, 11
Mentha, 44
arvensis, 8, 47
Menyanthes trifoliata, 19, 20
Mnium hornum, 18, 24, 31
Molinia caerulea, 21
Montia fontana, 28
Myosotis, 49, 53
repens, 5, 20
versicolor, 6
Myrica Gale, 7, 19, 20

Nardus stricta, 21, 43

Narthecium ossifragum, 22, 23,
77, 79

Nepeta Glechoma, 10, 11

Nitella translucens, 20, 44

Nuphar luteum, 7, 19

Nymphaea alba, 6, 20

Oenothera, 51, 52
Ophioglossum yulgatum, 5, 17
Ophrys apifera, 8, 9
Orchis incarnata, 78
maculata, 22, 23
mascula, 8, 21, 44
pyramidalis, 10
Orobanche, 64
Hederae, 78
minor, 78
rubra, 3, 6, 30
Osmunda regalis, 4, 5, 18, 31
Oxalis Acetosella, 19, 238
Oxyria digyna, 4, 6, 23, 24, 44

10 109

Panicum dichotomum, 52
Papaver, 36, 41, 71
dubium, 78
somniferum, 44, 49
Parnassia palustris, 71, 78
Pastinaca sativa, 77
Pedicularis palustris, 7
Peplis Portula, 7
Petasites officinalis, 10
Phalaris arundinacea, 6
Phleum pratense, 7, 49, 50, 51
Phragmites communis, 13, 19
Pinguicula lusitanica, 5
vulgaris, 22, 23, 43
Polygala vulgaris, 8
Pinus sylvestris, 40, 64, 69, 77,
79
Plantago Coronopus, 16, 17, 18
lanceolata, 16, 17, 18, 42,
49, 50, 52, 53
major, 16, 47, 49, 87
maritima, 16, 17, 18, 43
media, 49, 50, 52
Rugelii, 49, 50, 51, 52
Poa, 52
annua, 37, 47, 87
pratensis, 16, 42
trivialis, 49
Polygala depressa, 17, 22
vulgaris, 23, 28
Polygonum, 42, 84, 85
amphibium, 7
aviculare, 42, 49, 54
Convolvulus, 41, 46, 50, 51
Hydropiper, 41, 42, 53
lapathifolium, 6, 46,
54
Persicaria, 41, 46, 49, 51,
54, 87
Raii, 7, 8
Polytrichum, 70
Populus canadensis, 43
nigra, 43
tremula, 6, 7
Potamogeton, 83, 84
natans, 19
pectinatus, 8, 14
perfoliatus, 10, 11, 89
pusillus, 7, 14
Potentilla, 51, 52
Anserina, 16, 42
Fragariastrum, 6, 21
palustris, 19, 20
procumbens, 7
reptans, 8
Tormentilla, 17, 18, 21, 22,
23, 42, 43
Primula vulgaris, 16, 19, 23

53,

10 110

Prunella vulgaris, 16, 17, 42,
43, 49, 52, 53, 87
Prunus Cerasus, 43
spinosa, 2]
Psalliota campestris, 71
Psamma arenaria, 8
Pteris Aquilina, 41, 42, 58
Pulicaria dysenterica, 4, 7, 76
Pyrus Aucuparia, 7, 19, 21, 438
Malus, 8, 10, 29

Quercus, 85
sessiliflora, 6, 19, 21

Racomitrium lanuginosum, 22
Radiola linoides, 5, 17, 18, 78
Ranunculus acris, 23, 45, 49,
50, 87

Baudotii, 8, 14

bulbosus, 8, 50

Ficaria, 19

hederaceus, 7

repens, 19, 42, 43

trichophyllus, 8
Raphanus maritimus, 8

Raphanistrum, 7, 46
Reseda Luteola, 10, 11
Rhinanthus Crista-galli, 30, 42,

53, 77

Rhynchospora alba, 7, 20
Ribes, 85

Grossularia, 43

sanguineum, 43
Rosa, 84

tomentosa, 10, 89
Rubus, 19, 41, 58

Borreri, 7

carpinifolius, 8

dumnoniensis, 6

dunensis, 8

erythrinus, 7

Idaeus, 10, 89

iricus, 8, 28

Lettii, 28

mollissimus, 8

plicatus, 6, 28

pulcherrimus, 8, 28

rusticanus, 28

saxatilis, 6, 23

Selmeri, 28

villicaulis, 8
Rudbeckia hirta, 51, 52
Rumex, 79, 85

Acetosa, 22, 42, 53

Acetosella, 42, 49, 50, 51,

52, 87

Rumex conglomeratus, 7,
11, 47
crispus, 42, 77
nemorosus, 10, 11, 77
obtusifolius, 42,49, 54, 77
Ruppia rostellata, 8, 14

10,

Sagina apetala, 10, 11, 89
nodosa, 16
procumbens, 17, 18, 42, 43,
78, 87
subulata, 28
Salicornia herbacea, 10, 11
Salix, 65, 75, 79
aurita, 16, 19, 20, 23, 77
Cuprea, 10, 89
cinerea, 19, 29
herbacea, 3, 6, 23, 30, 44
pentandra, 43, 77
repens, 13, 21, 43, 77
Smithiana, 43
viminalis, 43
Salsola Kali, 7, 8, 15, 16
Salvia, 44
Sambucus nigra, 43, 47
Samolus Valerandi, 78
Sanicula europaea, 6, 19
Saussurea alpina, 6, 23, 29, 44
Saxifraga decipiens, 4, 6, 16, 23,
24, 29
Geum, 3, 4, 6, 23, 29, 87
oppositifolia, 4, 6, 23, 29, 44
umbrosa, 3, 4, 5, 16, 21, 23,
24, 29
Scabiosa arvensis, 10
Succisa, 17, 43
Schaenus nigricans, 13
Scilla nutans, 6, 19
verna, 78, 79
Scirpus caespitosus, 6, 20, 22
maritimus, 7, 16
pauciflorus, 8
setaceus, 8, 42
Scolopendrium vulgare, 8, 21
Scrophularia aquatica, 7
nodosa, 10, 78
yernalis, 52
Scutellaria minor, 8
Sedum acre, 7, 8, 16
anglicum, 16, 18, 21, 24
Rhodiola, 3, 5, 23, 24, 29, 44
Telephium, 44
Selaginella selaginoides, 5, 23?
Senebiera Coronopus, 46
didyma, 8
Senecio, 63
aquaticus, 9, 42, 43, 45

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Senecio Jacobaea, 9, 16, 42, 45,
76
sylvaticus, 7, 76
vulgaris, 42, 46, 76, 87
Setaria glauca, 49, 50
viridis, 49, 50
Silene, 36, 53
acaulis, 4,6, 23, 24, 28, 31,
87
Cucubalus, 10, 51, 52
maritima, 17, 24
noctiflora, 49, 50
Sisymbrium officinale, 7, 41, 46,
52
Sophia, 59, 78
Sium angustifolium, 10, 11, 88
Sherardia arvensis, 7, 50
Smyrnium Olusatrum, 10
Solidago Virgaurea, 22, 76
Sonchus, 68
asper, 13, 42, 46, 50, 54
oleraceus, 54, 77
Sparganium, 83, 84
affine, 5
minimum, §
ramosum, 7, 14, 19, 63
simplex, 10, 11, 88
Spergula arvensis, 28, 41, 42, 46,
49, 53
Spergularia rupestris, 4, 12, 13,
16, 17, 47
salina, 7, 17
Sphagnum, 22, 23
Spiraea Ulmaria, 18
Stachys arvensis, 41, 46
palustris, 42
sylvatica, 21
Stellaria graminea, 49
media, 13, 37, 42, 46, 49,
52, 58, 54
Stenactis bellidifiora, 63
Suaeda maritima, 10, 11
Symphytum officinale, 7, 47

Tanacetum yulgare, 8, 44
Taraxacum, 68

officinale, 16, 30, 68, 71, 77
Thymus Chamaedrys, 4, 30

Serpyllum, 16, 17, 21, 23, 30
Tragopogon pratensis, 77
Trifolium, 36

agrarium, 49, 50

arvense, 4, 7, 64, 76, 79

dubium, 41, 42, 43,46

hybridum, 51

medium, 6

pratense, 16, 42, 48, 51

Clare Island Survey—Phanerogamia. 10 111

Trifolium procumbens, 6, 49, Utricularia intermedia, 7, 21 Veronica scutellata, 7
50, 53 minor, 20 Tournefortii, 7, 41, 46
repens, 16, 17, 42, 48, 49, Viburnum Opulus, 10, 89
51, 87 Vicia angustifolia, 8
Triodia decumbens, 13, 17 Vaccinium Myrtillns, 7, 22, 58 Cracea, 19
Tussilago Farfara, 4 Valeriana sambucifolia, 8 Faba, 81
Typha latifolia, 10, 11,63, 77, Valerianella, 36, 41 hirsuta, 7, 47
79, 89 Verbascum Thapsus, 78 sativa, 46
Verbena, 52 Viola, 49, 58
Veronica, 43 arvensis, 6, 16, 47, 78
agrestis, 41, 46 canina, 6
Ulex europaeus, 7, 21, 45 Anagallis, 8 palustris, 20
Ulmus, 64 arvensis, 47, 87 Riviniana, 16,17, 19, 23, 24
montana, 69, 77, 79 Chamaedrys, 87
Urtica dioica, 13, 47 officinalis, 6
urens, 46 polita, 41, 46 Zostera marina, 8

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Puate I.

Looking west along the Croaghmore scarp, from near the east end. The
“1,200-foot path” is seen traversing the middle of the picture. The steep
slope which it crosses is grassy, with much Stlene acaulis and Saxifraga
decipiens. The base of the rocks above the path is clothed with great bosses
of Silene acaulis and Hymenophyllum unilaterale plus Mnium hornum. The
rocks above are hung with Sawifraga umbrosa, Sedum Rhodiola, Hieraciwm
anglicum, H. hypochaeroides, Oxyria digyna, &c. The numerous bosses of
vegetation near the top of the picture are formed mainly of grasses and Silene
acaulis. Photographed June, 1910.

IPAS IL,

Vegetation map of Clare Island.

Puate ITI.

Plantago sward. Fig. 1 shows the muaritima-type, the vegetation consist-
ing of at least 75 per cent. of P. maritima, with reflexed leaves about 1 inch
long.

Fig. 2 illustrates a type in which P. Coronopus is about as abundant as
P. maritima, and Festuca ovina forms a noticeable ingredient. Both
photographs were taken near Beetle Head, at the west end of Clare Island,
Photographed June, 1910.

10 112 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Puate LY.

Fig. 1.—The wood at Portlea is the best developed piece of woodland
remaining on Clare Island. Betula pubescens is predominant, one old tree
attaining a height of 10 feet. The other trees and the shade plants which
occur are listed on pp. 19-20. The boulder-beach of Portlea appears in the
middle distance, with drift-capped cliffs of Carboniferous sandstone beyond.
Photographed September, 1909.

Fig. 2.—Shows the luxuriance of vegetation where shelter from wind is
afforded.. The spot where this photograph was taken lies close to the lower
left-hand corner of fig. 1. Photographed June, 1910.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1.—The only habitat of Brica mediterranea on Clare Island is a slope
of Boulder-clay facing north-east and dropping to the sea, near Portlea. No
peat is present in the soil. Frequent slips of the material occur after rains,
destroying many plants. Cephalanthera ensifolia and Listera ovata have their
only island station close by. Fora note of the insects which fertilize the
flowers of H, mediterranea here, see p. 30. Photographed June, 1910.

Fig. 2.—Silene acaulis at 1,200 feet on Croaghmore. The blossoms are
being devoured by Avion ater, which swarms on the cliff. Photographed
June, 1910.

Puate VI.

Fig. 1.—Characteristic bosses of Silene acaulis, and of Hymenophyllum
unilaterale plus Mnium hornum, at 1,200 feet on Croaghmore. Saxifraga
umbrosa near the top of the picture. Photographed June, 1910.

Fig. 2.—Saxifraga decipiens at 1,000 feet on Croaghmore. A strong young
plant, colonizing rock laid bare by a recent fall. Photographed June, 1910.

Proc. R. I. Acab., VoL. XXXI. Part to, PLATE II,

BRE Sctenarsw.
= Plantago-sward.
ES nanrat Grass-land.

of
Woodland, *

i : . ‘| Calluma formation.

gorse

a)

Vegetation Map of Clare Island.

Crank ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER : PHANEROGAMIA.

Part 10, Pyate III.

Proc. R.I.Acap., VoL. XXXI

I felch, Photo.

R.

Vig.

Fig.

Types of Plantago Sward.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY,—PRAEGER: PHANEROGAMIA.

Proc. R.I.AcAp., VoL. XXXI. Part to, Prate IV.

Fig. 1. The‘: Wood" at Portlea. Trees 6 to ro feet high. R. Welch, Photo,

Fig. 2. Osmunda regalis near Portlea, 6 feet high. R. Welch, Photo.

Crare IstanpD SURVEY.—PRAEGER: PHANEROGAMIA.

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Lend
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ca

Proc. R.I.Acap., VoL. XXXI. PART to, PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Erica mediterranea on Boulder-clay, near Portlea R. Welch, Photo.

hes a
aR WAS:

Fig. 2. Silene acaulis on Croaghmore, 1,200 feet. R. Welch, Photo.

CxLarRE ISLAND SURVEY.—PRAEGER : PHANEROGAMIA.

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Clare Island Survey.

11-12.
MUSCI AND HEPATICAE.
By EL W. LEDT.

Read January 22. Published Ferrvary 22, 1912.

CONTENTS.
PAGE | PAGE
1. The Area, : : ‘ ‘ 1 H 4, Origin of the Flora, 3 A 8
2. Field-work, 5 5. List of the Flora, . 5 : 9
3. The Flora, 6- | 6. Bibliography, . 5 an (|

1. THE AREA.

[To avoid a repetition of the introduction of the description of the area, which
concerns alike the Mosses and the Hepatics, the reports on these two groups
have been run into one.

It is to be noted that, for the sake of distinction, Achill Island and the
peninsula of Curraun Achill, which are separated from each other by a very
narrow strait, are spoken of in this report as constituting a part of the
mainland. “The island” invariably means Clare Island.]

The investigation of the Bryophytes has been carried out over the whole of
Clare Island, and on the mainland from Achill Head by Curraun, Mulranny,
Newport, Westport, Croaghpatrick, and Louisburgh, to Roonagh.

There are no glens on Clare Island; and the surface is, as a rule, greatly
exposed. The wide southern slopes of Croaghmore have a peaty soil, which
supports Calluna, Juncus, and some patches of Sphagnum, but few Mosses or
Hepatics. The difficulty of the great northern cliffs of Croaghmore, owing to
their precipitous character, renders them inaccessible except along a couple
of sheep-tracks, where, however, collections were made. There are four
streamlets on the landward slopes; the reaches of these next their sources
are remarkably poor in Mosses and Hepatics; and it is only along the
portions at a low elevation near their discharge into the sea that any Mosses
or Hepatics occur, and there only in well-sheltered nooks and corners. The
rain when it falls is quickly carried off by these little channels, which, for

R.I.A, PROC., VOI. XXXI. A 11-12

11-12 2 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

the time, become miniature torrents, and sweep their margins clear of every
ereen thing,

When the prevailing wind from the west is blowing, all places in the lee
of the towering mass of Croaghmore are in comparative shelter. It is quite
easy to mark out this sheltered region on the map of the island; it extends
from a spot north-west of Creggan Lough to Portlea. Take the one-inch
Ordnance map of Clare Island. latest edition, place a finger on the letter “E”
of the name, and draw the finger to the right to the word “ Portlea” on the
east, and if your finger has been rubbed with moist peat you will roughly
mark on the map a band that is the richest in the island both in species and
quantity of Mosses and especially of Hepatics. The part thus marked starts
with the wettest bit of Clare Island, which hes around and to the N.N.W. of
Creggan Lough, and in it Sphagnaceae are more abundant than elsewhere
on the island.

To the north of the band just described, or between the east shoulder of
Croaghmore and the light-house, there aie several low hills which run in
ridges north-west to south-east, and which have small valleys or ravines
between them. These depressions also are well sheltered, and in places are
partially shaded; but our plants do not abound in them, owing to the cutting
away of the peat-surface for fuel during a long series of years, the traces of
which are very evident.

However, in the depression nearest to Croaghmore, and due east of it,
which, moreover, is the widest of these depressions, and where the peat is
still very deep, the faces of the banks left by the peat-cutters which face
north-east, when they have been undisturbed for a few years, become over-
grown with a profusion of Mosses and Hepatics. And along the streamlet
that drains this part, just below where it crosses the road at the houses of
Ballytoohy, there are many well-sheltered nooks and corners along both
banks, and especially near a pretty little waterfall, that yielded quite a
number of species.

There is a large amount of rock-surface, exclusive of the inaccessible cliffs
and the rocks close to the sea; but it supports very few Mosses. The
saxicolous species, contrary to what might be expected, are very scarce. The
Congested Districts Board in dividing—or, as the natives call it, “striping ”—
the land into new denominations by the erection of stone walls for fences,
have not yet increased the growth of Mosses and Hepatics on these
boundaries. Perhaps the future botanist may one day find them covered
with these plants. The only locality on the island where at present they
grow in any quantity on rocks is on the steep east and north-east faces of
Knocknayveen, the highest point of which is 729 feet.

Cure Island Survey—Musci and Hepaticae. WIth &

The absence of Mosses and Hepatics from what would appear to be
suitable habitats cannot be accounted for by the atmosphere of the island
being charged with salt during gales from the west, for several Mosses were
noticed, the most frequent of which was Mniwm hornwm, which is found
everywhere on the island, from sea-level to the top of Croaghmore, the
discoloured but flourishing foliage of which, deeply tinged with a tawny
hue, gives evidence of the harmless effect of the salt on its tissues.

At the extreme west end of the island, near the Signal Tower, there is a
small morass, which must be in an atmosphere impregnated with salt, and
south of this station, but much lower down, at Toormore, are some vertical
rocks, facing north, which also are under the influence of the salt in the air,
and in both spots there are several species, and some of them very delicate
forms, which yet are none the worse of it.

Searches round the several small loughs were disappointing. Lough
Avullin, now only half its former size, owing to the deepening of its outflow,
has muddy shores, thickly set with rushes and grasses, where neither a
Moss nor a Hepatic was found. Creggan Lough has a neighbourhood
abounding in various species of Sphagnum, and this locality may be set
down as the head-quarters of the Sphagnaceae on the island. Several small
Hepaties were also found on the shore of this lough. The shores of Lough
Leinapolbauty and Lough Merrignagh, which are close by Creggan Lough, on
the east side of the road, are occupied with wide mats of Sphagnum and
Polytrichum commune, among which some Hypnuwm revolvens occurs. Lough-
na-phuea is near the west extremity of the island, and about 200 yards from
the sea. It is very small, and is barren of Mosses and Hepatics.

No arboreal species of either class was met with on the island, there
being very few trees. A few poplars, &c., have been recently planted here
and there, and there are a few thickets composed of bushes of Ulex, Corylus,
and Salix on a steep bank between Lough Avullin and Knocknaveen. Four
species were found on the stems of these last, but they were not, strictly
speaking, arboreal. And along a streamlet that falls into the sea at Portlea,
there is an ancient shrubbery of Betula, Salix, Corylus, &c., with a solitary
Quercus, on the stems and branches of which several Mosses and Hepatics
grow. These there is reason to regard as the survivors of the Mosses and
Hepatics that abounded on the trees and ground of the primeval forest, the
bleached stumps of which stud the ground near Maum and other places, and
conjure up the idea of what a congenial habitat their presence formerly
provided for our little plants. The bryophytic flora of the island has been
considerably changed with the cessation of the forest growth on it. And
there can be no doubt that a number of species which originally flourished on

A 2

11-12 4 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

the island are no longer to be found on it. The few descendants of some of
the trees of the forest that now struggle for existence in the little glen near
Portlea are the only representatives of what existed under the original con-
ditions on the island, and the associated Mosses and Hepatics, some of which
were not collected elsewhere on the island, are the scanty survivors of plants
that formerly occupied every nook and cranny that then were sheltered by
the forest, but now le exposed to every storm and hurricane. The obvious
conclusion is that decay and recession have been at work amongst the species
of Mosses and Hepatics on the island, consequent on the degeneration and
cessation of the forest growth.

The large number of our plants that have been found on the nearest
portions of the mainland, but which have not been met with on the island,
have survived there, while the same have been no longer able to continue
their existence on the island owing to the change of the environment. The
only associates of the forest growth that now survive on the sites of the
forests are a few Sphagnaceae.

The irregular summit of Knocknaveen has for a long time been, and still
is, used by the inhabitants for peat-cutting, and consequently has not many
of our plants, the principal being several species of Sphagnum, Hypnum, and
Polytrichum,

On the sands on Achill Island, at the mouth of Achill Sound, and at
Mulranny, several interesting species were gathered. There is only one
small bit of sandy shore on the island. It is north of the harbour and
Grania-Uaile’s Castle. In it were found a few arenicolous Mosses. The
sand-dunes near Louisburgh, and some miles to the south-west, have scarcely
any Mosses and no Hepatics on them, all that were observed being Hypnwm
lutescens, Isothecium myosuroides, Tortula ruralis var. arenicola, Stereodon
cupressiforme.

The omnipresence and abundance of peat, the small amount of land under
cultivation, and the frequent occurrence of outcropping rocks would lead a
botanist on a first visit to expect a rarer and richer flora of Bryophytes than
is actually met with on either the island or the neighbouring mainland.

The spots on the mainland where the greatest number of Mosses and
Hepatics were found are:—The east slope of Croaghaun Mountain round
Lough Acorrymore, and the north-east side of Shevemore, along the sharp
ridge which extends from about 500 feet altitude above Dugort village
to the summit at 2200 feet (Mr. Pearson writes of this as “rich collecting
ground”); the wooded steep ground at Glendarary, in Sraheens; and round
Knockacurraun Lough, in the heart of the Curraun peninsula. The neigh-
bourhood of Lough Nakeeroge, which, from its position, would seem an ideal

Olare Island Survey—Musei and Heputicac. 11-12 5

abode for Bryophytes, has, strange to say, very few of them. Round this
lough the ground is much shaded by the cliffs from the direct rays of the sun,
the air is moist, and there is shelter from stormy winds; these are data which
generally determine where Mosses and Hepatics will establish themselves
and flourish, but they avoid this spot.

In the centre of the Curraun peninsula lies the beautifully situated Lough
Knockacurraun at an elevation of 600 feet above sea-level; on all sides but
one it is surrounded by hills that reach 1000 feet higher. And here along the
west and south margins of the lough the stones and rocks are covered with a
profusion of Mosses and Hepatics, several of which are rare. ‘These grow at
the edge of the water, which in summer and winter alike is always at the same
level, and they are except for a few hours about midday out of sunshine, and
at the same time are perfectly sheltered from any wind.

One of these plants, Radula lindbergii, which is a new record for Ireland,
was also found on the island at Toormore in a spot very different from its

peaceful habitat here in Curraun.

2. FIELD-WORK.

Previous to this survey no bryologist is known to have visited Clare Island,
while the only portion of the mainland included in the area which had been
worked for Mosses and Hepatics was Achill Island, which, from 1901 to 1908,
had been examined with fairly satisfactory results. The visits, the results of

which are herein scheduled, were—

H. W. Lett— Achill Island, 1901-8, 6 weeks.
_ do. 1909, 1 week.
.; do. 1910, 1 week.
Westport and Louisburgh, 1910, 2 weeks.
.s Clare Island, 1909, 2 weeks.
do. 1910, 1 week.
W. H. Pearson—<Achill and Curraun, 1909, 2 days.
5 Newport, 1909, 1 day.
D. MeArdle— = Achill, 1909, 1 day.
a. Clare Island, 1909, 5 days.
3 Louisburgh, 1909, 2 days.
C. H. Waddell— Westport, 1909, 6 days.
Croaghpatrick, IOO, I clay.

Achill, 1909, 1 day.

11-12 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

D. A. Jones \

‘ . ae Achili Tsland, 1911, 1 week.
8. J. Owen
Rk. Ll. Praeger— Croaghmore, .
Croaghpatrick, On seven) occasions
p Westport, \ during the survey.

The numbers of species and varieties collected by each of those who took
part in the field-work were as follows :—

Mosses. Hepatics.
lal, We JUG. 5 3 : 220 : ‘ 115
W. H. Pearson, 5 : ; 0 : : 54
D. M‘Ardle, . 4 ; : 82 i : 48
C. H. Waddell, 5 ; : yl ; 5 52
D. A. Jones & Co., . 5 5 119 : , 81
R. Ll. Praeger, 5 : 5 45 : : 28

In the identification of species much valuable assistance was rendered by
Messrs. H. N. Dixon, W. Ingham, J. A. Wheldon, W. H. Pearson, and

S. M. MaeVicar.
3. THE FLORA.

The numbers of species that were found during the survey are distributed
as follows :—

Mosses. Hepatics.
Found only on Clare Island, . ‘ 20 ; ; 16
2 5 the mainland, . ; 71 : f 37
» on both island and mainland, 130 , 5 74
Yotal found on island, . j : 150 f : 90
, in the area surveyed, . 221 F ; 127

Seven species of Hepatics, Dilaena flotoviana, Anewa multifida vav.
submersa inajor, Radula lindbergu, Marsupella jorgensenii, Marsupella pearsoni,
Marsupella aquatica, and Cephalozia striatula, collected during the survey,
are new records for Ireland. Scapania nimbosa is a new record for West
Mayo; this plant has been found hitherto in Ireland in only one other
station, viz. Brandon Mountain in South Kerry, where, as also on Slievemore,
it is very scarce. Riccia sorocarpa is also a new record for Mayo, and like
the preceding has been found hitherto in but one Ivish station, near Dingle
in 5. Kerry, and in both localities it is very scarce.

Ke

Clare Island Survey—Musci and Hepaticae. 11-12 7

The Mosses of most frequent occurrence on the island are—Mniwm hornum,
Leucobryum glaucum, Glyphomitrium polyphyllum, Campylopus atrovirens,
Campylopus flecuosus, Campylopus pyriformis, Stereodon ewpresstforme, Isothecwwm
myosuroides (this last plant was much more common than cwpressiforme, whose
place it occupied on stones and at the bottom of fences), Hypnum velutinum,

rrimmvia hypnordes, Acrocladium cuspidatum, Hylocomium squarrosum.

The Hepatics of most frequent occurrence on the island are—Pellia
epiphylla, Frullania tamariset, Scapania resupinata, Lepidozia setacea, Diplo-
phyllum albicans, Metegeria furcata, Jungermania ventricosa, Jungermania
incisa.

On the summit of Croaghmore (1520-1430 feet) the following were

collected amongst the Ling and Juneus squarrosus :—

Sphagnum acutifolium.
Polytrichum urnigerum.
commune,
Caimpylopus flexuosus.
Dicranum scopariu.

var, orthophyllum.

Grimmia hypnoides.
Mnium hornum.
Gymnocybe palustris.
Scapania resupinata.
Kantia trichomanis.
Frullania tamarisci.
Aneura sinuata.

Thuidium tamariscifolium.
Isothecium viviparum.
Plagiothecium undulatum.
Hypnum purum.
Stereodon cupressiforme.
var, ericetorum.

Hylocomium parietinum.

loreum.

squarrosum.

prohferum.
Diplophyllum albicans.
Jungermania ventricosa.

lyoni.

incisa.

On the summit of Slievemore (2204 feet), which is the nearest high
elevation on the mainland, the Mosses and Hepatics found were the

following :—

Grimiia hypnoides.
Gymuocybe palustris.
Dicranum scoparium.
Campylopus pyriforme.
atrovirens.

Ceratodon purpureum.,

Sphagnum rubellum.
Hylocomimn loreun.
parietinum.
proliferum.

squarrosuM,

The first of the above is the prevailing moss on this summit. Mr. Praeger
was misled into stating in his very interesting paper on the Flora of Achill
in the “ Ivish Naturalist ” for November, 1904, that the predominating mosses

11-12 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

on Slievemore summit are Hylocomiwm squarrosum and Antitrichia curti-
pendula, The last-named was not found by Messrs. D. A. Jones and party
in 1911, or by myself in 1908 and 1909, when it was specially looked for on
Slievemore.

Along the ridge up Slievemore, described above, grow Radula aquilegia,
Mastigophora woods, Blepharozia ciliaris, Marsupella jorgensenii, Hylocomiwm
umbratum, Dicranum wneinatum, Dieranum scottii, Dieranum fuscescens,
Scapania ornithopodioides, Scapania nimbosa, and several Lejeunias.

Lejeunias are very scarce on Clare Island, where they seem to be unable
to contend with the climate and environment.

No Gymnomitrium has been found in the area, and only one Andreaea in
very small quantities on Shevemore and near Louisburgh.

On Slievemore Mr. Pearson and H. W. Lett found two great clumps of
Scapania ornithopodioides with which there was scarcely a stem of anything
else mixed; one measured 2 feet by 9 inches, and the other 33 feet by
18 inches, the individual stems being all of luxuriant growth.

The Newport and Westport district, situated on the limestone, and with a
good deal of wood, was disappointing, the arboreal and calcicole species being
remarkable by their absence. MHypnwm crassinerve is the only species of the
latter group that was found, and Ruieccia sorocarpa was collected by
Mr. Praeger at Belclare, near Westport. Kmnockranny wood, along the
stream to the east of Westport, was not more productive.

The plants of Croaghpatrick are few, and nothing rare was found upon it.
In the Louisburgh district the flora is also poor in numbers, and is made up
chietly of what were collected in the wood at Old Head, amongst which was
the rare Radula holtii, which had been collected in 1901, not far off, on Ben-
gorm, in this botanical division, by H. W. Lett.

The Hypnaceae are scarce on the island; and of Marchantia polymorpha
only one colony was seen: it was in a little gully near the sea-shore south of
Knocknaveen.

4, ORIGIN OF THE FLORA.

The few miles which Clare Island is distant from the mainland do not
create any difficulty in holding that the Mosses and Hepatics were all intro-
duced to the island by the wind carrying their spores across the separating
strait. The only introduced species met with in the whole area was Lunwlaria
cruciata, which Mr. Pearson found in abundance on rocks near the quay at
‘ewport, where it is doubtless, as it is in its other Irish habitats, an escape
from some greenhouse in the neighbourhood,

Clare Island Survey—Musei and Hepaticae. 11-12 9

5. LIST OF THE FLORA.

The nomenclature used for the purposes of this paper is that of
Dr. Braithwaite’s Sphagnaceae and his British Moss Flora, and of Lett’s
List of Species of British Hepatics.

In this present list, the names with “I” prefixed are those of plants
collected only on Clare Island, and names with “M” prefixed are those of
plants collected only on the mainland (including Achill as already stated),
The others are those of plants found on both Clare Island and the mainland.

MosszEs.

Sphagnum cymbifolium.

Sphagnum acutifolium,

papillosum. J var. tenellum.
M var. confertum. M gracile.
rigidum. purpureum.
var. compactum. I quinquefarium.
molluscum. fuscum.
subsecundum. luridum.
var. contortum. laetevirens.
obesum. subnitens.
M viride. intermedium.
M squarrosum. I var. pulehrum.
M var. imbricatum. cuspidatum.
acutifolium, I var. faleatum.
var. rubellum. plumosum.

M Andreaea petrophila.

Polytrichum attenuatum.

M roth. gracile.
M var. falcata. commune.
MGeorgia pellucida. Fissidens viridulus.
MCatharinea undulata. I bryoides.
Polytrichum subrotundum. osmundoides.
aloides. adiantoides.
urnigerum. I decipiens.
piliferum. taxifolius.
juniperinum. Leucobryum glaucum.
strictum. M Archidium alternifolium.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI.

M Pleuridium subulatum.-

11-12

11-12 10

M Ditrichum homomallum.

flexicaule.
Dicranella heteromalla.

M var. interrupta.

It cerviculata.

M Anisothecium rubrum.

M rufescens.
squarrosum.

Blindia acuta.

MDidymodon denudatus.

var. alpinum.

Campylopus pyriformis.

fragilis.

M subulatus.
schwarzil.
flexuosus.

var. paradoxus.
atrovirens.

I var. epilosus.

M introflexus.
brevipilus.

Dicranum majus.
scoparium.

var. orthophyllum.

spadiceum.
alpestre.
bonjeani,
var. rugifolium.
M fuscescens.
M var. congestum
scottil.
M uncinatum,

Dichodontium pellucidui.
var. fagimontanun.

Ceratodon purpureus.
M Pottia heimii.

M truncatula.

M intermedia.

M Tortula aloides.

I marginata.
muralis.

M subulata.

bo
Ss

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

M Tortula angustata.

M laevipila.

M montana.

M ruralis.

var. arenicola.

M Mollia crispa.

M tortilis.
viridula.

I tenuis.
aeruginosa.
verticillata.
crispula.
litoralis.
brachydontia.

M flavovirens.

M tenuirostris.
nitida.
tortuosa.
fragilis.

Barbula curvirostris.
rubella.

M var. ruberrima.

M lurida.
brevifolia.
fallax.

Il var. brevifolia.

M rigidula.
cylindrica.

M var. vinealis.
revoluta.
conyoluta.

M var. sardoa.
unguiculata.

Leersia extinctoria.
M contorta.
Grimmia apocarpa.
maritima.
pulvinata.
trichophylla.
elliptica. ©
patens.
acicularis.

tS
Ss

Clare Island Survey—Musei und Hepaticae.

Grimmia aquatica.

M affinis.

M var. gracilescens.
heterosticha.
fascicularis.
lrypnoides.
canescens.

Glyphomitrium polyphyllum.

Anoectangium mougeotii.
Pleurozygodon aestivus.
M Zygodon stirtoni.
viridissimus.
M conoideus.
M Orthotrichum anomalum.
M var. cylindricum.
M diaphanum.
Weissia americana.
I ulophylla.

M var. intermedia.
M crispula.
phyllantha.

M Splachnum ampullaceum.

M pedunculatum var. sphaericum.

M Tetraplodon bryoides.
M Amblyodon dealbatus.
Funaria fascicularis.

obtusa.
attenuata.
hygrometrica.

M Pohlia acuminata.
nutans.
albicans.

M Bryum filiforme.

I concinnatum.
inclinatum.
intermedium.

M bimum.

I pallescens.
caespiticium.
argenteum.

I murale.
alpinum.

B2

11-12 11

Bryum pallens.
ventricosum.
capillare.

Philonotis fontana.

I var. faleata.

M calcarea.
Breutelia chrysocoma.
Aulacomnion palustre.
Mnium hornun.

M cuspidatum.

M rostratum.

I undulatum.
subglobosum.
punctatum.

M var. elatum.

Thuidium tamariscifolium.

M delicatulum.

Amblystegium filicinum.

I fluviatile.
serpens.

M riparium.
chrysophyllum.

M protensum.
stellatum.
glaucum.

I faleatum.

M sendtneri.
revolvens.

I exannulatum.

I fluitans.

I kneiffi.

I scorpioides.

Hypnum palustre.

M cordifolium.
sarmentosum.

M stramineum.
purum,
striatum.

M pallidirostre.
praelongum.

M swartzii.

M cragsinervium.

ey Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

M Hypnum tenellum.
rusciforme.

T var. atlanticum.

M confertum.
velutinum.
pseudoplumosum.

M var. homomallum.
viride.

M var. Majus.
rutabulum.
rivulare.

M var. chrysophyllum.
albicans.
lutescens.
sericeum.

Isothecium myosuroides.
viviparum.

M Pterogonium ornithopodioides.

M Heterocladium heteropterum.

M Hylocomium umbratum.

M breyirostre.
proliferum.
parietinum.
triquetrum.
squarrosum.

The following are the rarer Mosses in the foregoing list, with the localities

and names of the collectors :—

Hylocomium loreum.
Ctenidium molluscum.
M Hyocomium flagellare.
M Stereodon cupressiforme.
M var. tectorum.
uncinatulus.
ericetorum.
elatus.
filiformis.
resupinatus.
M callichrous.
M Isopterygium elegans.
M pulchellum.
Plagiothecium undulatum.
denticulatum.
silvaticum.
Acrocladium cuspidatum.
Pterygophyllum lucens.
Porotrichum alopecurum.
M Neckera complanata.
I crispa.
M Climacium dendroides.
M Fontinalis antipyretica.
M squamosa.
Hedwigia albicans.

Sphagnum papillosum, var. confertum.—Achill (Jones & Co.).

S. intermedium, var. pulchrum.—Clare I. (Lett).

Andreaea rothii, var. faleata.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.).
Dicranella heteromalla, var. interrupta.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.).
Campylopus subulatus—Dugort (Lett, Jones & Co.).

C. introflerus.—Dugort (Jones & Co.).

Dicranum bonjeani, var. rugifolium.—Clare I. (Lett, McArdle).
D. fuscescens, var. congestum.—Croaghpatrick (Praeger).

D. uncinatum.—Slievemore (Lett).
Fissidens decipiens. —Clare I. (Lett).

Barbula rubella, var. rubervima.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.).

Clare Island Survey—Musci and Hepatcue.

B. convoluta, var. sardoa.—Dugort (Jones & Co.).
Grimmia affinis, var. gracilescens.—Slievemore (Lett).
Zygodon stirtont var.— Westport (Lett).

Z. conoideus.—Sraheens (Lett).

Amblyodon dealbatus.——Dugort (Jones & Co.).

1i=12) 1s

Hylocomium wmbratwm.—Slievemore (Lett); recorded from only one other

Trish locality (Co. Kerry).

Pterogonium ornithopodioides.—Shores of Lough Knockacurraun (Lett).
Stereodon cupressiforme, var. wneinatulus.—Shievemore (Lett); an addition

to the Irish flora.

Hepavrics.

M Anthoceros punctatus.

M Riccia sorocarpa.

I Marchantia polymorpha.
Preissia commutata.

I Asterella hemispherica.
Conocephalus conicus.

M Dilaena flotoviana.

M Metzgeria furcata.

I var. prolifera.
conjugata.
hamata.

M Aneura palmata.
multifida.

I var. submersa major.

M major.
latifrons.
sinuata.
pinguis.

M Blasia pusilla.

Pellia epiphylla.

M endiviaefolia.

calycina.

M Codonia ralfsii.
Fossombronia angulosa.
M Colura calyptrifolia.
M Lejeunia microscopica.
M minutissima.
ulicina.
M hamatitolia.

Lejeunia ovata.
serpyllifolia.

M var. cavifolia.
heterophylla.
patens.

I Phragmicoma mackaii.

I Radula complanata.
lindbergii.

I carringtonii.

M aquilegia.

M holtii.

M Madotheca platyphylla.

Frullania tamarisci.
var. cornubica.
germana.
dilatata.
M fragilifolia.
microphylla.
M Pleurozia purpurea.

Diplophyllum albicans.

M dicksoni.
Scapania resupinata.

M laxifolia.
purpurascens.
nemorosa.
intermedia.

M aspera.
speciosa.
undulata.

11-12 14
Scapania subalpina.
M uliginosa.
M ornithopodioides.
M nimbosa.
irrigua.
curta.
wumbrosa.
Marsupella emarginata.
M aquatica.
M jorgensenil.
M pearsoni.

Mylia taylori.
I anomala.
M Clasmatocolea cuneifolia.
Plagiochila asplenioides.
I var. humilis.
spinulosa.
var. inermis.
M flagellifera.
punctata.
M tridenticulata.
I exigua.
M Adelanthus decipiens.
M dugortiensis.
Lepidozia reptans.
pinnata.
setacea.
trichoclados.
M Blepharozia ciliaris.
M Mastigophora woodsii.

Blepharostoma trichophylla.

Herberta adunca.
Gymnocolea inflata.
Lophocolea bidentata.

I var, aquatica.
lateralis.
I spicata.

I heterophylla.
Harpanthus scutatus.
I Jungermania bantriensis.
var. miller.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Jungermania ventricosa.
porphyroleuca.
incisa.
lyoni.
gracilis.

M minuta.
pumila.
riparia.

M badensis.

M exsecta.
Anastrepta orcadensis.
Aplozia crenulata.

I gracillima.

I sphaerocarpa.

I Southbya obovata.
Alicularia scalaris.
Chiloscyphus polyanthos.

I var. rivularis.
Saccogyna viticulosa.
Kantia trichomanis.

sprengelii.
arguta.

M Cephalozia curvifolia.
francisci.
bicuspidata.

I lammersiana.
connivens.
lunulaefolia.
catenulata.
divaricata.

I stellulifera.

I striatula.
leucantha.

Odontoschisma sphagni.

Bazzania trilobata.
tricrenata.
deflexa.
pearsoni.

M Anthelia julacea.

Clare Island Survey— Musci and Hepaticae. 11-12 15

The following are the rarer Hepatics in the foregoing list, with the
localities and names of collectors :—

Riccia sorocarpa.—Belclare, near Westport (Praeger). The only other Irish
locality for this is near Dingle.

Anthoceros punctatus.—Near Dugort (Lett). Rare.

Marchantia polymorphi.—Clare I. (A. D. Cotton). Not seen anywhere within
the area except in this one locality, near Kill.

Asterella hemisphaerica,—Clare I. (Lett). Rare.

Dilaena flotoviana.—Achill I. (Jones & Co.). Not before found in Treland.
Very rare.

Aneura multifida var. submersa major.—Clare I. (Lett). Not hitherto
recorded from any Irish locality.

Aneura sinuata.—Clare I. (Lett). Rare.

Blasia pusilla —Curraun Achill (Lett). Not observed in any other locality.

Pellia endiviaefolia.— Achill (Lett and Jones & Co.). Rare.

Metzgeria hamata.—Clare I. (Lett), and Achill (Jones & Co.).

Codomea ralfsii.—Amongst sand-dunes at the north-east of Achill I. (Lett).
Very rare.

Fossombronia angulosa.—On Clare I. near Maum (Lett); and on Achill I.
near Dugort (Jones & Co.). Very rare.

Colura calyptrifolia.—Slevemore (Lett). Very scarce.

Lejewnia microscopica.—Slievemore (Pearson and Lett).

Radula lindbergii.—On vertical rocks at Toormore, Clare J., and on stones

round Lough Knockacurraun (Lett). Not hitherto recorded from
Treland.

LR. holtviWood at Old Head near Louisburgh (McArdle). This plant, which
was first found at Killarney by Lindberg, was found in West Mayo on
north side of Bengorm, at Skirragohiffern, in 1901, by Lett. Very
rare.

R. carringtonit.—Clare I. (Lett, McArdle, and Praeger). Rare.

Diplophyllwm dicksoni.—Dugort (Jones & Co.). Very rare.

Scapania intermedia.—Clare I. (Lett). Very rare.

S. compacta.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.). Rare.

S. subalpina.—Clare I, and Slievemore (Lett). Rare.

11-12 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

S. ornithopodioides.—Slievemore (Lett). Very rare.

S. nimbosa.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.). A few stems amongst the preceding
species. This station and Brandon mountain in Kerry are the only
localities where these two fine Hepatics have hitherto been found in
Treland.

Scapania irrigua.—Slievemore (Lett; Jones, & Co.). Very rare.

Varsupella jorgensenit.—Slievemore (Pearson and Lett). ‘This is an addition to
theflora of Ireland. Extremely rare.

M. pearsoni.—Slievemore (Jones & Co.). Another addition to the flora of
Ireland. Extremely rare.

M. aquatica.—Slievemore (Pearson and Lett). This also is an addition to
the flora of Ireland. Very rare.

Mylia anomala.——Clare I. (Lett). This is a new record for West Mayo.
Very rare.

Clasmatocolea cuneifolia.—Slievemore (Lett; Jones & Co.). Very rare.

Plagiochila exiqua.—Olare I. (Lett). Rare.

Adelanthus dugortiensis.—New species, 1903. Found on Shevemore by Lett,
and rediscovered at same place, 1911, by Jones’ party.

Lepidozia trichoclados.—Clare I. (Lett).

Mastigophora woodsii.—Slievemore (Lett).

Lophocolea bidentata, var. aquatica.— Clare I. (Lett). Rare.

Harpanthus scutatus.—Slievemore (Pearson and Lett). Rare.

Sungermania bantriensis var. miillert.—Clare I. (Lett). Very rare.

J. badensis.—Dugort (Jones & Co.). Very rare.

J. orcadensis.—Clare I, and Slievemore (Lett). Very rare.

Southbya obovata.—Clare I. (Lett and M‘Ardle). Rare.

Chiloscyphus polyanthos, var. vivularis—Clare I. and Slevemore (Lett).
Very rare.

Kantia sprengelii.Clare I. and Shevemore (Lett). Very rare.

Cephaloxa stellulifera Clare I. (Lett).

C. leucantha.—Clare I. and Slievemore (Lett and M‘Ardle). Rare.

C. lunulaefolia— Clave I. (Lett). Extremely rare.

C. striatula.—Clare I. (Lett). Not hitherto recorded as found in
Treland. Extremely rare. Found growing in cushions of Campylopus
brevipilus,

Clare Island Survey—Musci and Hepaticae. 11-12 17

Bazzania pearsont.—Slievemore (Pearson and Lett). A new record for the
division of West Mayo. Rare.

Anthelia julacea——Croaghpatrick (Praeger), This plant was not found
elsewhere. Rare in the district.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(Arranged chronologically.)

Mackay, James Townsend:
Flora Hibernica. Dublin, 1836.

In this well-known work, there is not a record of any Moss or Hepatic from a
Co. Mayo locality.

Moors, David:
A Synopsis of the Mosses of Ireland. Proc. R. I. Acad., Ser. 2, vol. i
(Science), pp. 329-474, 1872.

The only record in this paper which refers to the area included in the present
report is Pottia heimit from Westport.

Report on Irish Hepaticae. Proc. R. I. Acad., Ser. 2, vol ii (Science),
pp. 591-672, 1876.

In this paper there are seven records of Hepatics from Co. Mayo, but the only one
which comes near our area is “‘ Jungermania incisa, Mweelrea.’’ The others are from
Nephin and further north in the county.

Lert, H. W.:
Mosses new to Ireland. Irish. Nat., vol. x., p. 196, 1901.

Records first discovery of Dicranwm uncinatum in Ireland, the locality being Nephin
in Co. Mayo.

List of all the species of Hepatics found in the British Islands. Pp. viii,
199. Printed for the Author, 1902.

Records 92 species found in Co. Mayo.

Mosses new to Ireland. Irish Nat., vol. xi, p. 149, 1902.

Records Hylocomium umbratum as found on Slievemore.

A new Hepatic. Journ. of Botany, vol., xlii, pp. 201-203, 1904.
Notices Adelanthus dugortiensis, Douin and Lett, a new Hepatic from Achill Islund.
R.1.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. C 11-12

11-12 18 Proceedings of the Koyal Irish Academy,

Mc Arpis, David:

A list of Irish Hepaticae. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol., xxiv, Sect. B., pp. 887-
502, 1904.

Contains many records of Hepatics: found in the area included in the Clare Island
Survey, of which 58 are by the writer of the present report.
PRAEGER, R. Lloyd:
The Flora of Achill Island. Ivish Nat., vol. xiii, pp. 265-289, 1904.

Mentions (p. 273) two Mosses as predominating on the summit of Slievemore.

Clare Island Survey.

13

FUNGI.
By CARLETON REA, B.C.L, M.A., and SIR HENRY ©. HAWLEY, Bart.

PLATE I,

Read January 22. Published Mancu 6, 1912.

CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE
1. Preface . 5 i Jed MaInuANp AREA.

Ciare Istanp. 5. Introduction, : : 5 1)

2. Introduction, . ’ rs) 6. List of Species, . 5 5 ad
3. List of Species, . A 6 ° @ 7. Notes on the list, . j 5
4. Notes on the list, - lO

1. PREFACE.

THE present report deals with the fungi observed by ourselves and others who
were so good as to assist us, on Clare Island and the adjoining mainland.
Though we both visited the district several times, we had no opportunity of
working together, and our chief collecting was done in different areas and at
different seasons, Carleton Rea exploring the Westport district, with excur-
sions as far as Castlebar, Achill, and Belclare, while H. C. Hawley made Clare
Island his headquarters, doing some collecting also about Achill Sound,
Louisburgh, Belclare,and Westport. In view of these considerations, and the
fact that the fungus floras of Westport and of Clare Island, the two areas
chiefly studied, differ widely in character, we have thought it well to present
our report in two sections, the one dealing with the island flora, and drawn
up by H. C. Hawley, the other treating of the flora of the mainland, and
presented by Carleton Rea.

The work of the Clare Island Survey was carried out in what, so far as
Fungi are concerned, was a quite unexplored area. From the whole of the
county of Mayo, indeed, only two species were on record when Adams and
Pethybridge published their “Catalogue” in 1910.1. In fact, in the same
publication less than 100 species are assigned to the whole province of
Connaught, out of 1,400 species recorded for Ireland. This arises from the

1A Census Catalogue of Irish Fungi. Proc. R. I. Acad., xxviii., Sect. B, No. 4.

k,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, A 13

138 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

fact that the greater part of the work on Fungi that has been done in Ireland
has been carried out in the neighbourhoods of Dublin, Belfast, and Cork.

The total number of species and varieties which we are able to record from
the Clare Island district is 802. As the detailed lists show, 295 species and 12
varieties prove to be new to the Irish Fungus Flora. Of these, eleven species
are new to the flora of the British Islands; one new genus—Candelospora,
Hawley—and one new species—Hygrophorus (Limacium) squamulosus Rea—
are described.

It has been said that the lists from Clare Island and the mainland
respectively differ widely in character. This is not surprising when we take
into account the different types of ground which the two areas present. The
island, some six square miles in area, is bare and wind-swept. A large pro-
portion of it is under heather; the remainder consists of tilled land and poor
pasture, with a few small patches of low scrub. While the western parts of
the mainland in many parts resemble the island, it is not so about Westport,
where most of the collecting was done. The ground here is in comparison
sheltered and fertile; there is a fair amount of wood, mostly of mixed type,
and the trees in places attain fine dimensions. The character of the fungus
Hora in these areas, so far as we have been able to explore it, is shown in the
following table :—

|
| Mainland and

Group. Clare Island. Se SAEaah
Plasmodiophoraceae (0) 1
Phycomycetae
Hemiascomycetae 1 | 0)
Euascomycetae 82 | 110
Hemibasidii | 5 3
Protobasidiomycetae 26 | 31
Autobasidiomycetae 136 485
Fungi Imperfecti 24 | 28

883 | 667

It will be noticed that the chief difference between the two lists occurs in
the Autobasidiomycetae, where the numbers for the mainland and Achill Island
are more than three and a half times as great as those for Clare Island. The
following is the proportion of the species and varieties in the leading genera
of this group met with in the two lists, and the numbers first mentioned are

Ciare Island Survey— Fungi. 13he

from our mainland list: Hydnum eight against one, Poria seven against two,
Polyporus eight against one, Boletus fourteen against two, Lepiota six against
two, Tricholoma fifteen against one, Mycena thirty-eight against twelve,
Omphalia eight against five, Entoloma eleven against five, Leptonia five against
two, Nolanea four against one, Pholiota six against one, Inocybe ten against
two, Naucoria eight against four, Galera five against three, Tubaria four against
one, Hypholoma nine against one, Psathyra eight against two, Coprinus eleven
against seven, Cortinarius forty-eight against eight, Hygrophorus twenty-three
against fifteen, Lactarius twenty-seven against one, Russula thirty-two against
two, and Lycoperdon six against one. The following important genera are
absent from the Clare Island list: Fomes, Polystictus, Amanita, Amanitopsis,
Armillaria, Clitocybe, Collybia, Pleurotus, Volvaria, Pluteus, Clitopilus,
Hebeloma, Gomphidius, Cantharellus, and Nyctalis, although members of these
genera are recorded in our mainland list. Over ninety species are recorded
for Achill Island; and it is probable that if the fine wood at Glendarary on
this island was efficiently worked, a large number of species would be obtained.
Our visits have been few and far between, but it is clear that if the fungi of
the extreme west of Ireland were diligently worked at many seasons of the
year, a large number of additional species would be added to the still some-
what small list included in the “ Census Catalogue of Irish Fungi.” It is a
remarkable fact that, although we so constantly worked in woods where
Beeches were the dominant trees, we never found any examples of Hypoxylon
coceunewm (Bull.) Fr.

CLARE ISLAND.
2. INTRODUCTION.

The following list makes no pretension to be complete. It is based
almost entirely on the results of three short visits paid by the writer.
These were made from 20 to 27 August, 1909; for about a week from
October 3, 1910; and from April 27 to May 4, 1911. Before the survey
began its work, the only fungus recorded from the island appears to have
been Ustilago longissima, found by Mr. R. LI]. Praeger on Glyceria. I have
aimed at providing a record of the species prevalent on the island in the
years 1909 to 1911. This is not the place to speak of the special difticulties
of the recorder of fungi, but it may be safely said that, within certain limits,
the mycologic flora of any given determinate area is sure to be a fluctuating
one. _ The species of fungi have not only very-wide areas of distribution, but
they: have great facilities for extending their areas at short notice ; and there
are sure to be some species dying out as they exhaust their special matrix,

A2

igs Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and others arriving as their appropriate matrix is provided for them. To
take an instance: some few not very thriving Sycamores have been planted
in the hotel garden. These are at present free from the attacks of Rhytisma.
But, if they live, they may at some future date add another fungus to the
island list.

The lst, as a consideration of it will show. is at present especially
incomplete as regards such things as coprophilous fungi and minute Fungi
Imperfecti.

As to the nature of the island, being separated from the mainland by
only 3 miles of water, it may, from a mycological point of view, almost be
regarded as an outlying portion of it. ‘The greater part of the surface is
barren heath or bog. Trees are almost everywhere absent. The nearest
approach to woodland consists of two small areas of scrub on the NE. side of
the island, where stunted Birch, Hazel, and Sallow predominate. The rest of
the area may be roughly divided into—(1) the more or less exposed
pastures; (2) the cultivated area with its rather rank vegetation and weeds.
No part of the island proved absolutely destitute of fungi. Right up to the
cliff edge at the west end, the Plantago sward yielded Bovista nigricans and
Pleospora herbarum. The sea-shore produced several species. One species at
least was parasitic on lichens coating the most exposed rocks, and probably
others occur on the same hosts. Another fungus was dredged up from the
bottom of Clew Bay.

It would be of little value to attempt to account for the differences
between our list for the island and that for the Clew Bay district on the
mainland. The great determining factor, of course, is the presence or absence
of woodland. No Pine or Beech grow on the island at the present time,
and there is only one Oak. It was hoped at one time that a comparison
with E. Rostrup’s list of fungi occurring in the Faerdes might have proved
interesting, as, while differing much in latitude, the Faerdes have much
in common with Clare Island, «g., the absence of trees and the prevalence
of wind and moisture during most of the year. But doubts as to the
completeness of either list have rendered the undertaking rather disappointing.
As E. Warming says (Botany of the Faerdes. vol. ii, p. 661), 168 species can
scarcely adequately represent the mycological flora of the islands. Yet the
few collectors, of whom Warming was one, seem to have shown remarkable
acuteness in detecting minute species. Exactly one-fourth of the 168 species
belong to the Fungi Imperfecti against one-thirteenth of the Clare Island
list. Why are there only 20 Autobasidiomycetae recorded against 136 in
our area, 2 Clavariae and 2 Hygrophori only against 14 and 15 respectively ?
Perhaps this is partly due to the fact that none of the collectors seems to

Clare Islund Survey— Fungi. 13 5

have been on the Faerées later than September 4; Rostrup himself, the only
professed mycologist, was not there later than September 2, and that as far
back as 1867. Still it is worth while drawing attention to this apparent
lack of pasture species in the Faerdes as compared with Clare Island, and to
the great abundance of smuts recorded there.

Of the 168 species of the Faerées, only 38 have been noted so far in
Clare Island. The lists may be thus compared :—

Clare Island. Faeroes.

Phycomycetae, : 5 : 9 : : : 8
Hemiascomycetae, . 1
Euascomycetae, . : S82 : : . 54
Hemibasidii, . : 5 17
Protobasidiomycetae, . : 26 26
Autobasidiomycetae, . 136 20
Fungi Imperfecti, . : . 24 ‘ : . 42

283 168

The arrangement of the species in the following list is very nearly
that adopted in Adamsand Pethybridge’s “Census Catalogue of Irish Fungi”
(Proc. RI. Acad., xxvii, sect. B, No. 4). The chief differences are that
the species are no longer arranged alphabetically in the genera, and that the
sixth edition of Engler’s Syllabus has been followed in place of the fifth. In
this list are enumerated two hundred and eighty-three species ; one hundred
and one of these are additions to the Irish Census Catalogue, and one hundred
and thirty-five are not included in our list of the fungi found on the
mainland and Achill Island. Hight of them are first records for the Britannic
fungus flora, namely, Ostracoblabe implexa, Bonn. et Flah., Urceolella aspera (Fr.)
Boud., Rosellinia anthostomoides Berl., Epicymatia balani Winter, Phomatospora
argentina Spegg, Diaporthe exasperans Nitschke, Diatrypella exigua Wint., and
Coprinus Friesti Q.; and one genus and species is new to science, Cundelospora
alicicola Hawley. Two of the above are also recorded below for the mainland.

For assistance in collecting, I am indebted especially to Messrs. A. D.
Cotton, J. Adams, R. Lloyd Praeger, and Miss Lorrain Smith of the
British Museum; for help in determining species, again to Miss Lorrain
Smith, and also to Messrs. W. B. Grove, C. Crossland, and A. D. Cotton.
The last-named I have to thank for all the records of marme fungi.

13 6

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

3. LIST OF SPECIES.

* = New to Ireland.

} = New to Britain.

++ = New to science.

§ = Referred to in Notes at end of List.

PHYCOMYCETAE.

Mucor Mucedo (L.) Fr.
Cystopus candidus (Pers.) Lév.
Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de B.
Plasmopora densa (Rabh.) Schroet.
*Peronospora Ficariae Tul.
grisea (Unger) de B.
calotheca de B.
effusa (Grev.) Rabh.
+§Ostracoblabe implexa Bonn. et Flah.

HEMIASCOMYCETAE.

Protomyces macrosporus Unger.

EUASCOMYCETAE.

Penicillium glaucum Link.
Podosphaera oxyacanthae (DC.) de B.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.
Se bisieD Ce
Galeopsidis DC.
Trochila Hicis #7.
Rhytisma salicinum (Pers.) Fr.
Heterosphaeria Patella (ode) Grev.
Hypoderma virgultorum DC.
Peziza badia (Pers.) Ir.
Humaria granulata (Bull.) Sacc.
subhirsuta (Schwm.) Mass.
Ascobolus argenteus Bowd.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Lib.
Lachnum virgineum (Batsch) Karst.
+§Urceolella aspera (Fr.) Boud.
Hymenoscypha cyathoidea (Bull.)
Phill.

dumorum (Lob, et Desm) Schroet.

*Hrinella Nylanderi Rehm.
apala (B. et Br.) Mass.

Helotium citrinum (Hedwg.) Fr.
scutula (Pers.) Karst.
*§ terrigenum Cke. et Phill.
* rhodoleucum F’r.
Coryne sarcoides (Jacq.) Tul.
Mollisia cinerea (Batsch) Karst.
atrata Karst.
*Belonidium deparculum
Mass.
Calloria fusarioides (Berk.) F'r.
Patellaria atrata (Hedwg.) Fr.
*§ Microglossum atropurpureum (Pers.)
Karst.
Geoglossum ophioglossoides (L.) Sacc.
Leotia lubrica (Scop.) Fr.
Helvella lacunosa Afzel.
pezizoides Afzel.
Nectria sanguinea F7.
mammoidea Phill. et Pl.
Hypocrea rufa (Pers.) Fr.
Cordyceps militaris (L.) Link.
entomorrhiza (Dicks.) fr.
*Rhopographus pteridis (Sow.) Want.
*Phyllachora junci (f7.) Fuck.
*Sordaria decipiens, Wint.

(Karst.)

*Sporormia intermedia Awersw.
Chaetosphaeria tristis (Tode) Schroet.
}Rosellinia anthostomoides Berl.
Clavariarum (Tul.) Schroet.
Melanomma pulvis-pyrius (Pers.)
Fuck.
*Trematosphaeria pertusa (Pe7's.)
Fuck.
* mastoidea (/7.) Wint.
*Lophiostoma caulinum (/7%.) de Not.
* Arundinis (fr.) Ces. et de Not.

Clare Island Survey— Fungi.

*Platystomum compressum (Lers.)
Sace.
Stigmatea Rumicis (Desm.) Schroet.
Mycosphaerella brassicicola (Duby)
Landau.
* ‘Tassiana (de Not.) Johann.
* — Ascophylli Cotton.
{§Epicymatia Balani Winter.
Tichothecium pygmaeum Korb.

*Didymosphaeria diplospora (Che.)
Rehm.
Leptosphaeria Doliolum (Pers.) Ces.
et de Not.

acuta (Moug. et Nestl.) Karst
* derasa (B. et Br.) Auersw.
* — Michotii (Westend.) Sacc.
culmifraga (/’r.) Ces. et de Not.
* Chondri (Kostr.) Rosenv.
*Pleospora vulgaris Niessi.
herbarum (Pers.) Rabh.
*Ophiobolus acuminatus (Sow.) Duby.
{§Phomatospora argentina Spegg.
*Clypeosphaeria Notarisii Fuck.
Valsa lata (Pers.) Nitschke.
* heteracantha Sacc.
*Diaporthe pulla Nitschke.
+ exasperans Nitschke.
* ~ salicella (/7.) Sacc.
*Melanconis stilbostoma (f’r.) Tul.
*Cryptospora corylina (Tul.) Fuck.
Diatrype stigma (Hoffm.) de Not.
{Diatrypella exigua Wint.
Hypoxylon multiforme /’r.
Xylaria hypoxylon (L.) Grev.

HEMIBASIDII.
Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kellerm et
Swingle.

Avenae (Pers.) Jens.
* violacea (Pers.) Fuck.
* utriculosa (Nees) Tul.

longissima Sow,

13 7

PROTOBASIDIOMYCETAE.

Melamspora farinosa (Pers.) Schroet.

* orchidi-repentis Kleb.
Lini (Pers.) Tul.
Hypericorum (DC.) Schroet.
pustulata (Pers.) Schroet.

Melamsporidium betulinum (Pers.)

Kleb.

*Uromyces Poae Rabh.
Trifolii (Hedwg.) Lév.

Puccinia Caricis (Schwm.) Rebent.

Phragmitis (Schum.) Kérn.
obscura Schroet.
suaveolens (Pers.) Rostr. —
Centaureae Mart.
Violae (Schum.) DC.
Menthae (Pers.)
Sonchi fob.

* Chrysosplenii Grev.
Saxifragae Schlecht.
Baryi (B. & Br.) Wint.
graminis Pers.

Phragmidium Fragriastri(DC.) Plow.
violaceum Wint.

Triphragmium Ulmariae Link.

Coleosporium EHuphrasiae (Schwm.)

Wint.
Sonchi (Pers.) Lév.

Senecionis (Pers.) fr.

AUTOBASIDIOMYCETAE.
Dacryomyces stillatus Nees.

deliquescens (Bull.) Duby.
Tomentella fusca (Pers.) Schroet.
Corticium Sambuci (Pers.) Fr.

* — lividum (Pers.) Fr.
Thelephora anthocephala (Bull.) Fr.
Cyphella Pimii Phill.

Solenia anomala F’r.

*Hymenochaete fuliginosa Lév.
Typhula gyrans (Batsch) F’r.

*Clavaria amethystina (Bull.) Fr.

muscoides (L.) Fr.
persimilis Cotton.

18 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Clavaria cinerea (Bull.) Fr.
* umbrinella (Berk.) Sace.
cristata (Pers.) F7.
= Kunzei Fr.
fusiformis (Sow.) Fr.
= Juteo-alba Rea.
dissipabilis Britz.
straminea Cotton.
vermicularis (Scop.) Fr.
= fumosa (Pers.) Fr.
acuta (Sow.) Fr.
*Grandinia crustosa (Pers.) Fr.
Hydnum niveum (Pers.) Fr.
Merulius corium (Pers.) Fr.
Poria vaporaria (Pers.) Fr.
vulgaris Fr.
Polyporus elegans (Bull.) Fr.
Boletus luridus (Schaej7.) Fr.
seaber (Bull.) Fr.
Lepiota granulosa (Batsch.) Fr.
amianthina (Scop.) Fr.
Tricholoma panaeolum Fr.
Laccaria laccata (Scop.) Berk.

Mycena olivaceo-marginata Mass.

* Inteo-alba (Bolt.) Fr.
* — flavo-alba ( Bull.) Fr.
rugosa ( Bull.) Fr.

pullata Berk. et Che.
peltata Fr.
filopes (Bull.) Fr.
vitilis (Bull.) Fr.
rorida Fr.
stylobates (Pers.) Fr.
tenerrima Berk.
capillaris (Schum.) Fr.
*Omphalia sphagnicola Berk.
* oniscus Fr,
$ _ umbellifera (L.)_Fr.
fibula ( Bull.) Fr.
integrella (Pers.) Fr.
*Entoloma prunuloides Fr.
* Bloxami Berk.

Entoloma jubatum Fr.
costatum Fr.
sericeum (Bull.) Fr.
Leptonia lampropoda (Scop.) Fr.
* asprella Fr.
Nolanea pascua (Pers.) Fr.
Eccilia griseo-rubella (Lasch.) Fr.
Claudopus variabilis (Pers.) W. G.
Smith.
*Pholiota pumila Fr.
Tnocybe rimosa (Bull.) Fr.
eutheles B. d& Br.
*Naucoria tabacina (DC.) Fr.
* Myosotis Fr.
pediades Fr.
semi-orbicularis (Bull.) Fr.
Galera tenera (Schaeff.) Fr.
hypnorum (Schrank.) Fr.
= mycenopsis (Hojfm.) Fr.
*Tubaria stagnina Fr.
*Crepidotus Phillipsii B. d Br. —
Psalliota campestris (L.) Fr.
*Stropharia merdaria Fr.
stercoraria Fr.
semiglobata (Batsch.) Fr.
Hypholoma dispersum Fr.
hydrophilum (Bull.) Fr,
Psilocybe ericaea (Pers.) Fr.
* uda (Pers.) Fr.
bullacea ( Bull.) Fr.
semilanceata Fr,
foenisecii (Pers.) Fr.
=Psathyra semivestita (B. dé Br.) Sacc.
* fibrillosa (Pers.) Fr.
Anellaria separata (L,) Fr.
Panaeolus phalenarum (Buwill.) Fr.
* retirugis (Batsch) Fr.
papilionaceus (Bull.) Fr.
campanulatus (L.) Fr.
Psathyrella gracilis ( Pers.) Fr.
atomata F7,
Coprinus atramentarius ( Bull.) Fr.

Care Tslind Survey— Fungi. 13 9

*Coprinus fimetarius (L.) Fr. Bovista nigrescens Pers.
micaceus (Bull.) Fr. Scleroderma vulgare Hornem.
* Hendersonii Berk.
radiatus (Bod!) Br: FUNGI IMPERFECTI.
+ Friesii Q..
plicatilis (Curt.) Fr. I. Sphaeropsidales.
Bolbitius tener Berk.

Seni f *Phoma longissima (Pers.) Westend.
*Cortinarius triumphans /’7. x

anomalus [’r,
uliginosus Berk.

obtusata (f7r.) Sacc.
suspecta, Mass.
*Septoria Epilobii West.

torvus (Bull.) Fr. eo iedemer ee
* pbiformis Fr. ¢

scabiosicola Desm.

* ~ Convolvuli Desm.

*Cytospora Salicis (Cord.) Rab.
*Hendersonia arundinacea (Desm.)
Sace.

iliopodius (Bull.) Fr.
paleaceus (Weinm.) Fr.
* — obtusus (Weinm.) Fr.
Paxillus involutus (Batsch.) Fr.
Hygrophorus pratensis (Pers.) /’r.
virgineus (Wulf.) Pr.

Il. Hyphomycetae.
fornicatus Fr. IBA

ovinus (Bull.) Fr. Oospora microsperma 1. ¢ Br.
laetus (Pers.) Fr. *Aspergillus dubius B. é Br.
ceraceus (Wulf.) Ir. Botrytis cinerea (Pers.) Fr.
coccineus (Schaeff.) Fr. Sepedonium chysospermum (Nees.)
miniatus Fr. _ JiR
puniceus L’r. §CaNDELOSPORA gen. Nov.
obrusseus /’r. tt$Candelospora ilicicola Hatley.
conicus (Scop.) Fr. Torula herbarum Link.
calyptraeformis Berk. et Br. ovalispora Berk.
chlorophanus Fr. *Periconia pycnospora Fes,
psittacinus (Schaef?.) Fr. Menispora ciliata Cord.
unguinosus Fr. Cladosporium herbarum Link.
Lactarius pyrogalus (Buwll.) Fr. *Helminthosporium rhopaloides J’res.
Russula nigricans (Buil.) Fr. *Brachysporium apicale (B. et Br.)
adusta (Pers.) Fr. Sace.
Marasmius oreades (Bolt.) Fr. *Acrothecium simplex B. é Br.
ramealis (Bull.) Fr. *Tsaria arachnophila (Ditm.) Sacc.
Androsaceus rotula (/7r.) Pat. *Harpographium graminum Che. et

Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. Mass.

R,L.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI, B

13 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

4, NOTES ON THE LIST.
Ostracoblabe implexa Bonn. et Flah.

Found on old shells dredged from the floor of Clew Bay. The locality
was almost certainly in shallow water (5-7 fathoms) off Mulranny.

Urceolella aspera (Fr.) Boud.

Said by Mons. Boudier (Ic. Myce., iv, p. 313) to be common all the year
round on dead stems of Osmunda. His name is adhered to, as the place it
should occupy under Engler and Prantl’s arrangement is doubtful.

Helotium terrigenum Cke. et Phill.

Phillips in his “ British Discomycetes” united this with A. pileatwn
Karst., and Mons. Boudier does not refer to H. terrigenum in his “Dis-
comycetes d'Europe”; but as there appears room for doubt whether the two
are identical, I have followed Massee (“ British Fungus Flora,” iv, p. 238) in
retaining the name terrigenum, with the description. of which species my

fungus agrees well.

Microglossum atropurpureum Karst.

My specimens were variable in size and shape, often distorted, sometimes
soft and tremelloid after rain, generally blackish above, rather date-brown
below. The spores measured 23-40 x 6-7, were guttulate but not
septate; it is probable that when mature they would become so. Miss
Lorrain Smith records this from the Isle of Arran (Trans. Brit. Mye. Soc.,
1909, p. 220), but with spores only up to 33 long. Durand (Ann, Mye.,
1908, p. 414), who united Geoglossum microsporum Cke. et Peck and
G. tremellosunm Cke. with atropurpureum (Pers.), gave the spores of Persoon’s
plant as 25-35 x 3-4, and 10-septate. It is probable they are variable,
and vary as they mature. But if Durand’s statement is accepted as correct,
these plants must only be regarded doubtfully as immature atropurpureum
(Pers.).

Epicymatia Balani Wint.

First described by Winter in a note to an article by Hariot (Journ. de
Bot. 1887, p. 233) as occurring on Brachytrichia Balani at St. Malo. The
Clare Island specimens were on crumbling tests of Balanus balanoides,
more or less overgrown and permeated by Rivularia atra, As to this and the

Clare [sland Survey— Fungi. 13 11

closely allied, if not identical, Pharcidia marina Bomm., cf. Trans. Brit. Mye:
Soc., 1908, p. 98, This species might perhaps -be placed in the genus
Mycosphaerella.

Phomatospora argentina Spege.

Clearly separated from the common P. Lerkeleyi by the larger asci and
spores. The latter measured 12-13 x 35-45 yp. It was collected by
Mr. A. D. Cotton on dead stems of Betu maritima, on the Bills, a group of
small rocks some nine miles north-west of Clare Island. This species does
not seem to have been recorded outside South America before, but it only
differs in small points from the continental Phomatospora ovalis (Pass.) Sace.
with which it may be identical. 1t may be interesting to record that on these
few stems also occurred Pleospora vulgaris, an undetermined Sphaeropsid,
and some scattered conidia of a Fusarium type.

Omphalia umbellifera Fr.

On the hillsides a dwarf form occurs, altogether of a bright golden yellow,
which was referred here. Spores 8-10 x 35-4 p.

Hygrophorus obrusseus Fr.

The specimens to which I have given this name, and which were rather
plentiful on the slopes of Knocknaveen, differed from typical obrusseus in
the greenish sulphur-yellow of every. part except the apex, which was often
tinged sienna. They also with age often become grey or brownish in
patches on the pileus, suggesting H. intermedius Pass. Spores 8-10 x4°5-5 yp.
Smell not mealy. Also noticed on the slopes of Croaghpatrick on the
mainland.

CANDELOSPORA gen. nov.

Hyphae steriles repentes. Conidiophoris erectis, septatis, hyalinis,
irregulariter ramosis vel etiam simplicibus, supra penicillatim divisis.
Conidiis singulis in wl¢timis ramulis ortis, hyalinis, multiseptatis.

This genus differs from Mucrosporium in its penicillate branching, and
in its conidia produced singly at the tips of the branchlets.

Candelospora ilicicola Hawley.

Conidiophoris gregariis, circa 100 w altis, 7 « crassis, varie ramosis
vel etiam simplicibus, ramis ad apices plerumque tris divisis, ultimis ramulis
B2

13 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

minutis. Conidiis triseptatis, cylindricis, CATES, “50 = 60 x 6 =7 My eee
in muco involutum formantibus. —

Habitat.—Ad folia emortua, [hcis Aquifoliwm.

Forming small scattered white tufts over the upper side of f the leaf.
The fertile hyphae seem often quite over-weighted with the large irregularly-
shaped heads of mucus containing the relatively large conidia. When free
of the mucus, the conidia stand up side by side like so many candles. _ Part
of type specimen deposited in the British Museum, South Kensington..

MAINLAND AREA.
5, INTRODUCTION:

In the autumn of 1910 I was requested to join in the investigation of the
fungi growing in the neighbourhood of Westport in connexion with the
Clare Island Survey, but owing io domestic affairs I was unable to proceed
there before the 16th November. On my arrival at Westport I found from
two to three inches of snow on the ground, although I had been assured
before my departure that night frosts were not to be expected in the west of
Ireland before Christmas. The snow thawed rapidly, but in some places it
remained for a considerable time, especially on the higher ground. During
this visit I searched the park and woods adjoining Westport House, Belclare
and Prospect House woods, Cloonagh Wood, Derrygorman woods, the Old
Deer-park wood, and other woods at Mount Browne; Knocknanny wood close
to Westport railway station ; and the woods near to Kilboyne House, Castlebar.
Most of the woods were of a mixed character, consisting of Beech, Oak, Pine,
Sycamore, Holly, and Alder. The Kilboyne House woods, some four or five
miles south of Castlebar, are made up, almost exclusively, of scrub Hazel,
about 8 to 12 feet in height, intermixed with lower Blackthorn bushes, and
the intervening ground rough with large stones. These woods proved to be
very unproductive and unworthy of another visit. During my stay at
Westport, which continued until the 23rd November, about 180 species of
fungi were observed, of which nearly thirty were additions to the “Census
Catalogue of Irish Fungi.” In 1911 I visited Westport in company with my
wife and Miss Gulielma Lister, F.L.s., from 3rd to 12th October. In addition
to the woods already enumerated, which we revisited, we investigated
Brackloon wood on two days, Achill Island, and Croaghpatrick. Brackloon
wood is anideal wood for fungi; it consists of a mixture of Oak, Beech, Pine,
Sycamore, Holly, and Alder, whilst the ground is covered with an abundance
of leaf-mould, and many interesting species were observed there. Both of

Clare Island Survey— Fungi. 18 18

my visits to Westport were made after an exceptionally dry time. In 1910
the months of September and October were the driest that had been known
there for many years. The general prevailing dampness of the atmosphere is so
great that all tree-stumps are quickly covered over with a dense felt of
mosses; and dead wood, fallen branches, fungi,.and leaves rapidly decay and
produce many ascophores of Chlorospleniwm aeruginosum (Oed.) de Not, Coryne
surcoides (Jacq.), Xylaria hypoxylon (Linn.).Grev., and Ustulina vulgaris Tul.,
whilst the old hollow trunks of Beech and other trees are carbonized and
stained black by the mycelia of these two last species. Few specimens could
be found in the woods facing north, and hardly any dead leaves remained
beneath the Holly trees. In 1911 still drier conditions had prevailed, and
hardly any rain had fallen at Westport during the months of May, June, July,
and August, and only a small quantity towards the latter half of September.
We found, however, a good growth of fungi in Brackloon woods, the Old
Deer-park wood at Mount Browne, Knocknanny Wood, and the pine wood
on Achill Island, but scarcely any in the woods adjoiing the Westport
House demesne, Prospect House woods, Belclare, and Cloonagh wood. In
1898 my wife and I spent a fortnight in the south-west of Ireland at
Glengariff and Killarney, and we were then, as on the recent visit, struck
by the numerous species of Cortinarius that were to be found there and the
typical mode of their growth, which made it much easier to determine the
species of this genus thanis generally the case elsewhere. On both of my
visits Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger kindly assisted in the collection of specimens
during the course of two week-ends. We are also indebted to Miss A.
Lorrain Smith, r.Ls., Miss Gulielma Lister, r.Ls., Miss E. M. Wakefield,
Mr. A. D. Cotton,.4..8., Mr. J. Adams, M.A., and Mr, J. Ramsbottom, B.A., for
kind help in. the determination and collection of specimens. In 1910
J. Adams and G. H. Pethybridge published in the Proceedings of the Royal
Trish Academy, vol. xxviii, section B, No. 4, “A Census Catalogue of Irish
Fungi,” and they there set out a list of Irish fungi published by various
writers (of very varying reliability in their determinations) up to that date.
This‘ is the only general guide that we possess as to the occurrence of fungi
in Ireland. The appended list includes 667 species and varieties, of which
number over 232 are additions to the Irish fungus flora, and almost all
of them are first records for the sub-province of Mayo, C2 of the census
catalogue list. Five are additions to the British fungus flora, namely,
Urceolella incaratina (Quél.) Boud, Gloniopsis Miilleri (Duby) Sace., Anthostoma
suprophijwm. E. & E,, Diaporthe exasperans Nke., and Coprinus Friesit Quél.,
and ‘one is new to science—Hygrophorus squamulosus Rea. For the, benefit of
future workers in the district I give the distribution of the species in detail.

13 14

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

6. Lisr OF SPECIES.

* = New to Ireland. + = New to Britain. t{ = New to science. § = Referred to
in notes at the end of the list. A = Achill Island. B= Belclare and Prospect

House Woods. Br = Brackloon Wood.

C = Croaghpatrick. Cl = Cloonagh

Wood. D=Old Deer-park Wood, Mount Browne. Dr = Derrygorman Wood..

K = Knocknanny Wood.

L = Louisburgh.

P = Westport Park and adjoining

woods. W = Westport (Hawley). In each case the adjoining pastures are included

under the letter used.

PLASMODIOPHORACEAE.
*“Spongospora scabies (Berk.) Mass.—
Mulranny (A. D. Cotton).
PHYCOMYCETAE.

Mucor Mucedo (Linn.) Fr.—K. _
*Spinellus fusiger (Link.) van Tiegh.

—K, P.

Sporodinia Aspergillus (Scop.) Schrot.
—K.

Pilobolus crystallinus (Wiggers) Fr.
—B, Br, D, K.

Cystopus Lepigoni de Bary. — L
(Adams).

Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de
Bary.—B (Hawley).
Plasmopara nivea (Unger) Schrot.—

W.
Peronospora calotheca de Bary.—B,
K. On Galiwm.
* grisea de Bary.—L (Adams).

EUASCOMYCETAE.

*Hxoascus turgidus Sadeb.—B, L.
Propolis faginea (Schrad.) Karst.—D,
K

Heterosphaeria patella Grev.—B.
Phacidium multivalve (DC.) Kze. &
Schm.—K, P.

Trochila ilicis Fy.—Br, D, K, L.
Coecomyces coronatus (Schum.) de
Not.—Br, K, P.
Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fr.—A,
B, D, K.
Sphaerospora trechispora (B. & Br.)
Sacc.—L (Adams).
Lachnea stercorea (Pers.) Gull.—D,
K, P.
scutellata (Linn.) Sacc.—D, K, L.
*Sarcosphaera arenicola (Lév.) Lindau.
—L (Hawley).
Plicaria cerea (Sow.) ckl. D.
* — succosa (Berk.) Rehm.—B, W.
Humaria granulata (Bull.) Sacc.—
B, D, K, P.
* Oocardii (Kailchbr.)
(Hawley).
Geopyxis cupularis (Linn.) Sace.—W.
*Macropodia macropus (Pers.) Fcekl.—
—Br.
Otidea leporina (Batsch) Fckl.i—B
(Hawley).
cochleata (Linn.) Fckl.—Br.
Ascobolus furfuraceus (Pers.) Fr.—-B,
Br, D, K, L, P.
Chlorosplenium aeruginosum (Oed.)
de Not.—A, B, Br, D,K, L, P.
Rutstroemia firma (LPers.) Karst.
(Ciboria ochroleuca (Bolt.)
Mass,)—Cl, P.

Che. — L

Clare Island Survey— Fungi.

Dasyseypha Willkommii Hart. (caly-
cina Fekl.)—D, P.
leuconica (Phill.) Mass.—D.
‘Lachnum virgineum (Batsch) Karst.

. —B, Br, K.
ciliare(Schrad.) Rehm.—B, Br, D,
P.
niveum (Hedw. fil.) Karst.—A, B,
K.

sulfureum (Pers.) Rehm.—P.
Hymenoscypha hyalina(Pers.) Schrot.
—A, Br, K.
* dumorum (fob. ¢ Desm.) Schrot.
—A. (Hawley).
Helotium claroflavum (Grev.) Berk.
—D, K, W.
citrinum (Hedw.) Fr.—A, Br.
* aureum (Pers.) Rehm. — Br.
* herbarum (Pers.) Hr.—B, Br, D,
W.

_virgultorum (Vahl.) Fr.—Br, D,
North side of Clew Bay
(Hawley).

e var. fructigenum (Bull.) Karst.
—Br, K, W.
scutula (Pers.) Karst.—W.
* phyllophilum (Desm.) Karst.—D,
K.

Coryne sarcoides(Jacq.) Tul.—Br, D,
K, W.
* urnalis (Nyl.) Sace.—B, K, P.
§*Corynella glabrovirens Boud.—-K.
§ Urceolella incarnatina (Quél.) Boud.
—P.
Mollisia cinerea (Batsch) Karst.—B,
Br, D, K, L, P.
melaleuca (Hr.) Sacc.—K, P.
lignicola Phill.—A (A. D. Cotton)
*Belonidium pruinosum (Jerd.) Rehm.
—L (Hawley).
*Pseudopeziza petiolaris (A.¢ S.) Mass.
—-A (Hawley).

13 15

Orbilia leucostigma #r.—Br, K.
xanthostigma ’r.—D, K, P.
vinosa (A. d S.) Karst.—Br.
inflatula Karst.—L (Hawley).

Patellaria atrata (Hedw.) Ir. — A

(Hawley).
Cenangium abietis (Pers.) Rehm.—A
(Hawley).
Bulgaria polymorpha (Oeder) Wettst.
—Br.
§*Geoglossum microsporum Cke. ¢
, Peck.—Br.
Leotia lubrica (Pers.) #7.—B, Br, K,
W.
*Helvella helvelloides (Fr.) Mass.— B
(Hawley).

Lophodermium pinastri (Schrad.)
Chev.—A (Hawley), P.

§tGloniopsis Milleri (Duby) Sacc.—A
(Hawley)

*Dichaena quercina (Pers.) Fr.—K, L,

Hysterium angustatum (A. ¢ 5.) F’r.
—B (Hawley), Br, K, W.
Hysterographium fraxini (Pers.) de
Not.—B, D, P.
Aspergillus herbariorum (Waggers)
Fisch.—Br, K, P.
Penicillium candidum (ink) Sacc.—
B (A. L. Smith).
crustaceum (Linn.) Fisch.—K.
Erysiphe graminis (DC.) Fr.— K.
Hypomyces aurantius Zwl.—P.
Nectria cinnabarina F7.—P.
coccinea (Pers.) Fr.—D.
Aquifolii (f’r.) Berk.— P.
* episphaeria (Tode) #7r.—D.
*Gibberella cyanogena (Desm.) Sacc.—
Roonah Quay (Hawley).
Hypocrea rufa (Pers.) Fr.—P.
Claviceps purpurea 7'w/.—-B (Hawley).
* nigricans 7’u/.—L (R, Ll, Praeger).

13 16

*Rhopographus Pteridis (Sow.) Want.
= -—B, Br, K. Ras
Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) #ckl.—
D.
Lasiosphaeria canescens Ces. & de Not.
—D, kK.
ovina Ces. & de Not.—Br, K, W.
Chaetosphaeria tristis (Tode) Schrét.
—L (Hawley).
*Bombardia fasciculata (Batsch) Fr.
K.
Rosellinia aquila (f’r.) de Not.—P.
mammiformis (Pers.) Wint.—L
(Hawley).
$*Mycosphaerella ascophylli Cotton.—
A (A. D. Cotton).
*Stigmatea Ranunculi Fr.—K.
= Rumicis (Desm.) Schrét. W.
Tichothecium pygmaeum Korb.—W.
rimosicolum (Leight.) Arnold.—
B. (Hawley).
Leptosphaeria Doliolum (Pers.) Ces.
& de Not.—P.
acuta (Moug.d Nestl.) Karst. W.
Pleospora herbarum (Pers.) Rabh.—
Br.
*“Gnomonia cerastis (Riess.) Ces. & de
Not.—A (Hawley).
3+ Anthostoma saprophilum F. dé E.—
L (Hawley).
Valsa lata (Pers.) Nke.—Br. K, L,
(Hawley).
~Diaporthe Tulasnei Nke.—B (Hawley)
* Wibbei Nke.—A (Hawley).
$+ exasperans Nke.—B (Hawley).
* erustosa Sace. dé Rowm.—K. on
Tlex.
* ~ salicella (Fr.) Sacc.—A (Hawley).
Diatrype stigma (Hojjm.) Fr.—A, Br,
K.

disciformis (Hojffm.) Fr.—Br, K,L
(Hawley).

Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

*Diatrypella quercina (Pers.) Nke.—
Brie

* yerrucaeiormis (Ehrb.) Nke.—W.

* favacea Fr. Nke.—B, L (Hawley).

*Hypoxylon semiimmersum Nke.—P.
multiforme Fr.—B, K.
fuscum (Pers.) Fr.—P.

Ustulina vulgaris Tu/—B, Br, D, K,P.

Xylaria Hypoxylon (Linn.) Grev.—a,

B, Br, D, K.

HEMIBASIDIOMYCETAE.
*Ustilago Hydropiperis (Schum.)
Schrot.—B, Br, D, K, P.
Seabiosae (Sow.) Wint.—K.
violacea (Pers.) Fekl.—Br.

PROTOBASIDIOMYCETAE.

Melampsora Helioscopiae ( Pers.) Cast.
—D, on Fuphorbia Peplus.
Hypericorum (DC.) Schrét.—Br,
on Hypericum Androsaemum.
Lini (Pers.j Desm.—W.

* lLarici-populina Kileb.—P, on
Populus canadensis.
Melampsoridium betulinum (Pers.)

Kleb.—B, D, K.
Coleosporium Euphrasiae (Schum.)
Wint.—A (Hawley).

* Petasitis de Bary.—K.
Senecionis (Pers.) Fr. —L
, (Hawley).
Sonchi (Pers.) Lév.—L (Adams).
= Tussilaginis (Pers.) Kleb.—W.
Uromyces Trifolii (Hedw.) Lér.—L

(Adams).

= Rumicis (Schum.) Wint.—B
(Hawley).

*Puccinia Porri (Sow.) Wint. — L
(Hawley).

Violae { Schum.) DC.—K, L.
Menthae Pers.—Br, K, W.
Primulae (DC.) Duby.—B, K.

Clare Island Survey— Fungi.

*Puccinia Graminis Pers.—-K.
Pringsheimiana Kleb.--B (A. D.
Cotton).
suaveolens (Pers.) Rostr.—B.
* — Hypochaeridis Oud.-—L (Adams).
Hieraci (Schwm.) Mart.—(Haw-
ley), on HMieraciwm Pilosella,
Carduus nutans, and Leon-
todon.
* Centaureae Mart.—W.
Taraxaci Plow.—L (Hawley).
Pruni Pers.—B.
Umbilici Guep.—a, Br.
Bunii (DC.) Wint.—B, K, P.
Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz)
Wint.—B, Br, D, K, P, W.
*Sebacina incrustans (Pers.) Tul.—K.
Exidia albida (Fr.) Bref.—B, Br, D, K,
P

*Tremella frondosa fr.—P.
mesenterica (Retz.) Fr.—B, Br,
ID), IK,
AUTOBASIDIOMYCETAE.
Dacryomyces deliquescens ( Bull.)
Duby.—Cl, K, P.
stillatus Nees.—B, K.
*Ditiola nuda B. € Br.—A (Hawley).
Calocera cornea (Batsch) Fr.—D, K.
* stricta #7.—Br, D.
*“Hypochnus Solani Prill & Del.
—Mulranny (A. D. Cotton).
*Corticium porosum B. ¢ Curt.—K.
lacteum £7.—Br, K, P.
arachnoideum Berk.—B, K.
laeve (Pers.) #7.—A, K, P.
calceum (Pers.) Fr.—D.
comedens (Nees) #7.—D, K.
Sambuci ( Pers.) Fr.—kK, P.
Coniophora puteana (Schwm.) Mass.—
K.
arida (f%7.) Cke.—D.
Stereum hirsutum (Walld.) F7.—D.
R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI.

13 17

*Stereum ochroleucum /7.—Dr, K.
purpureum ( Pers.) #'r.—Cl, D, Dr,
pe
spadiceum (Pers.) #7.—Br, D.
sanguinolentum (A. é S.) #r.—B.
rugosum (Pers.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
kK, L.

Thelephora laciniata (Pers.) Fr.—kK.

Cyphella capula (Holm.) Fr.—K.

muscigena ( Pers.) #7.—Br.

Peniophora quercina (Pers.) Cke.—A,

B.
cinerea (Pers.) Che.—D.
velutina (DC.) Cke.—A, K.
Hymenochaete rubiginosa Lév.—tkK.
Typhula erythropus (Pers) #7.—B,
IX, IP
* Grevillei #7.—A.
*Clavaria muscoides (Linn.) Fr.—B,
ID), IP
cinerea ( Bull.) Fr.--B, P.
cristata, (Pers.) Fr.—-A, Br, D,
Dr, K, P.
rugosa (Bull.) £7.—B, D, P.

* Kunzei #7.—B, Br.

fusiformis (Sow.) F7.—B.

dissipabilis Britz.—A, B, P.

vermicularis (Scop.) Fr.—B, Bx,
1B.

fumosa (Pers.) #7.—B (Hawley).

contorta (Holmsk.) Fr—A, L
(Hawley).

* ~ fistulosa (Sow.) /r.—A, B.
juncea (A. dé S.) #v.—L (Hawley).
acuta (Sow.) #'r.—B (Hawley).

Pistillaria puberula Berk.—B, Br.
pusilla (Pers.) Fr.—P, on leaf of
Ilex.

*Phlebia merismoides #.—D, K.
vaga H7.---B, Br.

Grandinia granulosa (Pers.) Fr.—B,
Cl, K, L, P, W.

%

*

13

13 18

*Grandinia mucida f’7.—Br, D, K, P.
Radulum orbiculare #’.—-B (Hawley).
quercinum (Pers.) Fr.—B, D.
Hydnum repandum (Linn.) Fr —B,
13ye, 1D), Dye, 1K,
rufescens (Pers.) Fr.—Br, K.
ochraceum (Gimel.) Fr.—kK, L, P.
alutaceum Fr.—A, D.
udum £7.—P.
niveum (Pers.) Fr.—kK.
* — sordidum (Weinm.) Fr.—B (Haw-
ley).
farinaceum (Pers.) Fr.—K.
*Caldesiella ferruginosa (F7.) Sacc.—
Ij, 12,
Irpex fusco-violaceus (Schr.) Fr.—
IX, 12
obliquus (Schr.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
CID KeyP:
*Merulius tremellosus (Sch7.) Kr.—
D, K.
Poria mollusea (Pers.) Fr.—A, B, P.
medulla-panis (Pers.) #’7.—B, Br.
* mucida Fr—B, K.
vaporaria (Pers.) Fr.—tK, L, W.
sanguinolenta /’7.—A, B, K, L.
* _plepharistoma B. d Br.—K.
* terrestris (DC.) Fr.—A, B, K, P.
Fomes applanatus (Wallr.) Fr.—D,
IE Wie
fomentarius (Linn.) F7.—P.

* connatus F7.—B (Hawley).
annosus F7.—A, B, K, L, P.
Polyporus squamosus (Huds.)F'7.—B,

Ipie) IDE UC 12
varius { Pers.) F'r.—Br.
sulphureus ({ Bull.) Fy.—D, K.
fragilis #7.—K.
eaesius (Schrad.) Fr.—Px, K, P.
chioneus Fr. (sensw Bresadolae).
—P (Hawley).
adustus (Willd.) Fr.—Cl, D, Dr, P.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Polyporus betulinus (Bull.) Fr.—B,
Br, D, K, P.

Polystictus versicolor (Linn.) Fr—
B, Br, Cl, D, K, P.

* hirsutus (Schrad.) Fr.—kK.
velutinus (Pers.) Fr.—D, K, L.
abietinus (Dicks.) #r.—D, K.

Daedalea quercina (Linn.) Fr.—kK, P.

Lenzites betulina (Linn.) Fr.—kK.

Fistulina hepatica (Huds.) Fr.—Br,

D, K.

Boletus luteus F7.—A, B.

elegans (Schum.) Fr.—B, Br, D,
K.

granulatus (Linn.) Fr.—P.

bovinus (Linn.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
K, W.

badius (Linn.) Fr.—Br, K.

piperatus (Bull.) Fr.—D.

* variegatus (Swartz.) Fr.— Near

Kilboyne Wood.
chrysenteron (Lull.) /’7.—B, D.
subtomentosus (Linn.) Fr.—Br,

D.
edulis (Bull.) F7.—B, Br, D.
luridus (Schaeff.) F7.—D, P.

* purpureus #’7.—D.
scaber (Bull.) Fr.—B, Br, K, L,

Pp.

* var. niveus F’r.—B, Br.

Amanita phalloides #’7.—K.
mappa F’.—Br, K.
muscaria (Linn.) Fr.—B, Br, L.
rubescens (Pers.) F7.—B, Br, K.
spissa F’r.—K.
Amanitopsis vaginata ( Bull.) Roze.—
iG, 12 WY

* — fulva (Schaeff.) W. G. Sm.—K.

Lepiota gracilenta (Avombh.) Fr.—
- Clew Bay, near Belclare.
acutesquamosa (Weinm.) Fr.—B

(Hawley),

Clare Island Survey—Fungi.

Lepiota cristata (A. & 8.) #r.—D.
* — carcharias (Pers.) #7.—Dr, K.
granulosa (Batsch.) Fr.—B & L
(Hawley).
amianthina (Scop.) #7r.—Br, D, K.
Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) Fr.—A, B,
Br, C, Cl, D, K, L, P.
mucida (Schrad.) Hr.—D, Li, P.
Tricholema vesplendens fr. — L
(Hawley).
flavobrunneum F’r.—A, Br, D, K.
ustale #’r.—B (Hawley).
rutilans (Schaeff.) Hr.—A, B, Br,
D, K.
imbricatum £'7.—P.
* macrorhizum (Lasch.) Fr. — B
(Hawley).
saponaceum /7.—Br, Cl.
cuneifolium f'r.—-B (Hawley).
virgatum £7.—Br.
sulphureum (Buil.)
(Hawley).
cerinum ( Pers.) Fr.—A (Hawley).
album (Schaeff.) Fv.—B, Br.
personatum £%7.—On a thatched

Fr. — L

roof of cottage near Cloonagh
Lodge.
panaeolum /#7.—B & L (Hawley).
melaleucum ( Pers.) H7.—P.
Clitocybe nebularis (Gatsch) Hr.—Br,
P.
* — clavipes (Pers.) Hr.—K.
infundibuliformis (Schaeff.) Hr.—
Br, P.
geotropa (Bull.) Fr.—D, Dr, P.
metachroa I’r.—P.
* ditopoda H’r.—_Br, Kilboyne Wood.
fragrans (Sow.) Hr.——B, Cl, K, P.
Lacearia laccata (Scop.) Berk.—-A,
B, Cl, K, P.
me var. amethystina (Vaill.) B. &
Br.—A, Br, D, K.
S var. tortilis (Bolt.) Fr.—kK.

C2

13

Collybia radicata (Relh.) Fr.—K.
platyphylla #7.—Br.
fusipes (Bull.) Fr.—K.
maculata (A. & 8.) #r.—Br.
prolixa (il. Dan.) Fr.—K.
butyracea (Bull.) fr.—Dr, K, P.
velutipes (Curt.) Fr.—Cl.
confluens (Pers.) F’7.—L (Hawley).
conigena (Pers.) Hr.—A, K, P.
cirrhata (Schwm.) Fr.—K.
tuberosa (Bull.) 7.—K.
tenacella ( Pers.) Hr.—A, P.
dryophila (Bull.) Fr.—Br, K, P.
aquosa (Bull.) Hr.—B, K.
inolens f’r.-—Br.

Mycena elegans (Pers.) Hr.-—A

(Hawley).

rubromarginata H7.—D.

rosella H7.——C.

rubella Qwél.-—P.

pura (Pers.) Hv.—A, B, Br, D, Dr,
K, P.

luteo-alba ( Bolt.) H7.—K, P.

flavoalba H7.—Br, C, P.

lactea (Pers.) F’r.—P.

gypsea H’r.—W (Hawley).

rugosa [’7.—B, Cl, D, Dr, K, L, P.

sudora #7.—P.

galericulata (Scop.) I’r.—A, B, Br,
Cl, D, Dr, K, P.

polygramma (Buwill.) #7r.-—B, Br,
D, K, L, P.

parabolica (4. & S.) Fr.—Dr.

atrocyanea (Batsch) Fr. —B.

alealina /’7.—D, P.

ammoniaca /%7.—A, B, Br, C, L,
1D,

metata ’7.—B, K.

tenuis /7.—Br, K, P.

filopes (Bull.) Fr.—A, B, Br, D,
K, P.

13 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Mycena amicta F’r.—-K. *Entoloma placenta (Batsch) Fr.—K.

vitilis #’7.—B (Hawley).

tenella #7.—Br, D, K, P.

haematopoda (Pers.) #7.—D.

sanguinolenta (A. ¢ S.) #r.—K,
1B

galopoda (Pers.) Berk.—A, B, Br,
1D), 1K, 12

leucogala Cke.—B, Br, C, P.

epipterygia (Scop.) #7.—Br, K.

rorida ’%7,—B, Cl, P.

clavicularis #7.—D.

tenerrima Berk.—B, Br, D, K, P.

discopoda Lév.—B, Br.

pterigena /’7.—B, D.

corticola (Schum.) Fr.—B, Br, K,
ips

hiemalis (Osb.) Fr.—B, D, Dr, K.

setosa (Sow.) Fr.—Br, P.

capillaris (Schum.) F7.—B & W
(Hawley).

*Omphalia striaepilea F7.—K.

umbellifera (Linn.) Fr.—A, B,
Br, C, D.

stellata £7.—P.

camptophylla Berk.—L (Hawley).

grisea F’r.—K.

fibula (Bull.) Fr.—B, K.

gracillima (Weimm.) Fr.—P.

integrella ( Pers.) #7.—B, D, K.

Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) /’7r.—K.

acerosus /’7.—Br, D.
applicatus (Batsch) r.—P.
chioneus (Pers.) #r.—D, K.

Volvaria speciosa #’7.—L (Hawley).

parvula (Weimm.) Fr.—L (Haw-
ley).

Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff.) Fr.—aA,

Br, i.

*Entoloma prunuloides #7.—B, K, P

porphyrophaeum #’r.—D, K.

* virens (Bull.) Quél.—P. 3

*

Bloxami Berk.—B, P.

ameides B. ¢ Br.—K.

jubatum F7.—B, D, K, P.
griseocyaneum /7.—K, P.
rhodopolium F’r.—Br.

sericeum (Bull.) Fr.—A, B, D, K.
nidorosum /7.—B, Br, K, L.
speculum #7.—K.

Clitopilus prunulus (Scop.) Fr.—D,

*

K.
undatus #7.—B & L (Hawley).

Leptonia lampropoda /7.—B, D, K,

12
serrulata (Pers.) Fr.—Br, D.
formosa f7.—D, K.
chloropolia Fr.—K, L.
sericella (£7.) Quél.—B, Br, D,
IK, 12,

Nolanea pascua (Pers.) #r.—A, C, D,

*

K, F.
pisciodora Ces.—P.
rufocarnea Berk.—B (Hawley).
exilis #7.—B (Hawley).

Eecilia griseorubella (Lasch.) Fr.—

Br.

Claudopus variabilis (Pers.)W. G. Sm.

183, 10), 1k IP

*Pholiota terrigena #7.—W.

*

ombrophila #r.—B.

togularis (Bull.) #7.—P.

squarrosa (Mill.) #’r.—B, K, P.

mutabilis (Schaeff.) r.—Br, K.

marginata (Batsch) Fr.—B, Br,
Il, 1D), 1K, 12.

*Inocybe petiginosa (Lr.) Quél.—Br, K.

*

pyviodora (Pers.) Hr.—W.
obscura (Pers.) /r.—B (Hawley).
rimosa (Bull.) /’7.—B, Br, K.
eutheles B. & Br.—-D.

destricta f’r.—B (Hawley).
asterospora Quél.—W.

Clare Islund Survey—Pungi.

Inocybe geophylla (Sow.) #7.-—B, Br,
D, K, L, P.
cs var. violacea Pat,—Br, D,
Ik, 12
* Whiter B. é Br.—W.
Hebeloma fastibile /’7.—B, Br, D, P.
crustuliniforme (Bull.) [’7.—Br,
D.
*Plammula Tricholoma (d.d@S.) Karst.
—Br.
sapinea F'r.—K.
* scamba /7r.—A. P.
helomorpha #7.—L (Hawley).
Naucoria melinoides (Buwll.) r.—-
Be, IK,
scolecina I/7.—W.
semiorbicularis (Bull.) Hr.—B
(Hawley).
* tabacina (DC.) Hr.—B.
badipes I’7.--P.
* Myosotis 7.—K.

* — temulenta /7.—B, D.
escharoides J/%7.—A, Br, D, K.
Galera tenera (Schaef) Fr.—LBr, D,

IK, 12
* — spartea H7.—B, Br, K.
rubiginosa (Pers.) F'r.—Br, K.
hypnorum (Schrank) fr.—B, Br,
CRD KR:
“s var. sphagnorum (Pers.) Fr.
-—Br, K.
Tubaria furfuracea(Pers.) W.G.Sm.—
A, B, Br, C, D, K, P.
paludosa F7r.—C, K.
* — erobula /7.—B, Br.
* — inquilina H7.—B, Br.
*Crepidotus calolepis /7.—B, Cl, K, P.
mollis (Schaeff.) Fr.—D.
Psalliota arvensis (Schaeff.) Fr.—A,
C, P.
campestris (Linn.) Fr.—B, L, P.
haemorrhoidaria Kalchbr.—Br, P.

13 21

Stropharia aeruginosa (Curt.) F'r.—
JX, 18}, 1B ye, Oil, IKK, 1B,

* — squamosa #7,—Br, D.

* merdaria /'.—C, at 2000 feet.
stercoraria /’7.—B, Br, K, P.
semiglobata (Batsch) Fr.—A, B,

Wbye, (Ch, 1D), IDye., KE 12,
Hypholoma sublateritium (Schacff )
Fr.—B, Br, D, K, P.

* — capnoides F7,.—A, Br, K.

epixanthum (Pawl.) Fr.—aA, B,
ID), 1a, 1.

fasciculare (Huds.) Hr.—A, B, Br,
Chl, 1D), IDie, Ik, 1,

velutinum (Pers.) H’7.—Bx, P.

* — lanaripes Che.—P.

* Candolleanum /7.—B (Hawley).
appendiculatum (Buwil.) Fr.—K,

1B
hydrophilum (Bull.) F7r.—Br, K,

1,
Psilocybe ericaea (Pers.) fr.—A, B,

1p

* uda (Pers.) Hr.—A (Hawley).
semilanceata #%.—A, B, Br, C,
1D), IK, 12.
* — canobrunnea F7.—W.
foenisecii (Pers.) Hr.-—D, K, L.
Clivensis B. dé Br.—P.
Psuthyra corrugis (Pers.) F7.—B, Br,
CAD SKE:
var. vinosa Cda.—K.
spadiceogrisea (Schaeff.) Berk.—
L (Hawley).
* pifrons Berk.—Br, P.
S var. semitineta Phill.—D.
* fatua #’7.—B & L (Hawley).
fibrillosa (Pers.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
IK, 1B
* — gossypina (Bull.) #r.—Br, P.
Anellaria separata (Linn.) Karst.
1B}, 12

13 22

Anelaria fimiputris (Bull.) Karst.—
IK, 12,
*Panaeolus sphinctrinus #7.—Br, K,
12,
campanulatus (Linn.) Fr.—a, B,
1Bye, JD), 1k, 12
papilionaceus (Buwll,) Fr—D, L,
K.
Psathyrella gracilis (Pers.) Fr.—A,
1535 13395 (Ch (ID), Whe IG Je
atomata F'r.—B, Br, D, K, P.
disseminata (Pers.) Fr.—D, L, P.
Coprinus comatus (Fl. Dan.) Fr.—P.
atramentarius (Bull.) Fr.—B, D,
Kee:

* cinereus Fr.—Br.
niveus F’r,—A, B, Br, D, K, P.
micaceus (Bull.) Fr—A, B, Br,

IDSs 12

* radians (Desm.) F7.—B.
lagopus F7.—L, P.

+ Friesii Quél.—B (Hawley).
radiatus (Bolt.) Fr.—Br, C, D, L.
ephemerus (Bull.) Fr.—K.
plicatilis (Curt.) Fr.—B, Br, D,

IK, I, IE
Cortinarius (Phlegmacium) varius
(Schaeff.) Fr.—B.
largus (Buxb.) Fr.—Br.
infractus (Pers.) F’r.—K.
glaucopus (Schaeff.) Fr.—Br.
purpurascens (Batsch) Fr.—
Br.

= emollitus F7.—K.

= decoloraus (Pers.) Fr.—A.
(Myxacium) collinitus (Pers.) Fr.

—B, Br.
elatior #7.—A, B, Br, Cl, D,
Dye, iG 12

= pluvius F7.—K.

(Inoloma) alboviolaceus (Pers.) Fr.
—B, Br.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cortinarius (Inoloma) callisteus F7.—
Br.
> bolaris (Pers.) Fr.—B, Br.
= penicillatus #7.—Br.

* — (Dermocybe) ochroleucus( Schaef.)
Fr.— Br.
tabularis (Bull.) Fr.—B, K.

camurus F’r.—Br.

caninus fr.—A, Br,

ce myrtillinus (Bolt.) Fr.—Br.
anomalus F7r.—B, K.

s lepidopus Cke.—B, K.

miltinus F7.—A.

cinnamumeus (Linn.) Fr.—A,

D, K.
uliginosus Berk.—Near Lee-
nane.
a cotoneus #7.—Br.
(Telamonia) torvus Fr.—B, Br,
ID), Ui, Ip
= impennis F7.—Br, K.
hinnuleus (Sow.) #7.—B, Br, D,

K.
= helvelloides F7.—Br.
> bovinus Fr. —B (Hawley).
= brunneus (Pers.) F'r.—Br, D.
= biformis F’7.—B (Hawley).
B3 psammocephalus (Bull.) Fr.—
1G TB
iliopodius (Bull.) F7.—B, L.
hemitrichus (Pers.) /7.—Br.

= rigidus (Scop.) Fr.—Br, K.
paleaceus ( Weinm.) Fr.—A, B,
Br, D, K.
(Hydrocybe) castaneus F'7.—B, Br,
K.
ss pateriformis F7.—K.

* dolabratus F7.—Br.
leucopus (Pers.) Fr.—A, B, Br,

K.
2 rigens(Pers.) F7.—B (Hawley).
- scandens fr.—P.

* erythrinus #7.—B, Br.

Clare Island Survey— Fungi.

*Cortinarius (Hydrocybe) decipiens

(Pers.) Fr.—a, Br, D, K.
ts obtusus /7.—Br, P.
acutus (Pers.) Fr.—B, Br, L.
me fasciatus I’r.—B (Hawley).
Gomphidius viscidus ( Zinn.) Fr.—P.
* — roseus (Fr.) Quél.—K.
Paxillus involutus #.—A, Br, K,
L, P.
* leptopus F’7.—K, P.
§t+Hygrophorus (Limacium) squamu-
losus Rea.—D.
(Camarophyllus) pratensis (Pers.)
Fr.—K, LB, P.
virgineus (Wulf.) H7.—B, Br,
D,K, L,P.

* var. roseipes Massee.—B, P.
niveus (Scop.) #r.—B, Br, Cl,
D, K, L, P.
* fornicatus /7.—K, P.

= distans Berk.—B (Hawley).
ovinus (Bull.) F’r.—B, K.
(Hygrocybe) laetus (Pers.) Fr.—
A, B, Br, D, K, L.
ceraceus (Wulf.) ’r.— B, Br.
coccineus (Schaeff.) Hr.—Br,

C, D, K.
miniatus I’r.—B, Br, D, K, P.
* Reai Maire.—K, P.
* turundus Hr.—D.
* var. mollis B. dé Br.—D, P.

puniceus #’7.—B, D, L.

obrusseus /.—B, D, I.

conicus (Scop.) Fr.—D, P.

calyptraeformis Serk.—B, D,
IP, Ig

chlorophanus #’r.—B, Br, D, K,
Ib 1,

psittacinus (Schaeff.) 7r.—B,
Br, D, K, P.

unguinosus #7.—D, P.

nitratus (Pers.) Hr.—K.

13 23

Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Hr.—
B, Br, L.
turpis (Wemm.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
K, P.
* pubescens #’.—A, B, Br, Cl, W.
insulsus #’r.—Br.
blennius /7.—B, Br, D, K, L, P.
hysginus F’r.—Br.
circellatus ( Batt.) Fr.—D.
* uvidus /’r.—Br.
pyrogalus (Bull.) fr.—B, L.
chrysorrheus F'r.—B, Br, D, K, P.
piperatus (Scop.) Fr.—B, Br, L,
P, W.
vellereus #7.—B, Br, D, K, P.
deliciosus (Linn.) Fr.—A, Br, K,
P.
pallidus (Pers.) F'’r.—D, K, P.
quietus f’r.—A, B, Br, K, P.
* —aurantiacus (Fl. Dan.) Fr.—Br.
theiogalus (Bull.) Fr.—A (Haw-
ley).
* vietus F’r.—B, Br.
rufus (Scop.) #r.—A, K.
* helvus #r.—L (Hawley).
glyciosmus f7.—B, Br, D, K, P.
serifluus (DC.) Fr.—B, Br, D, K,

IB.

mitissimus /’r.—B, Br, Cl, D, K,
1,

subdulcis (Bull.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
ID), 1K, 12,

camphoratus (Bull.) I”7.—K, P.
* cimicarius (Batsch) Phill.—A, Br,
K.
* obnubilis (Lasch) F#r.—B (Haw-
ley).
Russula nigricans (Bull.) F’7.—B, Br,
D, K, L, P.
adusta (Pers.) Fr.—A, K.
delica ’7.—B (Hawley).
* — olivascens F’r,—K,

13 24

Russula sardonia (f7r.) Bres.—D, K.
depallens (Pers.) Fr.—A, Br, K,
1D,

* caerulea (Pers.) Hr.—A, D, K, P.
drimeia Cke.—A, B, Br, K, L, P.

* cutifracta Che.—B.
lepida F’r.—B, Br, K, L.
rubra (DC.) fr.—B, D, Kilboyne

House.
* atropurpurea (Krombh.) Fr.—Br.
vesca H’r.—Br, D, K.
xerampelina (Schaeff.) Fr.—Br,
IK, 12,

eyanoxantha (Schaeff.) Fr.—B,
1B, ID), I, hy 12

galochroa F7.—Br.

consobrina /’7,—K.

oe var. sororia (Larbr.) Fr.—K.
foetens (Pers.) ’r.—D, K.
fellea #’7.—B, Br, D, K, Ly, P.
emetica #7.—B, D, K, L, P.

* fallax (Schaeff.) Fr.—Br.
ochroleuca ( Pers.) f7.—A, B, Br,

ID), 1h, 126
fragilis (Pers.) Fr.—A, B, Br,
DD rakes es
var. nivea Cke.—Br, K.

* var. violacea Cke.—A, B, Br,
1D), Li, 12

integra (Linn.) ’7.—B (Hawley).

roseipes (Secr.) Dres.—K.
* nitida ( Pers.) F7.—Br. K.
puellaris #.—A, Br, K, P.
ochracea ( Pers.) Pr.—W (Haw-
ley).

lutea (Huds.) F’r.—B, Br, Murrisk
Abbey (Hawley).

Cantharellus cibarius /’r.—B, Br, D,

K.

aurantiacus (Wulf.) Fr.—B, D,
Keele ee

tubaeformis ( Bull.) Fr,—Br.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cantharellus muscigenus (Buil.) Fr.
—Br.
Nyctalis asterophora /r.—K, lL.
parasitica (Bull.) /’r.—A, B, Br,
Cl. D, K, P.
Marasmius oreades ( Bolt.) /’r.—B.
erythropus ( Pers.) /’r.—Br. D, K,
Pe
ramealis (Bull.) #r—B, Br, K,
L, P.
* — eandidus ( Bolt.) Fr.—B.
Androsaceus rotula (f’r.) Pat.—B, Br,
D, K.
eraminum (Lib.) Pat.—K, P.
* epiphylloides Rea.—D, K.
*Rhizopogon luteolus /7r.—A (Haw-
ley).
*Tycoperdon perlatum Pers.—Br.
* depressum Son.——B, K, P.
caelatum Bull.—D.
pyriforme (Schaeff.) Pers.—B, Br,
1G, 125
spadiceum Pers. (teste Lloyd)—A
(Hawley).
umbrinum Pers.—Br.
Boyista plumbea Pers.—D, K, P.
nigrescens Pers.—B, K.

Cyathus striatus Hoffm.—Br, K.
Scleroderma vulgare Hornem.—Br, P.
verrucosum (Buill.) Pers.—Br.

Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode.— By.

FUNGI IMPERFECTI.

*Phyllosticta Ajugae Sacc. ¢ Speg.—B
(Hawley).
primulicola Desm.—B (Hawley).
*Phoma nebulosa (Pers.) Mont.—B.
*Cytospora Salicis (Cda.) Rabh.—A
(Hawley).
*Ascochyta Pisi Lib.—L (Adams).
*Septoria scabiosicola Desm.—A, B, L,
Wr

Clare Island Survey— Fungi. -

*Septoria Violae Rabh.—B, K.
Cylindrium flavo-virens Bon.—Br, K,

12,
Trichoderma viride (Pers,) F'r.—Br,
K.
*Gliocladium lignicolum Grove. — Li
(Hawley).
*Rhinotrichum Thwaitesii B. dé Br.—
12),

“Botrytis cinerea (Pers.) Fr.—Br.
Sepedonium chysospermum (Nees.)
Grev.—Br, D, K, L.
*Ramularia Ajugae (Niessl.) Sacc.—

13 25

*Fusicladium depressum (B. ¢ Br.)
Sacc.—W.
*Clasterosporium hirudo Succ., var.
anglicum Grove—L (Hawley).
*Helminthosporium rhopaloides Fves.
—A (Hawley), on Potato,
* Smithii 6. é Br.—l (Hawley).
Sporochisma mirabile B. & Br.—Br,
P, L.
Stilbella tomentosa (Schrdd.) Lind.—
D, K.
Isaria farinosa (Dicks.) Fr.—K.
* ~~ arachnophila (Ditm.) Sacc.—Br.

B (Hawley). Stysanus stemonites (Pers.). Cda.—
Torula herbarum (Link) Cda.—Br. Br, K.
Zygodemus fuscus Cda.—Br, D, K, P. Aegerita candida (Pers.) Grev.—Br.
Bispora monilioides Cda.—B, K. L.

7. NOTES ON THE LIsT. ©
Corynella glabro-virens Boud.

I have adopted the genus Corynella of Boudier because this species
seems to belong rather to the Calloriaceae than to the Bulgariaceae. This
minute species is known by its bright emerald green disc, which is deeper in
colour at the margin, and its terseptate spores. It was accompanied by
Stulbum-like conidia of the same colour.

Urceolella incarnatina (Quél.) Boud.

We have assigned this species to Boudier’s genus Urceolella because it
seemed impossible to transfer it satisfactorily to any of the genera included
in our British mycological works. This very minute species is new to the
British Isles, and is of a delicate flesh-colour when moist, covered on the
outside with a very short, fine pubescence.

Geoglossum microsporum Cke. & Peck.

Ascophores black, dry, not at all viscid. Spores pale brownish when
fresh, straight or slightly curved, obtuse, cylindrical, 25-40 x 4-6 uw, becom-
ing ultimately seven- to nine-septate. Paraphyses curved, brownish, 2 «
thick at the apex. The spore-1measurements given in Massee’s “ British
Fungus Flora,” iv, 484, seem to be based to a great extent on American
specimens.

R.I.A. PROO., VOL. XXXI. D 13

18 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acudemy.

Gloniopsis Miilleri (Duby) Sace.

Achill Island (Hawley). The spores in this specimen were rather smaller
than in those from the Ile de Levant at Kew. They were five-septate and
constricted, and showed no signs of becoming brown. There is a drawing by
Phillips at Kew of apparently the same species collected at Shrewsbury, but

with shorter perithecia.

Mycosphaerella ascophylli Cotton.

Achill Island (A. D. Cotton): see ‘Transactions British Mycological
Society, iii, 95.

Anthostoma saprophilum E. & E.

Louisburgh (Hawley). This addition to the Britannic fungus-fiora is also
new to Europe.

Diaporthe exasperans Nke.

Belclare (Hawley). We are not aware that this has been recorded for
Britain. It occurred also in Clare Island along with Melanconis stilbostoma
(Fr.), Tul., from which it is separated by its smaller spores and other
characters.

Hygrophorus (Limacium) squamulosus Rea.

Pileus 5-7 cm. latus, convexo-expansus, subumbonatus, glutinosus, sub
glutine floccoso-squamulosus, margine incurvo tomentoso supra basim lamellarum,
luteo-olivaceus centro fusco. Caro albida ad inferam partem stipitis lutescens.
Stipes 6-8 cm. longus, 1-2°5 em. crassus, aequalis vel deorsim incrassatus,
solidus, glutinosus, concolor, apice albo-farinosus. Lamellae 5-10 mm. latae,
sinuato-adnatae, albae, subconfertae, acie irregulariter undulatae. Odor et
sapor gratus. Sporae albae, globosae, 3°5- 4 x 3°5 p.

At first sight somewhat resembling some torms of Hygrophorus olivaceo-
albus Fr., but at once distinguished by the floccose squamules and tomentose
margin of the pileus, in which latter respect it resembles 7’richoloma album
(Schaeff.) Fr.

Proc. R.I.ACAD., VoL. XXXI.

if

Cc

Candelospora tlicicola Hawley, 7. ger

A = group of conidiophores

!

\

N

B

AW
WV
ty

|
|
L

PART 13, PLATE I.

YW
rH) LOA
al

Hi Hy

y
/;
Y

se

A

—_—_—_

highly ma
= two conic

2. et Sp.

gnifed. B = single conidiophore, x 400.
idia, x 400.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—REA AND HAWLEY: FUNGI.

‘\

Clare Island Survey.

14
LICHENES.
By ANNIE LORRAIN SMITH, F.L.S.
Read June 26. Published Avcusr 21, 1911.

THE territory selected by the Clare Island Survey Committee for their study
of its flora and fauna extends from Achill southwards to Killary Harbour,
with the islands lying off the coast, and, on the landward side, includes Louis-
burgh, Westport, and Castlebar. It is a region of rock and moorland, the
uncultivated and barren tracts affording just the undisturbed conditions
necessary for the growth of lichens.

The rocks of the district belong to the older series—Silurian and others—
and are described elsewhere; there are, in addition, areas of limestone at
Westport and again at Castlebar with a lichen-flora very distinct from that
of the siliceous rocks. Calcareous species were also found sparingly over the
whole district on walls where mortar had been used in building. Clare Island
itself, the largest of the islands and typical of the others, is formed likewise of
the older rocks, and presents a rugged, storm-beaten coast on the northern
and western sides, facing the Atlantic with high, precipitous cliffs, but sloping
down towards the eastern or landward side to a boulder-strewn shore.

Over the island the rocks are covered by grass, moor, and bog; but often
they are denuded of soil, and lie exposed to sun and wind—ideal situations for
lichens. Towards the north-west side of the island, the ground rises to over
1500 feet above sea-level, but the upper reaches of the hill are boggy, and do
not afford foothold for purely alpine forms. There is a small patch of wood-
land in the most sheltered part of the island on the north-eastern side. It
consists of stunted trees and brushwood about 10 feet in height; and a fair
number of “tree” forms were found on the trunks and branches, mostly
Graphideae, Opegrapha atra and Graphina anguina being the two commonest
species.

In the Achill and Mulranny district rock-specimens abound—some of
them of a more or less alpine character on the higher reaches of the hills.
Croaghpatrick, near Louisburgh, which attains a height of 2510 feet, was

also searched. The prevailing rock is quartzite, and was found to be
R.I.A. PROG., VOL. XXXI. A 14

14 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

inhospitable for lichens; but Rhizocarpon geographicum and two species of
Gyrophora peculiar to high altitudes were found on the rocks there.

At Louisburgh, Belclare, and Westport there are considerable woodland
areas with fine old trees; and they yielded a rich crop of corticolous lichens.
There were scattered trees also at Achill and Castlebar, on which several
species were found.

Though there have been a number of noted field lichenologists in Ireland,
very few specimens have been collected in our district. Carrington, Carroll,
Sir Thomas Gage, Miss Hutchins, Admiral Jones, Salwey, and T. Taylor
collected mainly in the south and south-west, in Cork and Kerry. We find
also records from Wicklow by Moore and Taylor; from Donegal by Moore; and
from northern Ireland by Thompson, Moore, and Miss Hutchins. Carroll and
Moore made occasional expeditions into Galway, and duly recorded their
finds; but the chief collector in the western districts was Charles Larbalestier.
He found several new lichens which were determined by Nylander and
published in various volumes of “Flora” from forty to fifty years ago.
Larbalestier long survived his fellow-collectors; he died a few months ago
(April, 1911) in his native Jersey. Most of his work was done in
Connemara, at Kylemore, Twelve Bens, Killary Bay, &c.; but he also
travelled up to Mayo and made a few records from Lord Sligo’s demesne at
Westport.

With these exceptions, the western districts, and more especially Mayo, have
been practically unsearched for lichens until the botanists of the Clare Island
Survey turned their attention to them. The first collection of any importance
in the district was made in the early summer of 1909 by Miss M. C. Knowles,
who then worked chiefly at the larger forms of Parmelia, Physcia, Cladonia,
Peltigera, &c. The specimens were sent to me at South Kensington to be
examined, and a number were found to be new, not only to the district,
but to the Irish flora. The committee owe a great debt of gratitude to
Miss Knowles, whose exceptional ability as observer and collector has so
greatly aided the lichenological survey. In the following spring Mr. W. West, a
skilled field-worker, took advantage of his stay on the island to collect a series
of rock and ground specimens. They were sent by him to South Kensington,
and have been incorporated in the lists. Mr. W. A. Wattam, Huddersfield,
went in June, 1910, to Achill and the Curraun peninsula, where he spent a
busy fortnight. He devoted most of his attention to the higher grounds of
Curraun, Glendarary, and Slievemore, where he made a rich collection of rock
specimens, including such mountain forms as Khizocarpon geographicum, Ephebe
pubescens, Gyrophora torrefacta, and G. cylindrica. At the summit of
Croaghaun Mountain he found Cladonia bellidiflora, an upland species, in great

Clare Island Survey—Lichenes. 14 3

profusion : one patch 14 inches in length forming “a crimson band of exquisite
beauty, owing to the vast amount of fructifying podetia.”

Early in October, 1910, accompanied by Miss Knowles, Mr. Praeger, and
other botanists, I visited Achill Sound, Clare Island, Louisburgh, Belclare,
Westport, and Castlebar. We explored generally the whole district, and
made large collections, which were, as before, determined at South Kensington ;
and I have again to thank Miss Knowles for her assistance in the arduous
task of examining the specimens with the microscope. We had many
duplicates sent in by the different workers and from the different localities,
but finally we were able to reckon about 280 species with forty sub-species,
varieties, or forms. Of these, according to Mr. Adams’s “ Distribution of
Lichens in Ireland,”! only about thirty had been previously recorded in
the sub-provinee marked by him C2 (the County of Mayo) in which our district
is included. A large number had been already collected in Galway, but
between thirty and forty on our lists are new to Ireland. ‘There are nine in
Mr. Adams’s list recorded from Mayo that we did not find. These are :-—
Bacidia effusa (intermedia) Arn., B. luteola (rubella) Mudd., Buellia advenula
A.L.Sm., Collema flaccidum Ach., Gyrophora erosa Ach. (?), Lecanora pyracea
_Nyl., Lecidea arridens Nyl. (2), Porina lectissima A. Zahlbr., and Roccella
JSuciformis, DC.

As has been already stated, a region of rock, moorland, and sea-coast such
as that selected by the Clare Island Committee for their survey is peculiarly
favourable for the development of an abundant lichen flora. These lowly
plants are mostly of slow, continuous growth, the same plants and even the
same fruits persisting year after year; so they flourish best on some
substratum that is not subject to change or disturbance. The number of
species on our list gives but little idea of the vast lichen growths that are to
be found on the western shores. The exposed rocks were everywhere covered
with sheets of leafy Parmeliae or densely coated with mingling crustaceous
forms which competed for every inch of space, while the peaty soil yielded
fine growths of Cladonia and Stereocaulon, and spreading over the grass
were various species of Peltigera, notably P. canina and P. rufescens, with its
crested form praetextata.

The rocks bordering the sea and the great cliffs of the north-west shore of
Clare Island are black with an unbroken growth of Verrucaria maura,
Lichina pygmaea, a small, dark, shrubby lichen, is also abundant on some of
the rocks washed by high tides; and within reach of the spray Ramalina
scopulorum and &. cuspidata found room for their grey tufts of strap-shaped

1 Proc. R. I. Acad., xxvii., Sect. B., No. 10. 1909.
A 2

14 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

branches. The boulders near the shore were gay with the yellow Physcia
parietina or Lecanora lobulata. Further away the rocks were covered with
great white patches of Lecanora parella, with its large, crowded apothecia ; and
Lecanora atra, with a grey, irregular crust and outstanding black fruits, was
very noticeable and very abundant. Further inland still, these two dominant
species were partly replaced by Lecidea rivulosa, with its thick crust of varying
shades of purplish brown. Mr. Wattam also reports from Achill that “this
is undoubtedly the most common of all rock-lichens. It occurred on every
mountain-range and wayside boulder, both at high and low altitudes, and
makes perfect maps of varied brown hues intersected with black hypothallus.”
Some of the patches observed by him measured 9 feet by 3 feet. Other
Lecideae, such as ZL. contigua and L. conjivens, with stout, black fruits, occurred
not seldom; and mingling with these more massive forms were species of
Rhizocarpon and Buellia in varying mosaics of green, grey, or brown; and
everywhere, though inconspicuous, the thin crust and small iron-red fruits
of Lecanora ferruginea. Species with bright brown thallus were not frequent,
but we secured specimens of Lecanora Dicksonii and Rhizocarpon Oederi, both
of a yellowish red hue, and on the stones of a stream the equally bright
Lecanora lacustris.

On many of the boulders the crustaceous forms were shouldered aside by
the leafy Parmeliae, the most common of all Parmelia saxatilis, with its lovely
grey thallus seamed and scored by innumerable zigzag white lines, and
often rough with small projecting points called “isidia ”— outgrowths from the
thallus, which break away and form the beginnings of new growths. Almost
imperceptibly P. saratilis passes over to the allied species P. omphalodes, a
darker plant, with a smooth shining thallus. Another Parmelia found in large
sheets is P. perlata, the curled edges of its thallus bordered with white pearly
soredia. P. caperata, though less abundant, helped to cover the boulders with
its yellowish green wrinkled thallus. On the same rocks, bristling tufts of
Ramalina pushed up between the Parmelia lobes. Other boulders were taken
possession of by the thick warted crusts of grey Pertusariae, many of them
sterile forms impossible to determine accurately.

In the limestone districts of Westport and Castlebar the stone walls were
adorned with the brilliant yellow Lecanora murorum and L. callopisma, and
spotted all along with the milk-white thallus of Z. calearea, or the dark
brown patches of Verrucaria nigrescens. The outcropping rocks were
dotted with pin-holes, each one the seat of Verrucaria calciseda, while here
and there the white surface was blackened with the crust of Pannwaria
Nigra,

Among tree-lichens, the largest number belonged to various Graphideae

Clare Island Survey—Lichenes. 14 5

and Lecanorae. Pyrenula nitida was very common and very noticeable ; and
minute forms of other Pyrenocarpei covered the trunks and branches. In a
wood at Louisburgh a fallen tree-trunk was almost wholly occupied by
Collema nigrescens, and some fine gatherings of Coccocarpia plumbea, with its
thick leathery thallus, were secured at the same place.

Not a few rare species were discovered in the mass of material examined.
Among these may be noted Arthonia subvarians, a parasitic species from
Castlebar, recorded previously in England; Arthopyrenia leptotera, found on
rocks by the sea at Achill, previously recorded from Jersey ; A. microspila, also
new to Ireland, generally associated with Graphis (sp.), as is the specimen
collected at Castlebar. A well-marked species, Bacidia arceutina, was found
at Achill on the branch of a tree, and a variety on peaty ground also at Achill
has been determined as var. hypnea, though that plant has hitherto been
recorded as growing over mosses and hepatics on boulders. 2. atrogrisea was
collected at Castlebar and at Achill, the latter specimen sent by Mr. Wattam.
Two collections of B. wmbrina were also made on rocks at Achill; it is
distinguished by the long, narrow, coiled or vermiform spores.

Bilimbia albidocarnea, with the subspecies chlorotropoides, was discovered
by Charles Larbalestier in Galway. The subspecies was now again found at
Castlebar. Typical specimens of B. lignaria were growing on the ground at
Achill, and again at Clare Island; a saxicolous form of the species was gathered
at Achill and Belclare, and should probably have varietal rank. A similar
specimen was named Lecidea saxigena by Uloth; in both forms the blue-green
tips of the paraphyses are a marked and Characteristic feature. Collemopsis
Schaererti was found on the limestone at Castlebar, a thin black crust
crowded with apothecia, and on the same habitat Gyalecta cupularis and
G. exanthematica, the latter well-marked by its fissured apothecia. Lecanora
gelida occurred in abundance on a stone wall at Belclare, easily known, even
when sterile, by the brown spreading cephalodia on the thallus.

Microthelia dissepta, a very rare lichen, dotted with its black fruits the
thallus of Rhizocarpon confervoides ; it is another of the lichens discovered by
Larbalestier in Galway. A soil lichen, first sent by W. West from Clare
Island, Pannularia microphylla, grew in fine abundance, and was subsequently
found also at Achill; it forms a brown, compact crust of minute, closely packed
brown lobes, among which are seated the dark apothecia.

A form of Pertusaria Waulfenii was collected on a wall at Tale the
spores were so much larger (95-100 x 30-45) than the size given by Crombie
that it seemed at first to be a new variety ; but Continental authors give a
much larger measurement for the spores of the species, and ours came well
within the limits.

14 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Many of the specimens were unfortunately sterile, and could not be
determined ; the fruits were there, but the spores were scattered.

An alpine species, Pertusaria gyrocheila, was submitted to me lately by
Mr. W. West, who had found it growing in great abundance on Slievemore,
Achill. The fruits are rather large, of a labyrinthine or gyrose form, and are
borne on raised, scattered pustules. It was originally collected by Carroll on
Ben Lawers, and described by Nylander in “ Flora,” 1865. Mr. West has also
collected it on the mountains of Harris on the West of Scotland. These were
its only previous records.

Some specimens of Usnea were collected both from trees and from rocks,
They were poorly developed and somewhat difficult to determine.

Several species of Verrucaria and allied genera were found only once. They
are easily overlooked by the most careful collectors ; and are probably fairly
common and abundant.

The distribution of lichens is ecological even more than geographical. They
are intimately associated with their substratum, each growing generally on its
own special rock. tree, or soil. Some few grow indiscriminately where they
can find conditions favourable to their development. As a rule they avoid too
shady situations, and they are to be found in most profusion on the sunny side
of tree or wall. The green algae, often deeply seated in the thallus, require
the light rays at their highest intensity, these being often obscured by the
pigments—protective or otherwise—of the cortical cells. Some species never
leave the shore; others are almost entirely confined to mountain-tops. Each
species has its chosen locality as well as its favourite habitat. They clothe the
rocks with a soft and variegated colouring, or lend a darker shade to the frown-
ing cliffs by the sea. Everywhere they add their share to nature’s infinite
variety.

In compiling the lists of lichens we have followed the classification of the
two parts of the Monograph of British Lichens published by the Trustees of
the British Museum. They are known and used by British lichenologists,
although Part I. is now somewhat out of date. The species new to Ireland,
as far as could be ascertained, have been marked with an asterisk. Use has
been made of Mr. Adams’s lists in questions of distribution. We do not claim
to have exhausted the lichen flora of the district, but only to have given a
representative list of these plants, many of them very difficult of detection.
My warmest thanks are due to all who have given generously of their time
and skill.

Clare Island Survey—Lichenes. 147

LIst OF SPECIES.

Species new to Ireland are marked with an asterisk; tree or bark specimens
are marked B; rock and wall specimens # ; ground and soil specimens G.

EPHEBACEI.
Ephebe pubescens Nyl.—&. Louisburgh. Achill.

COLLEMACEI.

Lichina pygmaea Ag.—f. Achill. Clare Island.
confinis Ag.—R. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Collema cheileum Ach.—f. Achill. Belclare.
crispum Ach.—R. Clare Island.
var. ceranoides Nyl.—R. Clare Island.
cristatum Hofim.—R. Castlebar. Louisburgh.
furvum Ach.—R. Clare Island.
granuliferum Nyl.—. Clare Island. Westport.
multipartitum Sm.—A. Castlebar.
nigrescens Ach.—B. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh. Westport.
pulposum Ach.—f. Castlebar. Louisburgh.
Leptogium scotinum Fr.—f. Clare Island.
tremelloides Gray.—G. Clare Island. Belclare.
Collemopsis Schaereri Nyl—f. Castlebar.

LICHENACKEI.

Sphaerophorus compressus Ach.—G. Achill. Louisburgh.

coralloides Pers.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
Baeomyces aeruginosus DC.—G. Louisburgh.

rufus DC.—G. Achill.
Stereocaulon coralloides Fr.—G. Achill. Louisburgh.

denudatum var. pulvinatum Floerke.—G. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.
Pycnothelia papillaria Duf.—G. Achill. Clare Island.
Cladonia alciornis Iloerke.—G. Clare Island.

bellidiflora Floerke.—G. Achill. Croagl patrick.

cervicornis Schaer.—G. Achill. Croaghpatrick.

coccifera Schaer.—G. Achill. Louisburgh,

deformis Hofim.- G. Louisburgh.

degenerans Floerke.—-G. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.

digitata Hoffm.—G. Louisbureh.

fimbriata Fr.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.

sub-sp. fibula, var. subcornuta Nyl.—G. Achill. Louisburgh,

14 8 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Cladonia floerkeana Fr.—G. Louisburgh.
furcata Hoffm.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
var. recurva Floerke—G. Louisburgh.
yar. spinosa Hook.—G. Louisburgh.
gracilis Hofim.—G. Clare Island.
macilenta Hoffm.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
var. scabrosa Nyl.—G. Louisburgh.
pityrea Floerke.—G. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
pungens Floerke.—G. Achill. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
pyxidata Fr.—G. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh. The Bills.
var. Chlorophaea Floerke.—G. Clare Island.
squamosa Hofim.—G. Louisburgh.
subsp. adspersa Nyl.—G. Achill.
sobolifera Del.—G. Achill.
verticillata Floerke—G. Achill. Belclare. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.
Cladina sylvatica Nyl.—-G. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick. Louis-
burgh.
uncialis Nyl.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.
f. adunca Cromb.—G. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
f. bolacina Cromb.—G. Achill.
Ramalina calicaris Nyl.—L. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
cuspidata Nyl.—f. Achill. Louisburgh. The Bills.
subsp. breviuscula Nyl.—R. Achill.
- Curnowii Cromb.—f. Clare Island.
evernioides Nyl.—B8. Westport.
farinacea Ach.—B. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh. Westport.
fastigiata Ach.—B. Westport.
fraxinea Ach.—B. Westport.
var. ampliata Ach.—B. Westport.
pollinaria Ach._B. Westport.
scopulorum Ach.—f#. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
var. incrassata Nyl.—Z. Clare Island.
subfarinacea Nyl.—f. Clare Island.
Usnea ceratina Ach.—B, Ff. Clare Island.
dasypoga Nyl.—B, R. Louisburgh.
florida Ach.—B, R. Achill. Clare Island.
hirta Hoffm.—B, R. Achill. Louisburgh.
Platysma glaucum Nyl.—f. Clare Island.
Parmelia Borreri Turn.—B. Achill. Westport.
caperata Ach.—B, R. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh,
conspersa Ach.—f.. Achill. Louisburzh,
f. isidiata—R, Achill,

Clare Island Survey—Lichenes. 14 9

Parmelia exasperata Nyl.—B. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
fuliginosa Nyl.—R. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
laevigata Ach.—B. Achill. Louisburgh.
omphalodes Ach.—R. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
perlata Ach.—B, R. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louis-
burgh.
var. ciliata Nyl.—B, R. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
physodes Ach.—B. Clare Island.
prolixa Nyl.—&. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
saxatilis L—B, R. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. Croagh-
patrick. Louisburgh. Westport.
f. furfuracea Schaer.—R. Achill. Clare Island.
sulcata Tayl—B. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
tiliacea Ach.—B. Belclare.
Stictina fuliginosa Nyl—R. Belclare. Clare Island.
limbata Nyl.—B. Louisburgh.
Lobaria pulmonaria Hoffm.—G. Clare Island.
Ricasolia amplissima Leight.—B, R. Louisburgh.
laetevirens Leight.—B, R. Clare Island.
Peltigera canina Hoffm.—G. Achill. Clare Island. Louisbureh.
horizontalis Hoffm.—G. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
polydactyla Hoffm.—G. Belclare. Clare Island.
* spuria Leight.—G. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
rufescens Hoffm.—G. Belclare. Clare Island.
f. praetextata Floerke.—G. Belclare. Louisburgh.
Physcia aipolia Nyl.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh.
aquila Nyl—AF. Clare Island. The Bills.
lychnea Nyl.—B. Clare Island.
parietina De Not.—B, R. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh. ‘The Bills.
var. virescens Nyl.—B. Clare Island.
pulverulenta Nyl.—B. Louisburgh. Westport.
stellaris subsp. tenella Nyl.B. Achill. Clare Island. Louisbureh.
var. leptalea Nyl.—B. Achill. Louisburgh.
Gyrophora cylindrica Ach.—R. Achill. Croaghpatrick.
torrefacta Ach.—R. Achill. Croaghpatrick.
Pannaria rubiginosa Del.—B. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Pannularia microphylla Nyl.—G. Achill. Clare Island.
nigra Nyl.—R. Castlebar. Westport.
var. psotina Cromb.—f. Castlebar.
Coccocarpia plumbea Nyl.—B. Achill. Belclare. Louisburgh.
Lecanora albella Ach.—B. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Westport.
R. I, A. PROC., VOL, XXXI, B 14

14 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lecanora allophana Nyl.—B. Westport.
angulosa Ach.—B. Clare Island. Westport.
atra Ach. Achill, Clare Island. Louisburgh.
caesiorufa Nyl—R. Achill. Clare Island.
calcarea Somm.—R. Castlebar. Clare Island,
callopisma Ach.—f. Castlebar, Clare Island. Louisburgh.
chlarotera Nyl.—B. Louisburgh. Westport.
citrina Ach.—R. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
coilocarpa Nyl.—R. Clare Island.
Dicksonii Nyl—R. Croaghpatrick.
erysibe Nyl.—f. Clare Island.
exigua Nyl.—R. Clare Island.
expallens var. lutescens Nyl.—B. Achill.
ferruginea Huds.—R. Belclare. Louisburgh.
var. festiva Nyl—&. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. - Louisburgh.
galactina Ach.—R. Achill. Castlebar. Clare Island.
subsp. dispersa.—R. Clare Island.
gangaleoides Nyl.—f#. Clare Island. Louisburgh. The Bills.
gelida Ach.—f. Belclare.
(Psoroma) hypnorum Ach.—B. Clare Island.
intumescens Koerb.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh.
irrubata subsp. calva Nyl.—R. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare
Island. Westport,
lacustris Th. Fr.—f. Clare Island.
lobulata Somm.—R. Achill. Clare Island.
murorum Ach.—f. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
parella Ach.—Af, B. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. L.ouis-
burgh. Westport.
polytropa Schaer.—R. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
subsp. intricata Nyl.—R. Louisburgh.
pruinosa Nyl.—R. Clare Island.
rugosa Nyl—B. Achill. Belclare. Louisburgh.
var. chlarona Nyl.—b. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Westport.
smaragdula Nyl.—f. Achill. Clare Island.
sophodes Ach.—B. Louisburgh.
var. laevigata Nyl.—&. Clare Island.
subfusca var. campestris Nyl—&. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island.
Louisburgh.
symmictera Nyl.—-B. Louisburgh.
tartarea Ach.—R. Achill. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.
vitellina Ach.—R. Louisburgh.

Clare Island Survey— Lichenes. 14 11

Lecanora vitellinula Nyl.—f. Castlebar.
Pertusaria communis DC.—B, F#. bBelclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Westport.
ceuthocarpa Sm.—f. Louisburgh.
concreta Nyl.—f&. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick. Louisbureh.
f. Westringiii—R. Clare Island.
dealbata f. corallina Cromb.—R. Belclare Croaghpatrick.
globulifera Nyl—B. Louisburgh. Westport.
lactea Nyl.—R. Achill.
leioplaca Schaer.—B. Achill. Belclare. Louisburgh. Westport.
f. hexaspora Nyl.—B. Westport.
gyrocheila Nyl.—f. Achill.
pustulata Nyl.—B. Louisburgh.
Wulfenii var. rupicola Nyl.—f. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Croagh-
patrick.
Gyalecta cupularis Schaer.—R. Castlebar. Clare Island.
exanthematica Sm.—f. Castlebar.
Lecidea albocoerulescens Ach.—f. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island.
auriculata Th. Fr—f. Achill.
yar. diducens Th. Fr.—R&. Achill. Louisburgh.
cinerascens A. lL. Sm.—&. Achill. Clare Island.
coarctata Nyl—#. Achill.
var. elacista Cromb.—R. Westport.
confluens Ach.—f&. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
var. oxydata Leight. Croaghpatrick.
contigua Fr.—R. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
Louisburgh.
var. calcarea Leight.—R. Clare Island.
var. limitata Leight.—f#. Clare Island.
var. flavicunda Nyl—f. Croaghpatrick. Louisburgh.
var. platycarpa.—R. Achill. Louisburgh.
crustulata Koerb.—f&. Clare Island.
goniophila Schaer.—A. Clare Island.
granulosa Schaer.—f. Achill.
latypea Ach.—&. Clave Island.
lithophila Ach.—R. Clare Island.
Metzleri Th. Fr.—R. Castlebar.
mutabilis Fée.—B. Castlebar.
parasema Fr.—B. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louis
burgh. Westport.
var. elaeochroma Sch.—B. Westport.
protrusa Fr.—f. Achill.
B2

14 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acudemy.

Lecidea rivulosa Ach— A. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
sorediza Nyl.—R. Clare Island.
Taylori Mudd.—f. Clare Island.

Biatorina biformigera A. L. Sm.—R. Clare Island.
chalybeia Mudd.—R. Clare Island.
lenticularis Koerb.—R. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
lutea Arn.—B. Belclare.
premnea A. L. Sm.—B. Belclare.

Bilimbia aromatica Jatta——R. Achill. Castlebar. Clare Island.
albidocarnea subsp. chlorotropoides A. L. Sm.—R. Castlebar.
lignaria Massal—G. Achill. Clare Island.

var. saxigena.—f. Achill. Belclare.

melaena Armn.—G. Louisburgh.
mesoidea A. L. Sm.—A. Clare Island.
Naegelii Anzi.—B. Clare Island.

sabulosa Massal.—G. Achill.

Bacidia arceutina Branth and Rostr.—B. Achill.

=f var. hypnea A. L. Sm.—G. Achill.
atrogrisea Arn.—B. On Hazel, Castlebar. Achill.
egenula Th. Fr.—f#. On walls, Clare Island.
umbrina Branth and Rostr.—R. Achill.

SLE aethalea Th. Fr.—R. Achiil.
atroalba Th. Fr.—R. Clare Island.
canescens De Not.—f#. Clare Island. Louisburgh. The Bills.
colludens Tuckerm.—R. Achill. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.
confervoides Koerb.—R. Westport.
coniopta Nyl.—A. Clare Island.
myriocarpa Mudd. (on. rock).—B. Clare Island.
Parmeliarum Oliv.—On Parmelia, Clare Island.

is saxatilis Koerb.—R. Clare Island.

5 spuria Koerb.—&. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
stellulata Mudd.—R. Clare Island. Louisburgh.

3 verruculosa Mudd.—A. Clare Island.

Rhizocarpon alboatrum Th. Fr.—R. Achill. Louisburgh.
calcareum Th. Fr.—R. Castlebar. Westport.
confervoides DC.—R. Achill. Belclare. Clare Island. Croaghpatrick.

Louisburgh.
geographicum DC.—f. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
CGderi Floerke.—F. Belclare. Clare Island.
petraeum Massal—fF. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
var. excentricum A. L. Sm.—f. Belclare. Clare Island. Louis-
burgh.

Clare Island Survey—Lichenes. 14 15

Arthonia gregaria Koerb.—B. Belclare. JLouisburgh.
var. kermesina A. L. S5m.—B. Belclare.
radiata Ach.—B. Castlebar. Clare Island.
var. Swartziana Sydow.—B, Louisburgh. Westport.
subvarians Ny!.—f. Castlebar.
“Opegrapha areniseda Nyl.—f&. Belclare.
atra Pers.—B. Achill. Belclare. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh
Westport.
betulina Sm.—B. Louisburgh. Westport.
calcarea Turn.—f. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
confluens Stiz—R. Achill. Clare Island.
saxicola Ach. var. Decandollei Stiz——A. Achill.
varia Fr.—B8. Louisburgh. Westport.
vulgata Ach.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh. Westport.
Graphis elegans Ach.—B. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
scripta Ach.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh.
var. serpentina Nyl. 8B. Castlebar. Louisburgh.
Phaeographis inusta Muell.-Arg.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh. Westport.
Graphina anguina Muell.-Arg.—B. Belclare. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
Westport.
var. pulverulenta A. L. Sm.—8. Achill.

Enterographa crassa Fée.—B. Westport.

Dermatocarpon aquaticum A. Zahlbruckner.—f. Achill.
hepaticum Th. Fr.—G. Belclare. Louisburgh.
lachneum A.L. Sm.—G. Westport.
miniatum Th. Fr.—R. Clare Island.

Normandina pulchella Cromb.—B, G. Clare Island. Louisburgh.

Verrucaria aethiobola Wahlenb.—f. Clare Island.
calciseda DC.—R. Castlebar. Westport.
coerulea DC.—R. Castlebar.
fuscella Ach.—R. Castlebar. Westport.
laevata Ach.—f. Clare Island.
margacea Wahlenb.—f. Clare Island.
maura Wahlenb.—f. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.

var. memnonia Koerb.—F#. Clare Island.
mauroides Schaer.—f#. Clare Island.
microspora Nyl.—f. Clare Island.
mucosa Wahlenb.—A. Clare Island.
muralis Ach.—F. Achill. Castlebar. Clare Island.
nigrescens Pers.—f. Castlebar. Clare Island. Westport.
prominula var. viridans Nyl.—i. Clare Island.
submersa Schaer.—R. Clare Island.
viridula Ach.—&. Clare Island.

14 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Thelidium pyrenophorum Koerb.—R. Achill.
Polyblastia deminuta Arn.—R. Castlebar.
intercedens Lénnr.—R. Clare Island.
Staurothele rupifraga Arn.—R. Castlebar.
Acrocordia biformis Oliv.—B. Belclare. Louisburgh. Westport.
gemmata Koerb.—B. Westport.
“Arthopyrenia epidermidis Mudd.—B. bBelclare. Louisburgh. Westport.
cinereopruinosa Koerb.— B. Clare Island.
- fallax Arn.—B. Belclare. Castlebar.
leptotera A.L.Sm.—R. Achill.
é litoralis A.L.Sm.—R. Clare Island.
e microspila Koerb.—B. On Hazel. Castlebar.
punctiformis Arn.—B. Achill. Castlebar.
. submicans A.L.Sm.—B. Louisburgh.
*Microthelia micula Flot.—5. Belclare.
dissepta A. L.Sm.—B. On Rhizocarpon confervoides, DC. Achill.
Porina carpinea A. Zahlbr—2. Achill. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
chlorotica Wainio.—R. Achill. Castlebar. Clare Island. Louisburgh.
olivacea A.L.Sm.—B. Achill.
Pyrenula nitida Weig.—B. Belclare Louisburgh. Westport.
Melanotheca gelatinosa Nyl.—B. Clare Island. Louisburgh.

BIsLioGRAPHY.

In view of the publication by Mr. Adams in a recent volume of these ‘‘ Proceedings”
of a full bibliography of Irish Lichens, as an addendum to his paper on ‘‘ The
Distribution of Lichens in Ireland”’ (vol. xxxvii, Sect. B, No. 10, 1909), a list of the
papers dealing with the Lichens of this district appears superfluous. No important
paper has appeared since the date of Mr. Adams’s list.

InpEx or GENERA.

PaGE Pace | PaGE
Acrocordia, . . 14] Graphis, 5 é . 18} Phaeographis, ; els
Arthonia, : ; . 13) Gyalecta, : P 11} Physica, c : ‘ 9
Arthopyrenia, ; - 14) Gyrophora, .- 2 E 9) Platysma, c : F 8
Bacidia, . . 12} Lecanora, E 2 “ 9| Polyblastia, . 6 + a
Baeomyces, - : 7\ Lecidea, 2 : - 11] Porina, c ; > Jet
Biatorina, . - 12) Leptogium, . : : 7| Pycnothelia, : : 7
Bilimbia, - . - 12) Lichina, : : : 7| Pyrenula, : : 5 «ie
Buellia, 12| Lobaria, : ; : 9| Ramalina, . : : 8
Cladina, 8 Melanotheca, - : - 16) Rhizocarpon, . 2 cue oL2
Cladonia, 7, Microthelia, . s . 14] Ricasolia, : : : 9
Coccocarpia, - 9 Normandina, . < . 13} Sphaerophorus. ‘ - 7
Collema, 7\| Opegrapha, - . . 13] Staurothele, . c a ak!
Collemposis, . 7| Pannaria, : F ; 9| Stereocaulon, 6 é 7
Dermatocarpon, 13| Pannularia, . : : 9| Stictina, : , 9
Enterographa, 13| Parmelia, : i j 8| Thelidium, . , 5 el
Ephebe, 7| Peltigera, : : ¢ 9| Usnea, : : : 8
Graphina, 13| Pertusaria, . : - 11} Verrucaria, . : = 13

Olare Island Survey.

15

MARINE ALGAE.
By A. D. COTTON.
Puates I.-XI.

Read June 24 and Novemper 11. Published Novewnrr 27, 1912.

CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE
PREFACE. : 5 ; 1| iii. The Salt-marsh Formation, . 75

INTRODUCTION, A : 2 iv. The Vegetation of River-
ue Definition of the eas Ss 2 mouths, . $3

2. Previous work in the Area, : 2} . The Vegetation of Brackish
3. Field-work and Assistance, 3 4 Bays, : : - . 88
I. Tue Externat ConDITIONS oF THE \III. Tur Atcat Frora, . : 5 o | 6)
AREA, . . $% 6 1. The Systematic List, 0 a OU
1. Climatic Ganiiion, : 6 2. Notes on the List, . 5 . 102
2. Physical Nature of the Coast, 3. Economic Species, . é - lol
and Conditions of Exposure, . 9 4, The Flora of The Bills, . . 13d

II. Tue Atcat VEGETATION, . : - 12) Ty. Tue Cuaracter and Composition
1. Historical Résumé, . c Sue te or THE Frona, z 136
2. Areas and Units of Vegetation, . 14 | 1. Notes on Novelties and AGA Fae, s, 156
3. The Vegetation, 3 17 | 2. The Character of the Flora, . 160
i. The Rocky-shore Formation, 17 | 3. Comparison with other Areas, . 166
(A) Exposed Coasts, _. 19 | 4, Origin of the Flora,. . ~~ 168
(B) Sheitered Coasts, =. 50) Vy. BrnriocraPHy : . 2 5 Ui

ii. The Sand and Sead | ;
Formation, : 61 |
PREFACE

THE natural history Survey of Clare Island and the adjoining mainland
provided an opportunity of investigating one of the most interesting
algological regions in the British Isles. Since the first decade of the last
century, when Miss Hutchins collected in Bantry Bay, and more especially
since the days when Harvey published his famous “ Phycologia Dritannica,”
the west of Ireland has always possessed a great attraction for the marine
botanist. But although various collections and many gatherings of new and
rare species have been dealt with, no systematic investigation cf that area
has been undertaken, nor has any list or general account of the algal flora been
published. The selection of Clare Island as a centre fora detailed survey was
therefore particularly satisfactory from an algological standpoint. Results
for the systematist and student of plant-distribution were certain, and the
R.I.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI, A 45

15 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

variety of ground in the neighbourhood provided ample scope for the modern
study of plant-communities. The position of the island—off the coast of
Co. Mayo, and in the Gulf Stream drift—ensured the presence of that
southern element which gives the Irish flora its peculiar interest.

The following report shows that the hopes raised have been amply
fulfilled. ‘The flora proved quite as rich as was expected ; and practically all
the species for which the west of Ireland is noted occur within the survey-
area. Valuable systematic results have been obtained; and the variety of
algal associations present rendered the study of the marine vegetation one
of the most comprehensive that has yet been carried out. Important
phytogeographic data also, necessitating the modifying of previous views,
were secured.

INTRODUCTION.
1.—DEFINITION OF THE AREA.

Owing to the comprehensive nature of a natural history survey, the
limits of the area investigated varied in different cases, since in some it was
advisable to include a much larger area than in others. With regard to the
marine algae, it was thought best to limit the investigation to Clare Island
and the neighbourhood of Clew Bay. By concentrating attention on a small
district a more accurate knowledge of the true nature of the vegetation can
be obtained, and the variety of ground presented in the area mentioned
proved quite as much as was possible to work with a moderate degree of
thoroughness.

The Survey-area for the algae, therefore, consisted of Clare Island, the
shores and waters of Clew Bay, and an extension to the north to include
Bellacragher Bay and Achill Sound.

At the same time it appeared advisable not to overlook the interesting
records from Roundstone, a locality only twenty-five miles south of Clew Bay.
This district was carefully worked some seventy years ago by W. McCalla,
and he collected several species which were not found in the Clare Island
district. A brief visit was paid to Roundstone; and all records from that
locality are included in the report.

2.—Previous Work IN THE AREA.

According to the scheme of geographical areas devised by Adams (see
Adams, ’11, in Bibliography) the province of Connaught is divided into three
sub-divisions. Co. Mayo (which includes the survey-area proper) forms sub-
division C 2, and, according to an annotated copy of Adams’ Synopsis (Adams,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 3

'08), kindly sent me by the author, possesses thirty records of algae. Co.
Galway, on the other hand, which forms sub-division C1, has a much longer
list, owing to the collections made at Roundstone Bay. For the third sub-
division, C3 (i.e., counties Sligo and Leitrim), there are practically no records.
_ With regard to sub-division C 2, Wm. Thompson, the zoologist, collected
a few plants in Clew Bay about 1840; and Harvey quotes one record—
Asperococeus bullosus—in “ Phycologia Britannica.” In a report of a natural
history excursion to Achill at Easter, 1898, H. Hanna deals with the marine
algae (Hanna, 98). He records twenty species; and this constitutes the only
account of the sea-weeds of the area. Adams, in his list, adds nine names to
the flora of the sub-division, culled from various sources. <A single species
has been recorded from Clare Island, namely Codium tomentosum (vide
H. H. Dixon, Ann. Bot., xi, p. 590).

The Roundstone records date from 1808. Fucus Machaii was described
from that locality by Dawson Turner (“ Historia Fucorum,” Pl. 52);-and it
still remains one of the few stations for the plant in Ireland. In addition to
the discovery of this species, Mackay noted the presence of Lhodochorton
floridulum, which Harvey mentions in the chapter on algae in Mackay’s
“Flora Hibernica.” McCalla’s records follow. He thoroughly explored the
shore, and supplied Harvey, as the pages of “ Phycologia Britannica” testify,
with much valuable material both from Roundstone Bay and Birturbuy Bay.
McCalla was also one of the pioneers of dredging amongst algologists, and by
this method he obtained many interesting species. He commenced to issue
a set of “ Algae Hibernicae,” but, owing to his untimely death in 1849, only
two volumes were published. Harvey visited Roundstone at least once, and
in later times, Johnson (93) and H. Hanna. Foslie also, the well-known
specialist on calcareous algae, came over from Norway on purpose to
investigate the Lithothamnia which had been described from Roundstone by
McCalla and Harvey. An account of his trip was published in the “Irish
Naturalist ” (99, p. 175). Foslie was keenly interested in the Lithothamnia
of the British Isles, and it was proposed to send him for identification all the
Clew Bay material. His premature death in 1910 came as a great shock.
Three days were spent by me at Roundstone in September, 1911, and, with
the exception of Codiwm amphibium, all the species for which that locality is
famous were seen in their natural habitat. The total number of species listed
by J. Adams for the sub-division C 1 is 162.

Outside the province of Connaught, Valencia Harbour (in the extreme
south-west) has been specially investigated by biologists, and Weiss, who dealt
with the algae [00], gives a list of eighty-six species collected by him during
August and September, 1896, with notes on the same.

A 2

15 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

3. FIELD-WORK AND ASSISTANCE.

My visits to the Survey-area extended over three years. In each year two
Visits, varying from a fortnight to three weeks, were paid to the island and
mainland, whilst during the last year, an additional winter visit was
accomplished. Owing to the uncertainty of communication, no attempt was
made during this last trip to cross to the island, but since the conditions of the
exposed mainland are similar to those of Clare Island, a fair idea of the winter
aspect of the vegetation of the whole area was obtained. In addition,
Mr. J. Adams, of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, visited the district in
August, 1909, investigating the island and dredging in Clew Bay.

The dates of the visits were as follows :—

1909. April 8-20; July 12-27. [August 20-27, J. Adams. |
1910. June 16-July 1; September 50-October 15.
1911. February 15-21; April 28-May 13; August 17-September 4.

About one-half the time of each trip was spent on the island, and the
remainder either on the mainland or in dredging. Spring-tides were usually
selected for the former locality, when exposed or semi-exposed shores were
examined at low-water. As is well known, spring-tides are more useful in
sheltered regions than in exposed, and a greater number of rare and sub-littoral
species are doubtless uncovered during springs in Clew Bay than on Clare
Island. But since these can readily be obtained by dredging, there was no
object in reserving low-tides for mainland work.

Dredging was carried out in February, May, July, and August. For the
more open waters I had the advantage of the ss. “ Helga,” of the Fisheries
Branch of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland. The outer part of Clew Bay was explored, and a number of hauls
were taken further out, ie., to the south and west of Clare Island, and near
The Bills, in depths ranging from 10 to 20 fathoms. A large amount of
material was collected, and considerable light obtained as to the nature of
the benthos, but for detailed study much longer time than was at my disposal
was necessary. J. Adams also dredged from the “ Helga” in 1909, and two
interesting algae were found only on that occasion.

For the inner part of Clew Bay a small sailing-boat was used: and good
work was accomplished by means of a hand-dredge in 1-5 fathoms. The
“coral-banks” were investigated, and in quiet weather very much may be
learned as to the nature of the flora. The February dredgings were useful in
obtaining fruiting specimens of encrusting algae. In May the mass of
vegetation is so great that it is impossible to do more than sample various
localities. As the hauls ot July, 1909, had provided several rare and interesting

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algac. 15 5

plants, a few days were set apart in August, 1911, to search for note-
worthy absentees. Rough weather, however, set in, and dredging from a
small boat was out of the question.

With regard to the nature of the field-work, the visits of the first year
were mainly devoted to the listing of species from all parts of the area, and
to working out critical forms. The same study was continued in 1910, and
the analysis of algal communities was also taken in hand. The third year
was principally devoted to the search for species which were to be expected
but had not been found, and to the completion of the work on algal
communities. On each visit, moreover, a large amount of materia! was
collected for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as some extra leave had been
granted for that purpose.

The time devoted to ecology necessarily robbed the systematic list of a
certain number of names. Searching for rare or microscopic species
invariably yields results in the way of new or little-known plants, but the
records of minute species, such as Cyanophyceae, are not yet of much value
for comparative purposes. Moreover, the amount of time and labour spent
in working out microscopic forms is often very great, and out of proportion
to the results obtained. Unfortunately there was no specialist for the
Cyanophyceae (which are abundant in brackish parts of Clew Bay) who could
be appealed to for aid.

The list, therefore, can hardly be considered as exhaustive. With regard
to the littoral flora, the island-list must be fairly complete; and on the main-
land the additions during the last trip were chiefly microscopic forms. But
in the sub-littoral region there are probably many species yet to be discovered,
as the vegetation is very local and less easy of exploration. The fact that
such conspicuous weeds as Dictyopteris, Acrothrix, Dasya corymbosa, and
several others were only seen once, confirms this view.

Assistance.—Dr. P. Kuckuck joined the collecting party during June,
1910, and advantage was taken of his critical knowledge of the Phoeophyceae
to work out Ectocarpi, Chordarieae, &c., and to make comparisons between
the flora of the North Sea and Baltic, and that of Clare Island.

In April, 1911, Dr. F. Borgesen paid a visit to the Survey-area. Naturally
the vegetation of Clare Island had been continually compared with the
detailed account given by him for that of the FaerGes, and several striking
contrasts had been noted. It was, therefore, of the greatest value to be able
to examine the algal associations with Dr. Borgesen, and to discuss the
problems that had arisen. His help also with regard to the Iceland flora was
particularly useful.

In order to make the floristic section of the work as accurate as possible,

15 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

which for comparative purposes is of the very greatest importance, I
have availed myself freely of the help of specialists. Dr. Kuckuck kindly
worked out the Ralfsiae, and checked a number of other members of the
Phoeophyceae. The weight of his authority in doubtful cases was most
valuable. I am also much indebted to Dr. M. Lemoine. Since the death of
Foslie, the identification of encrusting Lithothamnia was uncertain work,
owing to the confusion in the literature, and the scarcity of reliable material
in British herbaria. Madame Lemoine willingly undertook to examine the
Irish material, and, by her method of anatomical investigation, to work out
and compare critical species with authentic specimens. Though no important
additions to the list have resulted, it is highly satisfactory to have trust-
worthy identifications. An interesting point with regard to geographical
distribution has, moreover, been cleared up by her. Dr. K. Rosenvinge kindly
determined the Chantransiae, whilst Prof. N. Wille, Prof. C. Sauvageau, and
Dr. H. H. Peterson examined the species of Ulothrix, Spacelaria, and
Ceramium respectively. Prof. G. 8. West’s opinion on the brackish and
freshwater species, and Mr. J. Adams’ aid in connexion with the distribution
of Irish plants were most helpful. Mr. E. M. Holmes has taken the keenest
interest in the Clare Island flora, and throughout the work of identification
has always most liberally bestowed the benefit of his valuable and unique
experience. ‘I'o all these botanists I offer my sincerest thanks. Special
acknowledgments are due to Mr. Rk. Lloyd Praeger, the organizer and
secretary of the Survey, to whom I am deeply indebted for advice on matters
botanical and geological, as well as for encouragement and assistance in a
number of ways.

I1.—THE EXTERNAL CONDITIONS OF THE AREA.
1.—CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

1, Atmospheric Temperature and Moisture.—TVhe insular climate of Ireland,
and the influence of the Gulf Stream drift, combine to render the Clare
Island district particularly mild and damp. In winter rough stormy weather
prevails, together with a large amount of rain, but frost is rare. In summer
the weather is changeable, rain and gales from the south-west are frequent,
and the average temperature relatively low. Though occasional warm days
oceur, spells of hot dry weather are most unusual; and this renders the
intertidal region more favourable for vegetation than that of the south coast
of England. A glance at the isotherms of Europe shows that the mean
January temperature of 43° F. (=6:11° C.) corresponds with that of the south
of France and the north of the Adriatic; whilst the July isotherm of 58° F.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Alyac. 15 7

(= 14-44°C.) runs up the coast of Norway, across the north of Sweden to
northern Russia and Siberia. Clare Island is situated on the same latitude
as Heligoland and Kiel, but, as will be seen later, the flora is of a very much
more southern type.

The atmospheric moisture is of importance in connexion with the littoral
vegetation. But the problem of desiccation during low water is a very
complicated one, the latitude, together with the amount of wind and sunshine,
-having to be taken into consideration. The following figures (“Trish Coast
Pilot,” ed. 6, 1911) give the mean humidity for the Blacksod Point
Observatory for the last thirty-five years. It will be noted that the highest
figures are those of the winter months, whereas in the Faerées the reverse is
the case, for which the absence in Ireland of summer fogs is probably
responsible :-—

Wey 7 ari ae | | : { | H 7
| Jan. Febr. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July. Ang. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. Dec. |
| gs | s7 | 86 | se | 81 | 81 | 84 | 83 | 84

81 | 86 | 85
| H

Norre.—Observations made at 8 a.m. 100 = Saturation point.

2. Temperature and Salinity of the Sea.—Important as are atmospheric
conditions, the temperature of the water is even more intimately connected
with the algal vegetation. The direct influence of the former is confined to the
intertidal region, and is thus intermittent ; but the effect of the latter is much
more general, being felt both by the littoral and sub-littoral flora. A complete
series of observations on sea-temperatures at different depths is not available
for Clare Island; but the Meteorological Office has favoured me with details of
the mean monthly surface-temperatures for Blacksod Bay and Cleggan during
the year 1911; and Mr. G, P. Farran has kindly supplied me with two sets of
temperatures and salinities for various depths in Clew Bay and off Clare
Island. From these it is evident that the surface temperature does not differ
much from that of 10-20 fathoms, so that the monthly table given below
affords a good general guide. The Blacksod and Cleggan observatories are
about twenty miles north and south respectively of Clare Island. It will be
noted that many of the Blacksod figures are slightly higher than those of
Cleggan, for which local topography doubtless accounts :—

MEAN SurRFACE TEMPERATURE, BLACKSOD AND CLEGGAN, 1911. (C°).

a AES Se oh ee : aes

Jan. (ao Mar. | Apr. | May. June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |

—— — — —_———— a —_—-

Redkeedh 7-2))|6-7))| (6-7) 78-3 a7 13-3 | 16-1 |/6-1 | 13-3 || 10:6) 7-2 | 67 |
| |

Cleggan, | 7-2 | 6-7 | 6-7 | 8-3 | 1-1 | 12:2 | 13°3| 15-0) 13-9 | 10-6 | 7-2 | 56 |

| bs jum ees| | = | |

15 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Crare Isnanp, May, 1909.

| Surface. l 1-10 fathoms. | 11-20 fathoms. i 21-30 fathoms.
° | || = |
Station Number. Date. | | | l | ] | |
i | | | |
| Teme: | Sal. °/. || Temp. 2) Sal. °/, Temp.°C. | Sal. °/, ||'Temp.°C. Sal. °/,
| 3 I
: oe ili to Rl = a
Olare Island W. 67, 21.5.709 | 11:15 | 34-61 = | = {flee | Seay = oo
| (20 fath.
W. 69, | 22.5.709) 11°35 34-60 = = |i cs jf = (10-78 34°64
| (24 fath
iene | en il IoD.) akan me ieee (aoe 34 67 ze ae
| 18 fath. |
‘ Wo Ts |) 0 gp e130 ier 3426 90min (@ 123i | ee =
: | | 9 fath. | | | |
5: W. 75, |24.5.709|| 11:0 | 34-74 = | = [ee 34°72 || (10°55 34:72
{ || | 12 fath. | (25 fath.
| | i
Ween, JOR ROD TG | Bee = eh Sl CC SO tw 3465
| (25 fath. |
| | | |
a Whe > 1115 | 34-79 ee - =
CLARE ISLAND, AuGusT, 1911.
ee 7 = eer pa oT | aaaee Ca ea Te aa = Senay Fwd hee ar l 7 II
Clare Island W. 197, 18. 8.711 | 17°40 | 34-48 - |) = tire | 34:72 | = =
i | | 18 fath. | |
| | | |
% = FF 16°96 | 84:54 | (16°12 | 34:56 | | eee ==
{33 fath.
| j
4 == +} 20. 8. al) Wea |) 34-42 | : —
3 — 5 17-94 | 34:42 | — = = yes | —
| |
3 = as 18:05 34-31 | = Soils 2 | =
- » || 18:25 | 34:29 | — = = | =
Rs , | r7-92 | se29 | — = = == alleen att
i
es 21.8. 71L |) 1692 | 3451 | = — = as es ae. =
NE SNR: A 16°68 | 34°67 = = = = Wrige | =
| 22 fath. |
> W. 206, i 16-67 | 34°79 = = 14-00 34°88
24 fath
The Bills W. 207, 55 | 16-88 = = = = — || (1348 —
|\ 25 fath. |
is W. 208, 55 16:91 34:78 = = = = 14:01 | 34:97
| | | | 26 fath
| |
Clare Island W. 210, 4 16:93 | 34°63 = = | (anes | — | — =
| | 20 fath. | |
Clew Bay W.216,| ,, — || 17-74-| 34-42 | Heese er ae
Clare Island W. 222, | 22. 8.’11 | 16-34 34°78 = = || (14-94 34:79 || (13-96 | 34-88
| | 17 fath 134 fath.
Clew Bay W. aa 8.711 |] 17-25 | 34°67 | ‘“— | -- | = | = | =e =
| | | | } |
| | ree

W.230,| ,,

”

Clare Islund Survey—Marine Algae. 15 9

(3) Tides and Currents—The presence of a good ebb and flow on Clare
Island gives a wide intertidal region for shore-collecting. At Westport
Quay the rise and fall during spring-tides is about 15 feet, and in April
and September 16 feet 6 inches, whilst with neap-tides there is a rise of
12-15 feet. On Clare Island the range is, if anything, greater. Low water
at spring-tides is in the middle of the day. In certain spots (i.e. between
the islands in Clew Bay and at Darby’s Point, Achill Sound) there is a strong
current, and the vegetation is of a different character from that found in other
parts. Ballacragher Bay, owing to its narrow opening, has but a small]
tide—not more than 5-6 feet—except during springs.

2. PHysicAL NATURE OF THE COAST AND CONDITIONS OF EXPOSURE,

Our district presents great diversities in the physical nature of the shore ;
and in describing the same it will be both convenient and natural to divide
it into two areas, viz. (1) Clare Island, and (2) the mainland. Speaking
generally, the island presents an exposed rocky coast, whilst the mainland
consists of sheltered ground. In view of the possibility of future work in
the neighbourhood, a detailed account of the coast-line is given.

(1) Clare Island.— With the exception of the bay near the harbour and
a few sandy patches elsewhere, the whole shore is rocky and cliff-bound.
Taking the different parts of the island im order, we find that on the south
side the rocks are composed of Silurian slate, which forms fiat slopes where
the beds le more or less horizontally, but which is very sharp and rugged
where the strata are upturned. Rock-pools, narrow gulleys, and deep
channels are frequent, and these were found to be useful, as this part of
the shore is as a whole somewhat rough and exposed for general collecting,

The eastern end of the south shore, and from the corner of the bay
to Kinnacorra, is composed of Carboniferous sandstone, a formation found to
afford excellent collecting-ground. Various degrees of slope and exposure
are presented; and towards Kinnacorra there is a fine series of flat rocks
and a number of shallow pools. The Carboniferous sandstone is continued
to Portlea, a semi-sheltered bay on the north-east side of the island. A
boulder-beach surmounts the upper part of this bay; and the rocks below
are flat, with a vegetation somewhat different from that found elsewhere.
Further north, towards the lighthouse, the slate is again in evidence; and
here caves and vertical surfaces, receiving little direct sunlight, are found,
and several shade-loving species appear in the open. Though bounded by
cliffs, the shore at this point is easily accessible. The fine stretch of cliff
on the north-west side of the island is for the most part precipitous, and
the narrow strip of shore below is very exposed and difficult of exploration.
15

R,L.A, PROC,, VOL, XXXI, B

15 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In certain spots it is possible to descend to sea-level, which is found to be
strewn with large, irregular blocks and boulders. Little seaweed vegetation,
however, occurs. On the cliff, colonies of sea-birds provide the conditions
which favour a vigorous growth of Prasiola stipitata.

With regard to exposure, Beetle Head (or Kinatevdilla) and the shore below
the north-west cliff are open to the ocean, and feel the full force of the
Atlantic rollers. The south side is open to the sea from the south-west,
and is also very exposed; but it is not subjected to quite such boisterous
conditions as is the north-west side. Owing to the prevalence of south-
westerly gales, the exposure on this shore must, however, be very severe.
A bend at the eastern end towards the castle affords some protection, as
evidenced by the change in the character of the Fucus growth. The sandy
bay near the harbour, which faces east, provides the only sheltered shore on
the island, and a few sand-loving species are found at the northern corner.
Beyond the bay, the stretch of rocks leading to Kinnacorra is subjected to
moderate wave-action, and on the whole the conditions are semi-exposed.
At Alnahaskilla (beyond Kinnacorra) greater exposure is met with, owing
to the sea coming in from the north; and for the same reason all points
along the north-east side are subjected to rough water, though a certain
amount of shelter is found in the intervening bays and inlets. In a general
way the north-east shore is decidedly more protected than the south, but less
so than Kinnacorra.

(2) The Mainland.—When investigating the mainland, it was the usual
practice to begin at Roonah Point, at the south-west corner of the Clew
Bay, work round to Mulranny on the northern side, and then proceed to
Achill Sound and Bellacragher Bay. In describing the ground it will be
convenient to follow the same order.

Roonah Quay faces west, and the rocky shore of Silurian slates at
the point is subjected to the same exposed conditions as Clare Island.
To the south there is a long stretch of boulder-beach, but the presence
of rocks in shallow water provides shelter, and there is a certain amount
of fairly good collecting-ground. At the point itself, small bays and
caves with partial shelter occur. Turning the corner into Clew Bay the
exposure rapidly decreases, and between this point and Bartraw there is
a series of beaches composed of rocks, boulders, or sand. The surf-loving
Nemalion is found as far in as Old Head, where steep rocks and rough
water occur for the last time; shallow water then sets in, and there is
much sand. When the islands of the bay are reached, the tide recedes
for a long distance, and a certain amount of mud begins to appear, but in
several spots a luxuriant littoral vegetation exists,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 11

Many of the islands provide flat beaches of sand and stone with good
collecting-ground at low water. At Annagh Island there is a salt-marsh.
The Bunowen river at Louisburgh, the stream at Belclare, and the rivers
at Westport and Newport give brackish and fresh-water conditions. In
the innermost part of the bay there are wide stretches of mud, and the
ground is very poor; with the exception of hasty inspections near Westport
and one day at Newport, it was but little explored. The northern side
consists largely of sand. At Mulranny there are strips of salt-marsh,
also fresh-water and brackish streams. The peninsula of Curraun
Achill follows, with a rocky shore of Old Red Sandstone and exposed
conditions.

The floor of Clew Bay is everywhere soft, consisting of sand with stones.
In spring and early summer there is a rich and luxuriant sub-littoral vegeta-
tion, which in shallower parts may be easily studied from a boat, or hauled up
by a hand-dredge. Banks of Lithothamnium occur, and there are numerous
Zostera beds. Between the outer islands, channels with a swift current, where
the bottom is usually stony, are frequent.

Achill Sound, easily reached by train from Mulranny, provides perfect
shelter, and yet fully saline conditions. At low water, the Sound becomes
dry, exposing a large stretch of sand. The water enters from both the north
and south, and at the end of the ebb-tide the parting of the streams will be
observed to take place at a point about a quarter of a mile south of Achill
Bridge. The vegetation is for the most part poor, especially in the summer ;
but channels provide good ground, and the stones set out by the peasants
yield a fine crop of Fucus. Further south (towards Achillbeg) there are
swift currents and deeper water, and here a marked increase in the
luxuriance of the vegetation is noticeable. On the north side of the bridge
there is much mud; but the peat banks flooded by the tide offer some in-
teresting types of plant-associations. Bellacragher Bay, a lough-like inlet
surrounded by high hills, differs from Achill Sound in possessing deep water,
and being less tidal. It is connected with the sea (Blacksod Bay) by a
narrow opening at the north-west corner. Several streams descend from the
hills; and owing to the water only partly escaping on the ebb, the whole
bay must be often more or less brackish. Some samples taken at the end
of the dry summer of 1911 showed, however, almost normal salinity. The
littoral region is narrow, and composed of stones or rock. The bottom
appears to be rocky, since a vigorous belt of Laminaria is disclosed at low

water.

B2

15 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Il. THE ALGAL VEGETATION.
(1) Historican REsumé or Previous Work.

As the present paper forms the first detailed account of the algal associa-
tions in any area in the British Isles, a general introductory sketch of the
subject may be useful.

Kjellmann’s papers on the algal regions and formations of the Murman
Sea (77) and the Skager Rack (’78), form the starting point of the modern
method of studying algal communities. Kjellmann divided the vegetation
into three “regions,” and these he further divided into a number of “ forma-
tions,” which were characterized by a distinctive vegetative facies, due to the
predominance of one or more algae.

The main outlines of Kjellmann’s classification have been accepted by
subsequent writers, though of late years changes in terminology and great
elaboration have been noticeable. One of the earliest attempts to apply
Kjellmann’s methods of study to other countries is contained in a paper by
Rattray (’85). The paper, which is a biological and ecological account of the
algae of the Firth of Forth, is seldom referred to, though it was apparently
the first and, until quite recently, the only one of the kind dealing with an
area in the British Isles.

In other countries, however, this branch of ecology has received more
attention. The Norwegian algal vegetation has been studied by Hansteen
(92), Gran (93), Boye (94-95), and Kylin (10), and an account of the
Faerdese algae was published by Simmons (99). The Greenland marine algae
have been thoroughly studied by Rosenvinge, who, after giving two systematic
accounts, furnished a paper dealing with the algological communities (99).
The marine algae of the Baltic have been investigated by Svedelius (01),
who, in his “ Osterjons Hafsalgflora,” devotes a chapter to the algal regions
and formations found under the peculiar conditions presented in that area.
The question of defining the algal regions in the non-tidal Baltic had also
been dealt with by Reinke (89). ‘The algae of the Faerdes have been
described a second time in the “ Botany of the Faeroes”; and Borgesen’s
treatise “The Algae Vegetation ” (’05), which followed his systematic account,
is the most important contribution to this branch of algological literature.
Kylin, in his algal flora of the west coast of Sweden (’07), deals with associa-
tions and other ecological problems at some length. Joubin (’09) described
the marine communities at Roscoff, and published an elaborately coloured
vegetation-map. The map will be most useful to students working in the
locality ; but floristic and ecologizal data are at present somewhat scanty for

Clare Island Survey—Murine Algae. 15 18

comparative purposes. For the Adriatic, we have Tecket’s general account of
the algal vegetation of Trieste (’06). The Iceland marine algae are the latest
to receive attention from the ecological standpoint, Jénsson’s work (’10)
forming a useful addition to his systematic papers which appeared previously.
Outside Europe, Svedelius’ paper on the periodicity of algae in Ceylon coral-
reefs (06), Skottsberg’s work in the Antarctic (’06), and Boérgesen’s accounts
of the algal vegetation of the Danish West Indies (00, 01, *11) are
apparently the only papers of the kind which have appeared ; but reference
should be made to Weber van Bosse (’04), and Schiller (09), which border on
the subject.

Turning to the British Isles, with the exception of Rattray’s paper referred
to above, no account of the algal communities found on our coasts has
appeared, though, as will be seen later, a certain amount of autecology has
been done. The numerous and important additions to the British algal flora
recorded by Mr. E. M. Holmes and by the late Mr. E. A. L. Batters, have kept
our knowledge of the flora well up to date as far as its purely systematic aspect
is concerned. Ecological factors, too, were not disregarded, the “ habitat ” of
a species having been always given a prominent place by British writers; so
much so, that in a few cases the specific distinction of similar plants has been
strongly advocated on the ground of a difference in habitat. Casual reference
to the “ Fucus-belt,” “Coral-banks,” and “ Laminaria-zone,” shows that the
more obvious associations were not overlooked.

Rattray (’85) treats at some length of the size of individuals when gathered
from different localities and from different levels; he also deals with various
problems connected with the distribution and development of the spores.
With regard to algal communities, he recognizes the “regions” of
Kjellmann, and describes a number of “areas” (“ formations” of Kjellmann)
characterized by the presence of certain dominant species. His “areas,”
whether littoral or sub-littoral, are classified almost entirely with reference
to vertical distribution, and there is no attempt to connect them with other
conditions such as exposure and desiccation. This results at times in a
curious association of names in a given zone, and renders the account some-
what obscure to anyone not familiar with the exact topography of the
locality. The paper is, however, full of facts, and will be of great interest
and value to the next investigator of the algal vegetation of the Firth of
Forth.

In a memoir on Chondrus crispus by Darbishire (’02), the general ecology
of the plant is dealt with, and incidentally reference is made to the principal
zones of vegetation that occur on the shores of the Isle of Man. Two

15 14 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

interesting ecological papers by Miss 8. M. Baker have lately appeared (09, 10),
in which experiments, with a view to determine the causes which bring about
zonation, are described ; but the general question of algal associations is not
touched upon. The ecology of Ulva Lactuca has been discussed by me at
some length in a report to the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal (’!1 4).
The subject of plant-communities was not in view, but the presence of a
distinct mud-formation and an Ulva-association, though not stated in words,
was clearly demonstrated. N. H. Johnson has furnished two notes dealing
respectively with the mapping and nomenclature of marine vegetation
(11, 712).

An account of the algal associations of a definite area in the British Isles
was thus urgently needed, and in the Clare Island investigations this study
was given a prominent place. It will be noted that in several of the works
referred to, the systematic account was published first, and the ecological
treatise appeared later. This order of investigation is essential. The flora
must be thoroughly mastered, before the groupings of the species can be
accurately studied. :

(2) THE AREAS AND THE UNITS OF VEGETATION.
A. The Regions.

Kjellmann’s term “region” has been generally adopted by algologists ;
but the limits of the three vertical divisions included under this term are
variously accepted. In the present account they are taken as under :—
The Jittoral region extends from the level of the highest marine vegeta-
tion to that of low-water mark at neap-tide. The swb-littoral begins from
the lower limit of the last-named, and extends down to the limit of sea-
weed vegetation (ie. about 25 fathoms). The elittoral region follows,
and being devoid of algal vegetation, is of no importance in the present
paper.

The reasons for so defining these regions are as follows :—With regard to
the upper limit of the littoral region, this, according to Kjellmann, com-
menced at the highest tide-level; but, as several writers have pointed out,
the algae on exposed coasts often extend far above the spring-tide limit. A
separate region—the supra-littoral—has been suggested by Lorenz. Borgesen,
however (’05), showed that no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between the
vegetation of the supra-littoral and littoral, and for this reason he did not
recognize the area as a definite region. In Clare Island the supra-littoral
vegetation, though often found, is of less general occurrence than, for
instance, in the Faerdes. It is largely due to the presence of spray (a factor

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 15

which is regulated by the exposure and lie of the rocks), but shade and
terrestrial moisture are also important. The associations, moreover, found
in this area are the same as those in the upper part of the littoral region, and
often merely extensions of them. I therefore agree with Bérgesen in not
regarding it as a separate region.

With regard to the lower limit of the littoral area, on exposed coasts the
low-water mark at neap-tide is certainly the natural line of demarkation.
At the same time, on a calm day during spring-tides, the Laminaria and
Alaria growth may be exposed, and become dry for a short time; but this
is obviously exceptional. On sheltered shores the boundary-line is not
so clearly marked; and it is difficult to define the beginning of the sub-
littoral vegetation. In Clew Bay it is particularly perplexing; and the
flatter the shore, the less marked is the boundary. As time did not allow
of special work on this point, the lower limit of the littoral region has
been made uniform with that on exposed coasts—namely, the ebb-mark at
neap-tide.

B.—The Formations and Associations.

A good deal of confusion exists with regard to the terms ‘ Formation ’
and ‘ Association.’ Kjellman first introduced the word ‘ Formation’ into
algological literature in his paper on the algological communities of the
Skager Rack (78). He describes an algal formation as a small portion of
the whole algal vegetation which is distinguished by a characteristic
“ Vegetations-Gepriige,’ adding that in a general way these portions of the
vegetation obtain their characteristic stamp through one or more algae that
predominate. Most other writers have followed Kjellmann’s nomenclature.
It is, however, more in accordance with the terminology now generally
employed to use the term ‘association’ for these communities, and to
reserve the term ‘formation’ for communities which occur together in a
definite type of habitat. The substitution of the former term for the latter
was first put forward by Borgesen (’05), and the name ‘formation’ was
at the same time employed by him for “associations when united together
under the same or nearly the same ecological conditions.” Examples
of Borgesen’s formations are the Chlorophyceae, the Fucaceae, and the
Laminaria communities of exposed coasts. Kylin (07) does not follow this
nomenclature, but adheres to the term ‘formation’ with the meaning
attached to it by Kjellmann. Jonsson (10), on the other hand, follows
Borgesen.

Borgesen’s use of the term ‘association’ is certainly more correct; but the

15 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

larger communities for which he employs the name ‘formation’ appear to
represent groups of associations rather than formations. The term ‘forma-
tion’ if used to correspond with ‘salt-marsh formation, or ‘sand-dune
formation ’ of phanerogamic botanists, would be more properly applied to the
vegetation covering such areas as exposed rocky coasts, or sheltered muddy
shores. These might indeed be called ‘subformations’ by some botanists,
in which case the whole marine flora would form one formation—the
‘salt-water formation.’ This, however, is hardly justifiable, and there
appears to be no reason why the term ‘formation’ should not be applied
to the principal types of the marine vegetation, as well as to the sand-
dunes or peat-moors that occur above them.

In the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to define these
marine formations; but notwithstanding this I have ventured to use the
term for the vegetation covering the principal types of ground that occur
on our shores. The formations proposed are three in number :—

1. The rocky-shore formation.
2. The sand and sandy-mud formation.
3. The salt-marsh formation.

All three are represented in the Clare Island area, and in addition two
other types are distinguishable, which are dealt with under the heading
of—

4, The vegetation of river-mouths.

5. The vegetation of brackish bays.

Each of these five types of vegetation consists of a number of associations,
and the latter may frequently show natural groupings. But the associations
found vary considerably in different localities, being influenced perhaps
most largely by the factor of wave-exposure.

It should be clearly understood that the classification suggested above
makes no pretension to be final. It is possible that the rocky-shore
formation will have to be divided into other formations; but, judging from
general field-work in many parts of the British Isles, this does not appear
very probable. The flora certainly varies with the nature of the rock,
but the changes consist in the modification or re-arrangement of the associa-
tions, rather than in any profound alteration in the plant-formation. The
general plant-covering of all rocky shores (including chalk) appears to
be of the same type; and for this reason it is here regarded as a simple
formation, though further work will doubtless show many differences in
detail,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. L517

The. distinction between associations and societies is more puzzling
Many of the small communities that have been described by various writers
appear to represent societies (as understood by Tansley and Moss) rather
than associations; caution, however, is needed, as definite zonation is
discernible in one locality, whilst in others the growth is patchy and discon-
tinuous. For this reason I have adopted a conservative attitude in the
present report, and have used the term ‘association’ instead of replacing it
by that of ‘society.’ In the case of communities described for the first
time, when the status was doubtful, a non-committal expression has been
used. The whole question of transient societies requires careful working
out. Many algae appear periodically, and of these some are short-lived,
being conspicuous only for a few weeks, whilst others require six or eight
months to complete their life-cycle. It is clear, therefore, that before the
status of these communities can be settled, a more complete knowledge of
the seasonable range of many species is needed, as well as a more detailed
analysis of the vegetation.

3.—THE VEGETATION OF THE AREA,
i—The Rocky-shore Formation.

The rocky-shore formation embraces every form of hard ground, from the
exposed rugged slates of Clare Island, to the flat low-lying sandstones of
Clew Bay. Great variety in slope and exposure is met with, and also in the
surface and hardness of the rock. Speaking generally, the formation is
characteristic of open shores. In exposed localities it is the only one to be
found. On sheltered shores it is not infrequently poorly developed, or
replaced by the sand-and-rock or sandy-mud series, A characteristic feature
is the strong basal disk by which the plants are attached, this being true
both of exposed and sheltered coasts. Some of the smaller species have,
however, other methods of attachment, as explained later. The vegetation of
boulder-beaches is included in the formation, and also that of more or less
buried rocks and stones, though, in the latter case, the vegetation clearly
approaches that of sand-and-rock (pp. 65-67), The pebble-attached association
of quiet bays, being characteristic of a soft bottom and not of rock, is placed
pro tem. under the sand-formation.

The associations differ markedly according to the amount of exposure, and
two series are to be recognized—namely, exposed and sheltered. The littoral
and sub-littoral vegetation must also be distinguished ; but, except for these,
no further sub-division has been attempted. ‘The hardness of the rock, and

k,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. Cc 148

15 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

‘the degree of slope influence the vegetation, as does also the nature of the
rock-surface ; but, as stated on p.16, this produces merely a change in the
associations, rather than a fundamental difference in the plant-covering.
Boulders may be singled out for notice, since their vegetation is peculiar and
well marked. The associations on a boulder-beach are much broken up, and
secondary series on the vertical faces of the rock are of general occurrence
(see Plate II). The tops of the boulders are usually bare, owing probably
to immediate escape of the water, and to extreme desiccation, which
prohibit respectively the retention and development of spores. Points such
as these continually present themselves when studying the communities,
and several are noted in the report; but it is too early to offer generaliza-
tions.

A word may be said as to methods of attachment. In addition to the
stout disk typical of the formation, three are distinguishable. In the ease of
simple filamentous species such as Bangia, Urospora, and Ulothrix, each
thread is fixed to the rock by the basal cell, with or without the assistance
of corticating filaments. Hence the association, which consists of many
thousands of minute plants, does not require a rough surface, but occurs also
on smooth rocks where other species obtain no footing. It is in reality
attached along its whole base. The second type is that of COcramium
acanthonotum, which possesses rhizoids. Such plants cannot grow on smooth
rocks, but occur on mussels and barnacles, amongst which they thrust a dense
system of rhizoidal filaments. Where Mytilus and Balanus form extensive
sheets, these algae are often plentiful. The third type—a soft, spongy disk—
is supplied by Callithamnion arbuscula. This is intermediate between the
two former and the stout cellular disk. The spongy disk is composed of
filaments more or less free at the margins, but forming a dense tissue in the
centre. Algae possessing this type require a rough surface, and are commonly
found on barnacles.

Many transitions exist between the various forms of holdfasts, and the
subject, which is of great importance in connexion with the rock-surface,
requires detailed study. Epiphytes are adfixed in a number of ways; see
Tobler ('06), Menz (10), and Delf (12). In spite of the above exceptions, the
majority of the algae forming associations on a rocky shore are attached by a
stout disk (Fucus, Porphyra, Rhodymenia),

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 19

The following table presents the associations and other communities
composing the rocky-shore formation in the Clare Island area :—

A. Haposed coast series. B. Sheltered coast serves.
(a) Littoral Region. (a) Lnttoral Region.

Hildenbrandtia-Verrucaria. Hildenbrandtia-Verrucaria.
Prasiola. Fucaceae.
Enteromorpha intestinalis. Lichina.
Fucaceae. Porphyra.
Lichina. Laurencia-Gigartina.
Porphyra. Corallina-Lithothamnium.
Bangia-Urospora-Ulothrix. Corallina-Cladostephus.
Rhodymenia. Rhodochorton floridulum.
Laurencia-Gigartina. Sand-pool. vegetation.
Callithamnion arbuscula. Cave vegetation.
Nemalion.
Himanthalia.

Corallina-Lithothamnium.
Pool vegetation.
Cave vegetation.

(b) Sub-littoral region. (b) Sub-littoral region.
Laminaria. Laminaria.
Inerusting algae. . Encrusting algae.

Fruticulose Lithothamnium.
A. Heposed Coast Serves.
(a) Littoral Region.
Hildenbrandtia- Verrucaria Association.

The description of this algal and lichen community is somewhat brief,
owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the species im situ, and the labour
involved both in collecting and naming material. Hildenbrandtia prototypus
and the marine species of Verrucaria are usually taken together as forming
one association, and some writers include other plants such as Rivularia atra
and Calothrix scopulorum. It is, however,a question whether it would not be
advisable to include in the association all the littoral encrusting species that
are soft and not calcareous (see note on sheltered form of association, p. 51),

Hildenbrandtia and Verrucaria resemble each other precisely in growth-
form; and they are often found growing together covering an area of several

C2

15 20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

square yards. Both possess exceedingly thin encrusting thalli, which are so
closely adpressed to the rock, that the latter appear as if coated with paint.
In addition to those mentioned above, probably several other species of lichens
are present. Of the three plants referred to, V. maura forms a band a short
distance above the Pelvetia zone, whilst the other two appear below Pelvetia,
and descend nearly to the level of low-water. Hildenbrandtia is more
susceptible to drying up than V. mucosa, and in the Pelvetia and /. spiralis
zones it occurs under the shade of algae, in damp chinks, or in pools. On
ordinary open shores its growth does not occur above this level; but on very
exposed coasts when there is spray, it ascends far above high-water line,
being found in dark fissures in the rock, or in small pools that occur on the
rugged cliffs, the water of which is often brackish. On the lower part
of the shore Hildenbrandtia is not confined to pools and chinks, but is found
on bare rocks, and remains quite dry for several hours. In the lowest
levels, it is usually replaced by a broad band of Ralfsia clavata, in which
patches of Petrocelis cruenta are frequent, especially if the rocks are
smooth.

Verrucaria mucosa grows mostly on half-tide rocks that are fully exposed
to light and air; in shady positions or where a covering of algae prevents
excessive desiccation, the growth extends to the &. spiralis zone; but it
rarely, if ever, takes advantage of pools to ascend to a higher level. In this
respect it differs from Hildenbrandtia. The plant prefers smooth rocks or
boulders, and is seen at its best on the beach north of Portlea, where it
covers the upper sides of the boulders from about half-tide level to below
the low-water limit of neap-tides. Its growth here is almost pure, and
the individual patches are very large, some noted measuring a yard
across. The vertical range on the shore varied somewhat in the different
localities; but this may possibly have been due to the presence of more than
one species. On only one or two occasions was a Verrucaria-growth noted
in a rock-pool. Probably few lichens are so difficult to determine or so
little understood as the marine Verrucariae; and it is a source of great
satisfaction to learn that Miss M. C. Knowles is working at the problem,
and doing so from an ecological as well as from a systematic standpoint. The
encrusting algae also are in need of critical study.

The present community is well developed in all parts of the survey-area.
It is abundant on smooth slabs and boulders, and is also found on the rough
slate and sandstone. It extends to sheltered localities, where, if rocks and
boulders are absent, it often occurs on stones and pebbles. A very similar
vegetation exists in Sweden, Iceland, and the Faerdes, according to the
accounts of Kylin, Jonsson, and Borgesen.

Clare Islund Survey—Murine Algae. 15 21

Prasiola stipitata Association.

This association as it occurs in the Survey area is characteristic of bird-
cliffs ; but during the winter months it is found to a small extent outside these
areas. It is well developed on Caher Island, The Bills, and below the bird
colonies near the Signal Tower on Clare Island. The growth is most
abundant on the shady side of the cliffs, where it ascends to a considerable
height above high-water level, and forms the uppermost. association of the
marine algae. With P. stipitata occurs, in the upper part, a certain amount
of P. crispa var. marina. The localities referred to are very exposed,
and, in rough weather, the cliffs are constantly soaked with spray, though
during calm periods the vegetation must remain dry for some days. The
fact that, in June, the small part of the south side of The Bills that was
examined showed no trace of Prasiola, suggests that in summer the growth
is confined to the more shady situations—a view which is supported by
points noted in the following paragraph.

During the winter and spring months, Prasiola is found apart from birds.
Wide patches were noted at Roonah and Old Head during the February visit,
and in April, 1911, in many spots on Clare Island. The growth is
practically pure, but is sometimes mixed with a certain amount of Calothrix
and Lyngbya; it occurs on both smooth and rough rocks. In these localities,
as on the bird cliffs, Prasiola forms the uppermost algal vegetation, frequently
reaching the Lichina confinis band, but more often forming patches between
that zone and Pelvetia. In several spots on the south shore of Clare Island
it was present only on rocks sloping landwards, where it was consequently
somewhat shaded; but in others it was found on sun-dried rocks and well
above the uppermost Pelvetia. These rocks were fully exposed to the surf;
and the plants, except during the calmest weather, would be splashed with
spray. by July all this vegetation had disappeared; and it was not noted
during June of the previous year.

The question of the connexion of Prasiola stipitata with bird-colonies is an
interesting one. ‘The preference shown by the fresh-water species, P. crispa,
for localities soaked with ammoniacal liquid is well known; and its marine
relative evidently shares the same avidity for nitrogenous compounds. During
a trip to Belfast in connexion with the growth of Ulva in sewage-polluted
water, P, stipitata was, on the shores of Belfast Lough during April, noted
‘only around small drainage outfalls. In Larne Lough also a vigorous crop
was always to be found in similar situations. At Ballycastle, Co. Antrim,
however, as in Clare Island and Clew Bay, numerous patches of Prasiola
oceurred (chiefly in shady spots) where there was no special supply of
nitrogenous food.

15 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The vegetation described above, taken together with the Enteromorpha
growth, corresponds to Bérgesen’s “Chlorophyceae Formation.” In Clare
Island, the Enteromorpha vegetation is entirely distinct from Prasiola, and it
occurs only where certain definite conditions are present. In the Faerdes, on
the other hand, species of these two algal génera are of general occurrence,
and form together a well-marked green belt around the islands. The same is
the case in Iceland.

Enteromorpha intestinalis Association.

As remarked above, the Enteromorpha association of exposed coasts
is included by Borgesen in his Chlorophyceae formation. In Clare Island»
however, the Enteromorpha growth differs so markedly from Borgesen’s com-
munity that it is necessary to regard it as a distinct association. In the
Faerdes the formation is described as stretching like a green belt along the
coast, and composed of four associations which occur in the following
sequence :— Prusiola crispa, Rhizoclonium riparium, EH. intestinalis, and P.
stipitata. In Clare Island the Enteromorpha association is quite distinct
from that of Prasiola, and is found, not as a continuous band, but only
where fresh water exudes from the cliffs. This type of green vegetation,
though not previously described, is frequently met with in the British Isles.
It is not largely developed in the Clare Island district, but is found in its
typical form, and is therefore included in the present account.

On crossing from Achill Sound to the island, the association in question
strikes the eye as a bright green band near high-water mark, between
Kinnacorra and the harbour, and wherever a band of this nature is seen it is
a sure sign of the presence of fresh water. Where only a small amount
exudes, or the shore falls rapidly, the band is narrow, and a fucaceous or other
community follows it at once; but with more water anda gradual slope the
association takes the form of wide-spreading bands which run transversely over
the rocks with a copious development below of Cyanophyceae and Diatoms.
A small amount of Rhizoclonium ripariwm is, on flat rocks, sometimes
intermixed with Enteromorpha; but more often the growth is practically
pure, var. cornucopiae being usually plentiful. On vertical rocks and below
small waterfalls Rhizoclonium is more abundant and may be dominant. The
forms of Enteromorpha present are mostly short forms of 2. intestinalis var.
genuina and var. cornucopiae, with the addition occasionally of var. micrococca.

With regard to the bathymetric range of the association, its upper limit
varies directly with the position and manner in which the fresh water oozes
from the rocks, In some places the growth is completely submerged at high
tide, but in other spots the upper part is not even reached by the spray of an

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 23

ordinary spring-tide (e.g., below the lace school on Clare Island). With an
alga such as Lnteromorpha intestinalis, which is not dependent on salt water,
this is only to be expected. By the end of summer much of the growth may
be killed through drought, and the lower part of the association then appears
as a pure white band of dead tissue.

In rock-pools above high-water mark an Enteromorpha vegetation is
found on exposed coasts which may be regarded as merely a pool extension
of the community just described. The pools in question usually have
a large admixture of rain-water, and during the less sunny parts of the
year, they contain a vigorous growth of Enteromorpha, and occasionally
Hildenbrandtia and Cladophora sericea.

Fucaceae Association. (Exposed Coasts.)

The conspicuous growth of the Fucaceae that is found on all rocky shores
of the British Isles is well represented in the Survey area. The large size of
the plants concerned, and the readiness with which the species can be recog-
nized, render the Fucaceae association one of the most useful and instructive
for ecological study. With few other genera can the effect of wave-action on
an exposed coast be studied with so much ease, and with few other associations
can the differences in composition and in plant-form be so readily traced. On
sheltered coasts the study is more difficult. Though familiar in a general way
to all British algologists, no definite account of the Fucaceae associations of our
islands has been published, and the study of the vegetation as it exists in
Co. Mayo was not without value in bringing to light several interesting
features.

The composition of the association as it occurs in the British Isles is as
follows, the species occurring in the order given from above downwards :—

Pelvetia canaliculata.

Fucus spiralis.

Ascophyllum nodosum (moderate shelter necessary).
Fucus vesiculosus.

F. serratus.

F. ceranoides (admixture of fresh water necessary).

An additional species, /. inflatus, was recorded by Borgesen for the
Shetland Isles, and Mr. E. M. Holmes has lately received a specimen of this
boreal species from Lewis, so possibly it is a regular constituent of the
association in the north of Scotland. Besides the ordinary forms and
varieties, some very remarkable modifications occasionally occur. (See p. 80.)

Fully exposed Coasts.—Turning to the Fucaceae association of Clare Island,

15 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

we find that in fully exposed localities 1t is composed of three species only,
namely—Pelvetia, /. spiralis, and F. vesiculosus, var. evesteulosus, a precise
combination which has not previously been described, unless it be that referred
to by Boye (94-5). Pelvetia forms a narrow zone about 1$-2 feet deep.
F. spiralis follows with a band only slightly deeper, and composed of fronds
seldom more than 6 or 8 inches in length; whilst the lowermost zone of
F. vesiculosus, var. evesiculosus, has a greater bathymetric range, and therefore
covers a wider horizontal surface. The fronds are very narrow and the
growth short, though, except in the most boisterous spots, it is longer than
F. spiralis. This type of vegetation is found more or less along the whole
south shore of Clare Island, where there is full exposure; and it forms a band
covering the entire upper part of the littoral region. The shore is for the
most part steep; hence the bands are narrow. With a flatter shore and less
exposure, the association spreads out horizontally, and other differences are
noticeable as mentioned later.

Of the three species, Pelvetia is perhaps the most susceptible to severe
exposure, and F. spiralis the least so. In a general way Pelvetia forms a band
just above the ordinary high-water level, but it is splashed daily,except in spells
of exceptionally calm weather. In very open spots, or where waves break
and there is much spray, it ascends much higher. Everywhere it forms a band
that is very conspicuous in summer and autumn by its orange-yellow
receptacles. Owing to their bathymetric position, the two species of Fuci,
unlike Pelvetia, feel the full force of the waves, but it is only in places with
the severest exposure that the association is wanting. The attachment to the
rock is exceedingly secure, and, though often torn by the waves, none but ola
and worn-out specimens become detached. Several spots were noted where
F, spiralis only occurred, and it appeared that the exposure was too great:
for F. vesiculosus. When fruit is absent it is difficult to distinguish the two
species ; but in fertile specimens the short, rounded, hermaphrodite fruits of
F. spiralis, and the narrow, pointed, unisexual receptacles of I. vesiculosus
separate them at once. On exposed coasts the former plant fruits from spring
to late autumn, the latter in winter, spring, and early summer.

Moderately exposed Coasts—On passing to less exposed rocks or to bays
where there is a measure of shelter, a difference in form and in composition is
at once apparent. Pelvetia remains the same, but takes a somewhat lower
level. F. spiralis becomes longer and the fronds wider, but still retains its
typical spiralis form. F-. vesiculosus is also larger, and often possesses a few
bladders, the size of the frond and the number of bladders increasing with
the amount of shelter. A fourth species, /’. serratus, now enters the association.
This begins in the lower part of the F. wsiculosus zone (slightly above

Clare Island Survey— Mare Algae. 15 25

Himanthalia), and forms a broad band extending down to the Laminaria
level. It appears to enjoy moderate wave-action, but requires flat rocks,
and disappears at once where the rocks are steep or the exposure too
great. This form of fucaceous growth occurs typically on the slopes near
Kinnacorra, near the Castle, and at several spots on the south shore,

With greater shelter further differences are evident. Pelvetia and
F, serratus remain as before, but F. sprralis broadens out into var. platyearpus
and F vesiculosus develops more vesicles, the length of both species increasing
and assuming the heavy bulky growth characteristic of sheltered coasts. The
horizontal distribution also of all the species tends to increase, owing to the
shore being usually flatter. Such growth occurs in several bays on the island,
and is common in more open parts of Clew Bay. Ascophyllum nodosum requires
considerable shelter ; and in Clare Island it is present in one spot only, namely
Ooghbeg on the south shore. The shore here is rather flat, and the force of
the waves is broken by the presence of blocks and boulders. At Portlea (parts
of which might appear to be equally sheltered) Ascophyllum is absent, but the
presence of a vigorous Himanthalia vegetation indicates greater exposure
than might be supposed. For further notes on this species see p. 55.

Epiphytes.—The typical epiphytes of the exposed Fucus association are as
follows, and in the most exposed spots these are practically all that occur ;—

Ulothrix pseudoflacca (in spring). Elachista fucicola.
Enteromorpha compressa. Porphyra umbilicalis.
Kictocarpus luteolus.

Where the conditions are less boisterous (e.g. at Kinnacorra) a number of
other species occur in addition, for example—

Ectocarpus tomentosus. Polysiphonia fastigiata (on. spiralis),
HK. fasciculatus. Ceramium rubrum.
Porphyra leucosticta (in spring). C. Boergesenii.

Rhodymenia palmata.

Subvegetation.— This, though always better developed in the lower than in
the upper levels, is largely dependent on the denseness of the Fucus growth,
i.e. on the amount of room and light available. When conditions are favour-
able, the first four of the following communities are usually represented, and
the last three are occasionally present in addition :—

Hildenbrandtia-Verrucaria Association. Lichina pygmaea Association.
Porphyra umbilicalis 5 Rhodymenia palmata ,,
Laurencia pinnatifida % -Lithothamnium Lenormandi.Society.

Corallina spp. Society
R, I. A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, D 15

15 26 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

In the low littoral region, if the F. serratus vegetation is not dense, a very
large number of species occur, the shelter and shade being highly suitable

for :—

Dictyota dichotoma. Polysiphonia fruticulosa.
Chylocladia ovalis. P. thuyoides.

C. articulata. Plumaria elegans.

Delesseria alata. ; Lithothamnion polymorphum.
Nitophyllum laceratum. Sporelings, many spp.

Comparison with other Countries.—In a general way the Fueaceae association
described above represents that of the whole of the British Isles. It agrees
well with that observed on the south and east of England, and though the
Fucaceae of the British Isles have never been specially investigated from the
present point of view, it is not likely that any startling departures from the
Clare Island type will be met with. The greatest variation may be expected
on the north of Scotland. The vegetation described for the Norwegian coast
is similar, agreeing floristically, but differing in minor points. With more
thorough investigation some of the latter will probably disappear. In west
Sweden, Pelvetia is absent, and Kylin makes no reference to /. spiralis on
exposed coasts. He notes the presence of the form fF’, Aveschougii on moderately
open shores, and it would be remarkable if the short exposed form, so addicted
to boisterous localities elsewhere, were absent. A belt of an evesiculate
variety of Ff vesiculosus is well developed, but from specimens sent by
Dr. Kylin, it is clear that his form (compressus racemosus, Kjellman) is
different from that which occurs on Clare Island. The Faerdese Fucus
vegetation differs in several respects from the Irish. In the first place,
I’. serratus is absent, Ff. inflatus taking its place; / spiralis is not found with
extreme shelter, and £. vesiculosus disappears entirely with exposure; lastly,
Pelvetia is absent from exposed coasts. The last two points were specially
investigated by Dr. Borgesen during his visit to Clare Island; and he agreed
that both species flourish in Ireland with very much more exposure than in
the Faerées. The Fucus vegetation of Iceland is similar to that of the last-
named, in that it possesses a vigorous growth of J. inflatus, though F. serratus
is present in addition. From the brief account given by Joubin (09), the
Fucaceae vegetation at Roscoff appears to agree in the main with that of
the British Isles,

The Lichina commuuities.

Though a lichen and not an alga, Lichina pygmaea is always found between
the tide-marks, and forms so essential a part of the marine vegetation that it

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 27

deserves mention in the present report. The second species, Z. confinis, is
scarcely littoral, being confined to rocks just above high-water line, but its
growth may be suitably described together with that of Z. pyymaea. The
zones formed by these two species at times approach one another, but they
never overlap. Both occur on sheltered as well as on exposed coasts, though
for ZL. pygmaea vocks or boulders are essential. With the exception of Joubin
(09), algologists have not dealt with this vegetation, though Nylander, as long
ago as 1861, drew attention to the belts of Lichina on the sea-shore.

(a). LZ. pygmaea, the larger and more conspicuous species, forms circular
patches which vary from a few inches to a foot in diameter. It usually
commences immediately below Pelvetia, and extends downwards through the
F. spiralis belt to F. vesiculosus, or to within a few feet of low-water. In
certain localities it extends well up into the Pelvetia band; but it never occurs
above it. The maximum development usually takes place in the upper part
of the zone, where the plant often forms a very conspicuous black band on
the vertical faces of rocks or boulders capped with F. spiralis. It undoubtedly
favours sloping or vertical surfaces; but it also occurs on those that are
horizontal. Though frequent on smooth boulders, it prefers rough or eroded
rocks, and is abundant on barnacles. Unlike Z. confinis, the present species
can only stand a certain amount of drying. In the lower part of the associa-
tion it occurs fully open to the sun; but in the uppermost levels it is usually
found in chinks and pockets which retain moisture, or on rocks with a shady
aspect. In calm weather, during neap-tides, the Pelvetia zone may be left
entirely dry for several consecutive days; and any growth of ZL. pygmaea that
reaches this level is occasionally subjected to like conditions.

On the exposed and semi-exposed shores of Clare Island and the mainland
L. pygmaea is abundant, but where the exposure is excessive it does not
appear to flourish. On the large blocks and boulders to the north of Portlea
it is one of the few macroscopic plants which form a definite association; and
in such localities, where Fuci are absent, the lichens form a useful means of
determining tidal levels. A very luxuriant vegetation of Verrucaria spp.
covers the boulders of this beach almost from top to bottom (p. 20).

During the summer (July-Sept.), a fine growth of Rivularia bullata is
frequently found epiphytically on Z. pyymaea. In 1911 it was unusually
abundant, being noted in August in all the exposed parts of the mainland
and Clare Island. &. bullata is not confined to the Lichina patches, but
also occurs on bare rock. It sets in about half-tide level, and continues to
low-water mark. d

(b). The second species, Z. confinis, has fronds barely 3 mm. long, and the
individual patches are 2-4 em. in diameter ; being black in colour it is very’

D2

15 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

inconspicuous on the dark slaty rocks of Clare Island. It usually occurs a
short distance above Pelvetia, and extends up the cliffs on the south shore to
a height of 12-15 feet. In this position it is frequently drenched with spray,
though in summer it may be dry, except for rain, for weeks together. With
less exposure its vertical range is restricted. On the gentle slopes at
Kinnacorra it is only 3-4 feet above Pelvetia; whilst on the flat shores of _
Clew Bay and Achill Sound it hardly exceeds the neap-tide level, and is
regularly covered during the highest tides. This occasional flooding by spring-
tides in sheltered localities obviously takes the place of the soaking by spray
on open coasts. In Clew Bay and other places where rocks and boulders are
absent, the plant often occurs on flat stones, and may even be traced as an
irregular band running along the shore. In Roundstone Bay the three plants,
L. confinis, P. canaliculata, and L. pygmaca were noted on large slabs, forming
luxuriant and well-marked zones, each species following the other as.a band,
1-2 feet deep.

The Lichina vegetation at Roscoff described by Joubin (’09) is evidently
very similar to that found in Ireland. Both species are present, and the
plants show a preference for exposed situations.

Porphyra umbilicalis Association.

Porphyra is one of those algae which occur as a definite association
on both exposed and sheltered shores. The form assumed by the plant is
very distinct in the two situations; and it is curious that it has not been seen
as an association in localities offering intermediate conditions, although its
occurrence in small quantity is common enough. Another feature which
gives interest to the exposed Porphyra community is the diversity of its
bathymetrie range in different countries, and even in different spots in the
same locality. For instance, in Clare Island the upper limit of the Porphyra
belt is almost always below the Pelvetia zone, whereas in the Faerdes the
greater part is normally above that belt, and on exposed shores it may occur
as much as 40-50 feet above high-water line. Doubtless surf and spray are
largely responsible for its presence in such positions, just as they are seen to
be directly responsible for minor variations on Clare Island. But this alone
does not account for all the differences that have been noted, and further
study is needed.

On most parts of Clare Island a certain amount of Porphyra vegetation
is present; in some it is extensive and forms broad or narrow bands; in
others it is limited, and oceurs only as small patches between other com-
munities. It prefers rocks of a moderate or rather steep slope, but is also

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 29

found on flat rocks, and rarely on the perpendicular faces. The rock-surface
may be rugged or smooth, and a very favourite substratum is that of mussels.
In all cases the rocks are exposed; and often the most vigorous patches are
those where the waves strike with great force. The normal position of
Porphyra is in the upper part of the littoral region, where it occurs as a band
a short distance below Pelvetia. In some cases the band is quite narrow, as
is shown in Plate I, where it occurs between Pelvetia and FZ vesiculosus, taking
the place of Mucus spiralis; in others it is mixed with /. spiralis, and runs
down through the wider belt of /. vesteulosus that follows. Porphyra also
occurs where the Fucaceae are absent, and is here commonly mingled with
Bangia or Ceramium acanthonotum. At Kinnacorra it is found on smooth
sloping rocks devoid of vegetation, and forms a fairly wide band from a short
distance below high-water mark down to about half-tide, at which level
Bangia takes its place. In this position, being quite unprotected from the
sun, it becomes very dry and disappears during summer.

A very distinct aspect is acquired by the association during winter, owing
to the presence of an abundant growth of var. /inearis. This plant, though
often regarded as a distinct species, represents sporelings of P. wmbilicalis,
which at that season are elongated and tapering. The growth appears first in
October, and develops rapidly during the winter, frequently covering boulders
and smooth rocks over extensive areas. It is usually quite distinct from the
normal Porphyra association, and forms a band above it. In March the
effect of drying winds and increased sunlight is felt, and much of the growth
dies. By April var. /inearis has disappeared, except in lower and shaded
places.

With regard to the supra-littoral growth, the contrast between Clare
Island and the Faeroes is most marked. In a few spots Porphyra was noted as
extending into the Pelvetia band on Clare Island ; and at Alnahaskilla it was
found at the highest tide-level on the north side of steep bare rocks, a sample
of the kind of growth that takes place on a much larger scale on the Faerées.
Below the big cliff on the north side of the island, where the shore is steep
and the rocks fully open to the Atlantic, Porphyra was one of the few algae
that were noted in the littoral zone. But even here, with shade and continual
spray, there was no supra-littoral growth comparable to that described by
Borgesen. Its growth probably exceeded the limit of high-water level (which,
owing to the constant swell, is not easy to determine), but not to any remark-
able extent. In the Faerées, on the other hand, even in sheltered localities,
the: /owest limit-is at high-water: mark, and in ieee ‘situations - Ib is” not
found till far above that level.

Kjellmann and other Scandinavian algologists have regarded the Porphyra

15 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

community as a winter vegetation; and Borgesen states that, though in the
Faerées it is developed all the year round, it is in more southern countries
characteristic of winter. On Clare Island this is hardly the case. The
Porphyvra association is in fine condition in July and August, and abundant even
on the south shore (vide Plate I). It is, however, more widely spread in winter,
owing partly to the presence of a band of var. /inearis ; but the association in the
Clare Island neighbourhood certainly occurs throughout the year. Borgesen
also remarks that he did not observe the Porphyra vegetation at North
Berwick (Scotland) in July, 1909, but Dr. A. A. Lawson informs me that at
St. Andrews (about seventeen miles further north) it was plentiful in July
and August, 1910; though in the hot dry summer of 1911 it was much less
conspicuous. In the south of England it is a winter and spring vegetation,
though in July, 1911, the Porphyra belt was still discernible on exposed
rocks at Portland Bill. The exposed Porphyra association is also recorded
from Iceland (where it closely resembles that of the Faerdes), west Sweden
(Kjellmann, ’78, Kylin, 07), and Norway (Kylin, ‘10).

To sum up, the Porphyra vegetation of the exposed coasts of Clare Island
forms a belt in the littoral zone, at a very much lower level than it does on
the Faerces, and does not, even in shady and very exposed localities, grow
far above the high-water line. In contrast to the south of England, Sweden,
and Denmark, but in agreement with that described for Norway and the
Faer6es, it exists through the entire year. The form of the plant on
exposed coasts is entirely different from that found in sheltered localities.

Bangia-Urospora-Ulothrix Association.

The most striking feature of this community is its sporadic appearance.
During the first two years of the Survey scarcely a thread of Bangia or
Urospora was found; but during the spring of 1911 a remarkably fine and
widespread development of the typical Bangia-Urospora-Ulothrix association
occurred on Clare Island and on the exposed parts of the mainland. This
vegetation was probably at its best during the time of the April visit; by
August it had entirely vanished. In the FaerGes it appears to be more or
less permanent; but, as shown below, its sporadic appearance is known in
other countries, and it may even be absent for several years in succession over
a wide stretch of coast-line (vide Borgesen, ‘05, p. 720). For this reason the
appearance of well-marked belts of Bangia and Urospora during the last year
of the Survey was particularly gratifying.

The community in question occurs on exposed and moderately Pepesed
rocks, especially where the surface is smooth and where other algae do not
ootain afooting. In bathymetric range the association as a whole corresponds

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 31

to that of Porphyra, extending from below the Pelvetia zone to within a
few feet of low water. Its composition is as follows :—

Bangia fuscopurpurea,

Ulothrix pseudoflacca, } co-dominant.
Urospora mirabilis,

Ulothrix consociata,

Enteromorpha minima.

As a rule all the species, except. #. minima, which is local, occur together,
though each forms a separate patch or narrow strip within the association.
Occasionally, however, the species occur separately; and a pure growth of
Bangia or Urospora may cover a wide area. In a few cases the growth may
be thoroughly mixed.

An effort was made, when the full.series was present, to determine
the vertical sequence of the species; but this was unsuccessful in so far as
obtaining a constancy in succession was concerned. The necessity of
microscopic examination made the determination in the field difficult, and
the work required more time than was available. As a general rule, however,
where the association is typically developed, Bangia appears to have a wider
vertical distribution than the other species, as it is often both the first to
appear and last to leave on passing from top to bottom of the area. But
occasionally a Ulothrix growth is found at a very high level in sheltered
localities where Bangia is absent.

The occurrence of the Bangia-Urospora association on smooth rocks and
boulders where other vegetation is absent is explained by the exceedingly
fine unbranched filaments of the plants, reducing to a minimum the strain
on the basal attachment, At the same time each filament is separately
fixed to the rock, so that the association may be said to be attached along its
whole base.

The most usual extraneous species is Porphyra wmbilicalis, small specimens
of which frequently occur in the upper levels; and it is into the Porphyra
association that the present community most frequently merges. Bangia,
which is less restricted than Ulothrix or Urospora, also occurs on barnacles,
where it enters into competition with Ceramiwm acanthonotum.

The total absence of Bangia in some years has been referred to by
Borgesen for Norway (05, p. 720), and Rosenvinge for Denmark (09). The
latter, who has studied the Bangiales of Denmark in detail, writes as follows
concerning LB. fuscopurpurea :—

“The most dangerous condition for the Bangia vegetation is a fairly long
period of easterly winds so light that this vegetation is not reached by the

15 32 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

waves, especially when the weather at the time is bright and dry. Its

occurrence is therefore very different, not onlyat various seasons, but in different

years. In winter it is very abundant: but the critical period of the spring

will every year kill a greater part of it; and on the duration and intensity
of this period depends to what degree that will take place. In summer,

for example, it occurs at Frederikshavn in some years only in small

quantity, while in others it forms extensive growths—as in the beginning

of August, 1902” (Le., p. 58).

With regard to Clare Island, drying winds during a critical period of the
life-history no doubt largely influence the growth of the plants. The
association may occur annually as winter vegetation, and it may possibly
have been present in the early spring of 1910; but if this was the case, it
had completely disappeared by June, and was certainly absent in April, 1909.

Comparison with other Cowntries—An association corresponding to that
described has been noted in many countries. It is present in Norway,
Sweden, Greenland, Iceland, and the Faerées, having been dealt with by
Kylin, Rosenvinge, Jonsson, and Bérgesen respectively; and, as already
shown, it occurs in Denmark. ‘The belt in these countries, as would be
expected, is found at a higher level than in Clare Island. It reaches, or
extends above, the high-water line in each case; and in the exposed part of
the Faerées it occurs as much as 30 feet above this level. In Greenland the
association differs floristically, and is termed by Rosenvinge the Monostroma
grocnlandicum association, after the dominant species. In the Baltic
(Gotland) Svedelius has described a similar vegetation, consisting entirely of

Urospora penreilliformis.

Rhodymenia Association.

An association of Rhodymenia similar to that described by Borgesen, and
noted by him as being widely spread on the Faerdes, occurs in our district,
though only to a limited extent. Borgesen stated that he had found no
reference to such an association, but that he expected it to be common in the
North Atlantic. In the Clare Island area it is but feebly developed; but at
Dog’s Bay, near Roundstone, a very extensive growth was observed, showing
that the association exists on some parts of the west of Ireland, as indeed was
already known. On the island, patches of Rhodymenia occur in several
spots between Portlea and the lighthouse, and on the mainland at Roonah and
at Old Head.

Judging by the localities in which the plant was found, Rhodymenia
prefers a northern aspect, which would account for the complete absence of
its growth, as an association, on the south shore of Clare Island, At Old

Clave Tslund Survey— Marine Algae. 15 35

Head it is found on flat, sloping, or vertical, semi-exposed rocks, which face
north or north-east. At Portlea it affects similar situations, but shows a
decided. preference for vertical rocks (these being at the sametime the more
shaded). The plants are attached by a strong basal disk, and are usually found
on mussels, but they occur also on limpets and bare rock... The vertical area
covered by the alga is rather extensive, reaching at times from the bottom of
the F£. spiralis zone down to about low-water mark, but more often forming
a band below the upper Porphyra. It is frequently interrupted by patches of
other vegetation. At Old Head, Fucus vesiculosus, var. evesiculosus is the chief
intruder; but portions of the Porphyra and Callithamnion arbuscula associa-
tions above, and the Nemalion vegetation below, are also interspersed amongst
it. A modified form of the association occurs on boulder-beaches, the plant
hanging in profusion from the lower part. of boulders surmounted by
Himanthalia (Plate IT).

The form of the alga when growing as an association on exposed coasts is
very distinct. Short and tufted, not more than 3 to 4 inches long, it consists
of narrow or rounded fronds, with a number of small lateral_ proliferations.
Though narrow, it-is very distinct from var. sarniense, which is thinner and
paler in colour, and resembles Gracilaria multipartita in form. With increased
shelter the plant becomes larger, till at length the pool-form, with fronds a
foot or more in length, is reached. ‘The islanders distinguish the larger and
small forms as Dillisk and Crannogh respectively, and always associate the
latter with the presence of “small shells” —i.e., mussels (see Economic Section),

Borgesen remarks that the Rhodymenia association prefers places where
fresh water oozes from the rocks. This is not the case on Clare Island. Asa
pool or streamlet plant, Rhodymenia enjoys an admixture of fresh water ;- but
when growing as above described, it was always found in a purely marine
habitat.

Laurencia-Gigartina Association.

Near the low-water line on exposed coasts there often exists a dense
carpet composed of the two red algae,—Laurencia pinnatifida and Gigartina
manvillosa, Gigartina occupies the lower part and goes down into the sub-
littoral region, whilst Laurencia extends more or less in an upward direction.
The band formed by the latter is often conspicuous, so much so that it was
at first regarded as a distinct association. Further examination at spring-
tides showed that it was frequently connected with a zone of Gigartina, and
that in the more exposed places the latter species was dominant. It
gradually became evident that their relative abundance was largely a matter

of exposure and slope, and that these two species of similar habit could be
R,I,A. PROC., VOL. XXX, 10) 15

15 34 | Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

naturally regarded as forming a single belt. In a general way Laurencia
prefers a certain amount of shelter, and thrives on sloping or flat-rocks, whereas
Gigartina enjoys the roughest water and steep surfaces. On comparing this
plant-community with those of other countries, it was found that the joint
belts formed by the two species in Clare Island corresponded to Borgesen’s
Gigartina association in the Faerdes—a conclusion which was confirmed by
him during his visit. It was thought best, therefore, to connect the Irish type
of vegetation with the Faerdese, and the name Laurencia-Gigartina association
has been given. In the Faerdes Laurencia is very rare, being found only in
pools.

The Gigartina band may be dealt with first. On. exposed coasts it is
barely uncovered during neap-tides, but with spring-tides a distinct. belt
reaching down to the Alaria and Z. digitata zone is revealed. It is frequently
accompanied by a certain amount of the narrow form of Chondrus erispus.
Well seen on vertical rocks, where it forms a band 2 feet deep, it also occurs
on flat and sloping surfaces, here usually as an undergrowth to Himanthalia.
On the open coasts it is often accompanied by the following algae, all of
which are known to enjoy the turbulent conditions of low-water mark :—

Scytosiphon lomentarius. Plocamium coccineum.
Rhizoclonium implexum. Polysiphonia thuyoides.
Chylocladia ovalis. P. Brodiaei.
Lomentaria clavellosa. Corallina squamata.

The Gigartina belt occurs also on the more sheltered ground at Portlea.
Tt first appears well up in the Laurencia band; but as the lower levels
of the littoral region are reached, it increases greatly in quantity, till finally
it occurs as a pure growth covering comparatively large areas. At Kinnacorra,
on the other hand, where there are varying degrees of exposure, the Gigartina
vegetation is practically absent.

Passing now to Laurencia, we find this is more conspicuous on account of
its truly littoral habit. It begins shortly below the half-tide level, and runs
down into the Himanthalia association. It is common on moderately exposed
shores, and appears to prefer clean, gently sloping rocks where sand is absent.
Under these conditions Laurencia may exist as a pure growth 2 or 3 yards
wide, but where the shore is flat it extends over a much wider area, being
then mixed with other species. When sand is present it gradually gives place
to Rhodochorton floridulum.

In its lower levels the Laurencia belt forms an undergrowth to Himan-
thalia, and on sheltered shores occurs in a similar manner beneath /. serratus.
It is found at times under /. vesiculosus, and thus runs upwards considerably

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 35

higher than on bare rocks, If the shade be not too dense, its growth is quite
as luxuriant as when fully exposed to light and air.

Another species, Z. hybrida, is a characteristic element in the upper part
of the association. This plant is more restricted in its range, and appears to
be more sensitive to desiccation. Ona flat shore it reaches its maximum
development somewhere about the middle of the Z. pinnatifida band, where
it is at times co-dominant. In the lowest parts it is practically absent; and
in the upper it is found only in the damper positions. On very exposed shores
L. hybrida is scarce (see p. 136),

L. pinnatifida reaches its maximum development about April or May ;
and at this season sloping rocks are carpeted with a growth 4 to 6 inches high.
After May many of the larger fronds disappear, and the association as a
whole- becomes inconspicuous. There remain, however, numerous small
shoots, which are continually augmented during the summer, the plant being
apparently perennial: JZ. hybrida, on the other hand, is an annual, Young
sporelings 1 to 2 mm. long are discernible in September ; they develop during
winter, fruit in spring, and disappear in May. :

Very marked colour-changes due to illumination are shown Pa L. pinna-
tafida, and to a less extent by Gigartina. The normal colour of the former
is a deep purplish red; but during summer the growth in sunny situations
is pale yellow green. This gradually gives place to purplish green in
autumn, which becomes redder as the days shorten. The production of
antheridia by Laurencia in March and April gives the plants a golden hue,
owing mainly to the yellow substance found in the antheridial cavities. As
a large number of male plants are often found together, sheets of bright yellow
fronds are frequent.

Callithamnion arbuscula Association.

The plant-community formed either by Calkthamnion arbuscula, ot
Ceramium acanthonotum, or a mixture of both, has been described by several
writers under various names. Callithamnion is the more conspicuous plant,
and most writers have dealt largely with this species; Ceramtwm acanthonotum
is, however, an equally important element. Clare Island is peculiar in
possessing in addition a small quantity of the southern Callithamnion
granulatum.

The association is well developed on many parts of the island and exposed
mainland. The relative amount of the two species varied during the
different seasons—a fact which probably: explains discrepancies in accounts of
the same area by different writers. In July, 1910, Ceramiwm acanthonotum
was the dominant species on Clare Island, whereas in August, 1911,

H2

15 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Callithamnion arbuscula was more abundant. Apart from these seasonal
variations, Ceramium is found chiefly on bare slopes with much or moderate
exposure; sometimes it occurs pure, forming a dense carpet several yards
square, but more often it is mixed and interrupted. Callithamnion prefers
the more boisterous positions, and is especially luxuriant on steep or vertical
rocks, ;

The belt formed by the association is at the same level as the lower part
of the Bangia and Porphyra associations, or slightly higher than the Nemalion
and Corallina communities. It usually begins just below F. spiralis, and extends
to within a few feet of low-water mark. Callithamnion often appears a
short distance above Ceramium, but for the most part the two species occupy
the same level. Where fresh-water streams exist, Ceramium not infrequently
ascends the shore, and may reach as high as Pelvetia. C. arbuscula, on the
other hand, does not thrive in fresh water.

Unlike the Bangia-Urospora association, the present plant-community is
inost frequent on rough surfaces offering a good foothold. Ceramium, which
forms a spreading growth, usually occurs on mussels and Corallina, amongst
which it pushes a mass of rhizoids; but it also grows epiphytically on the
Callithamnion. The latter, on the contrary, has a scattered habit, each
plant possessing a single stem, which is thick and spongy. It is most
frequently attached to limpets, mussels, or the rock between them; only
varely is it found on other algae. Although both species occupy a fairly
high level, owing to the retention of water by their spongy thalli neither
becomes dry when the tide is out.

The associations into which the Callithamnion arbuscula vegetation most
frequently merges are those of Bangia, Nemalion, Corallina; and in addition
to algae derived from these sources the following species frequently occur
scattered in it :—

Rhizoclonium tortuosum. Polysiphonia macrocarpa.
Enteromorpha compressa. P. Brodiaei.
Scytosiphon lomentarius. P. thuyoides.

Petrospongium Berkeleyi.

Comparison with other Localities—In the British Isles Borgesen has
noted the community in Shetland, and I have observed it at Whitby
(Yorks). On the south coast of England, where C. arbuscula is absent, the
association is represented by a belt composed entirely of C. granulatum
(= C. spongiosum, Hary.). This has been noted at Swanage and Portland, and is
doubtlesscommon, Ceramiwm acanthonotum, though known on the south coast,
does not enter into the Callithamnion association in either of these localities.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 37

It is interesting to note that, though C. arbuscula was the essential species
in Clare Island, specimens of the southern C. yranulatum were scattered here
and there amongst it. The latter agreed in form with the Dorset specimens,
being short, very densely branched, and of a peculiar pale colour—a feature
which gives the clue to its presence (see p. 142).

Hansteen, Boye, and Kylin have each dealt with a vegetation on \ iihe
west coast of Norway that is probably very similar to that here described,
though it is Callithamnion that has mostly attracted attention. Kleen also
records both algae from Nordland, In the Faer6es, Simons refers to a
“©. acanthonotum formation,’ not observing the presence of C. arbuscula,
whilst Bérgesen, exploring the coast more thoroughly, found the latter
abundantly in exposed places, and adopted the older term. Both species
are found in Iceland, though Jonsson does not allude to them as forming an
association.

Some remarks by Harvey with nationernee to this cereltnition may be quoted
here. He observes with regard to C. arbuscula that “it delights in the most
exposed rocks and the roughest water, and very commonly grows on the
shells of Mytilus rugosus” (Phye. Brit., pl. 274); and concerning C. spongiosum,
he writes, “ It is curious that it appears to occupy the place of C. arbuscula on
shores where the latter is not found, these plants never growing together,
though both affect similar situations on different shores” (1. ¢, pl. 125). As
shown above, Harvey’s statement as to position and habitat of the species
holds good for many countries, though the Clare Island work proves that
the two species may occasionally occur together.

Nemalion Association.

The present vegetation, described by Kjellmann in 1875, was one of the
first algal associations to be recognized. It differs from many others in being
a purely summer growth, and might therefore be more suitably regarded
as a plant-society. The Nemalion belt occurs in the lower half of the
littoral region—that part of the shore which is crowded with a succession
of algae, and in which many transient societies are recognisable. Nemalion
prefers bare rocks, and usually develops in spots devoid of other vegeta-
tion. It would probably find a place as a subdivision of Béorgesen’s
“Corallina formation”; but in the present state of our knowledge it
appears advisable to sallow [PUB VUBUS Ve rather than introduce donbttat
alterations. 5

The Nemalion growthis first noticeable early in June, reaches its maximum
in August or September, and disappears in October. The association in Clare

15 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Island (as in 8. England) is composed of two species—JV. multifidum, and the
stouter unbranched JV. elminthoides Batters (= N. lubricum J. Ag.).' The zone
formed is 5 to 6 feet deep, and-extends from about half-tide level to the ordinary
low-water mark. Its luxuriance varies considerably in difterent localities.
In some, a vigorous growth is present in the upper part of the zone, whilst
in others the algae are better developed near low-water mark. JV. e/minthowles
is usually confined to the upper portion, and lasts later in the season than
NV. multifide. The plants are attached to bare rock, or limpets, and
occasionally to mussels. They prefer sloping surfaces, fully exposed to
waves and surf.

The Nemalion association is found in the band of Lithophyllum inerustans ;
but it prefers bare rock devoid of other vegetation. Where mussels occur, it
is usually replaced by the association of Ceramium acanthonotwm, or
Rhodymenia. Amongst it are scattered individuals of Scytosiphon lomentarius,
Enteromorpha. compressa, Rhizoclonium impleaum, and Polysiphonia Brodiaei,
the last-named being confined to the lowest levels. On Clare Island the
association is of frequent occurrence; and in Clew Bay it occurs on exposed
points, such as Old Head. A similar type of growth has been described by
Kjellmann (’78), and Kylin (07), for west Sweden; by Gran ('93) for Norway ;
it would appear also to be widespread in Denmark (vide Rosenvinge, ’09).
In the south of England the community is frequently met with, having been
noted by me on the coasts of Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall.

Himanthalia Association.

This familiar association, which is well developed on Clare Island, is
characteristic of moderately exposed shores. It forms a belt in the lowest
part of the littoral region ; but the extent of its horizontal range varies with
the amount of slope and the nature of the coast. On steep and vertical
rocks it is absent, or exists as a narrow band, 1 foot deep. On a shore of
moderate slope the band is wider, and extends from the Laminaria zone to
2 or 3 feet above low-water mark; whilst on flat shores, especially where
there is a dense sub-vegetation, it covers a wide area. With partial shelter,
Himanthalia descends some distance into the sub-littoral region, and occurs
mixed with Cystoscira ericoides and species of Laminaria; but apart from the
extension both in an upward and downward direction, its normal position

1 This plant, clearly figured by Velley, is usually regarded asa distinct species ; but as seen in
Clare Island and in the South of England, it is difficult to separate from JV. multifidum.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae 15 39

on a sloping shore is between the Lawrenciw pinnatijida beltand the Laminaria
association. AEP eis

In the form of a narrow band, the Himanthalia vegetation is seen on the
south shore of Clare Island in spots where the rocks are steep, and there is
full exposure to the waves; asa wider zone, it shows well on rocks which form
large sloping slabs, as at Kinnacorra. At Portlea a more extensive growth is
met with. The shore here is flat, but there is a moderate amount of rough
water and surf. A dense undergrowth of Lauwrencia pinnatifida and other
algae covers the lower part of the littoral region, and on this the Himanthalia
lies as a thin covering. The belt, however, is not so deep as it appears; for,
although during spring-tides it is left dry for three or four hours, during
neap-tides the time of exposure and the amount uncovered are small. The
undergrowth conserves moisture, and enables the alga to ascend to a higher
Jevel than otherwise. Portlea also affords an example of another type of
growth, viz., that on blocks and boulders. In this case Himanthalia is
attached to the upper parts of the boulders; but the strap-like fructifications
hang down over the sides (see Pl. II). Here again the alga may ascend
above its normal limit owing to the shade between the boulders.

Boérgesen remarks that, according to Boye, Himanthalia avoids localities
directly exposed to the surf, which is in contrast to its habit in the FaerGes.
In the British Isles it is certainly a surf-loving species; and in Clare Island
it occurs along the south shore, and also on such exposed points as Alnahaskilla.
At Ooghbeg, the one spot on Clare Island where Ascophyllum exists,
Himanthalia is found where the waves break at low-water; but as a rule, if
there is sufficient shelter for Ascophyllum, Himanthalia is absent. As noted
by Borgesen, the present alga cannot stand desiccation; and though odd
plants are seen some half-way up the shore, they do not thrive unless
protected from the sun. As a pool-plant it is one of the commonest species,
and is then usually infested by Hetocarpus fasciculatus, Ceramium Boergesenit,
and Herponema velutina. In the open, Hlachista scutulata is the usual
epiphyte.

Corallina and Lithothamnium Associations.

A belt of Oorallina spp. is found just above low-water mark in many parts
of Clare Island. It is characteristic of very exposed rocks, where it appears
to take the place of the Lawrencia pinnatifida band of less open spots. An
extensive growth of encrusting algae is usually met with as an under-
growth, and the two types of vegetation appear to be intimately connected,
and may for the present be treated together,

15 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

__ The species concerned-are as follows :—_ = eee
Corallina squamata, dom.
C. officinalis, co--or sub-dom.
Lithothamnium Lenormandi. ) 5 a CF eee
_Lithyphyllum incrustans. ndergrOW Ee
Lithothamnium polymorphum. ) Patan

( a) The Corallina growth is very much worn down by the waves, so that it
occurs in the form of dense cushions, the specific identity of which is difficult
to ascertain. In shallow depressions or with slight shelter, the production
of larger and more perfect fronds allows their true nature to be determined,
and in each case examined it was evident that the bulk of the growth was
composed of C. squameta, though C. officinalis was at-times also present.

‘The first signs of the Corallina belt are found at about hali-tide level,
usually just below the top of the Nemalion zone. The plants are found here
in chinks and fissures, where there is little risk of drying, and on passing
downwards they gradually spread out over the surface of the rocks. They
are, especially in the upper parts, frequently attached to mussels; and the
growth of these two organisms together form the compact cushions referred
to. At the lower part of the zone the fronds are large. This is due
partly to their being protected by the Laminaria foliage, and partly to their
being below the level at which the waves break. A great improvement in
colour is at the same time noticeable. C. sguamata as well as C. officinalis
occurs at the top of the Laminaria belt ; and the latter certainly, if not indeed
both, descends some distance into the sub-littoral region.

With increased shelter, though the plants are larger and less broken by
the waves, the band as a whole is not so conspicuous, owing to its being
replaced by other algae (usually Laurencia). Shallow pools are an exception.
Here a fine growth of C. officinalis is often present, and less frequently
C. squamata. he latter is seen at its best on narrow ledges, or hanging from
the sides of shady rocks.

The Corallina association above dealt with differs floristically from all
others hitherto described, in being composed largely of the southern species
C. squamata, This is probably the case in all the warmer parts of the British
Isles. ‘There is no question as to the abundance of C. sguamata in Clare
Island; and it is doubtless equally common along the whole of the south and
west of Ireland. It also occurs in plenty in the south of England, and has
been noted as forming the principal constituent of the Corallina association
at the end of Portland Bill. ;

(5) The Lithothamnium vegetation is described here together with that of
Corallina, because it is exceptionally well developed when found in company

Care Island Survey—Marine Algue. 15 41

with a widespread growth of that alga. A thorough study of its occurrence
in varying conditions was not made ; consequently the following notes must be
regarded as but a contribution to the study.

The growth in question occurs in three zones, Lithothamnium Lenormandi,
the uppermost, Lithophyllum inerustans, the second, and the third,
Lithothammium polymorphum, appears only when low-water mark is
reached. All three plants resent desiccation, and cannot bear being dried
up. L. polymorphum, and, to a lesser degree, L. Lenormandi, prefer shade 5
but Z. inerustans thrives in the bright sunshine of shallow rock-pools. The
zone of L. Lenormandi occurs on damp rocks slightly above half-tide level,
at which height moisture is local, being found in fissures, on shady vertical
surfaces, or under the foliage of the larger algae. The zone is more extensive
than at first sight appears, and is probably widespread in the British Isles.
L. incrustans follows. This is abundant in all the rock-pools, and is by far
the commonest species in the district. Apart from its growth in pools,
L. inerustans first appears in chinks and hollows in the lower half of the
littoral region. Ags one descends the shore the crusts become larger and
more widely spread; and on reaching the ‘Himanthalia level they form large
sheets, filling up interstices between limpets, barnacles, and Ralfsia clavata.
At low-water mark the plant is joined by L. polymorphum, the red warty
thallus of which is at once distinguishable from the paler Z. inerustans,
though the latter at this level assumes its true mauve-pink colour, in contrast
to its almost white appearance higher up. JL. polymorphwm extends into
the sub-littoral region; LZ. incrustans probably does the same, but its growth
here on exposed shores was not investigated.

The Lithothamnium vegetation described above is specially characteristic
of exposed, somewhat bare rocks, where algae such as Laurencia and
Himanthalia are poorly developed, but where there is a large growth of
the short form of Corallina. In localities where there is less exposure, or
where shrubby ‘and foliaceous algae occur in plenty, the Lithothamnium
vegetation is poor: some traces of the Z. Lenormandi and L. polymorphum
zones may be found, but LZ. incrustans usually disappears altogether.

Vegetation of Rock-pools.

Several different types of pools may be distinguished according to their
elevation, and to the geological nature of the shore. A number of other factors
must also be taken into consideration—namely, the size, depth, and configu-
ration of the pools, and conditions of temperature, illumination, and drainage.
Whilst much of the pool-vegetation is perennial and more or less constant,
a large part is transient and varies considerably, not only from month to

R. I, A. PROC., VOL. XXXT. a 15

15 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

month, but from one year to another. A detailed study and analysis of the
vegetation was impossible: but a series of observations was made, and a
general account is given below. -

In the upper pools an encrusting vegetation is always conspicuous. At the
highest levels Hildenbrandtia prototypus is found, especially on rugged rocks
and on exposed cliffs. Slightly below, and generally in flatter areas, Ralfsza
verrucosa appears, covering the bottom of shallow pools with a thick crust,
and often completely ousting Hildenbrandtia. At a lower level (probably
that of ordinary high-tide), Zithophyllum inerustans begins to develop, first as
avery thin crust which does not fruit; then rapidly increasing in vigour on
the lower rocks, it passes into the Lithothamnium association (p. 41). - Ralfsia
and Lithophyllum are, in the upper shallow pools, in competition. The
former cakes off with age, allowing Lithophyllum for a time to-get the upper
hand. Ralfsia, however, tolerates more fresh water, and probably grows more
rapidly. Both can withstand intense insolation, and often form large sheets
without any protecting vegetation whatever. The water ‘of these pools
becomes in summer very warm.

With regard to the upright vegetation, Hnteromorpha intestinalis is often
alone in the highest pools, but is joined by Cladophora sericea, Chactomorpha
aerea, and Seytosiphon lomentarius, where the salt-water is constantly renewed
by spray and splashing. Below these a series of fairly characteristic pools,
situated about high-water level, is reached, which are well supplied with
seaweeds during winter and spring. But in summer the larger algae are
scarce, or represented by a few hardy species, usually infested with Diatoms
and Cyanophyceae. The dominant species are :—

Cladophora rupestris. Gigartina mamillosa.

C. sericea. Laurencia hybrida (except summer).
Seytosiphon lomentarius. Polysiphonia fruticulosa.

Leathesia difformis. Dumontiafiliformis (except summer).
Gelidium sp. : Corallina officinalis.

The additional winter and spring flora need not be listed. The pools are
not always replenished in calm weather, and are distinctly brackish ; they are
about 6 inches deep, and commonly run parallel with the shore.

At a lower level the typical purely marine rock-pools commence, in varied
form, and with abundant vegetation. They are much more difficult to classify,
and have a constantly changing flora. With a sufiicient depth, large algae,
such as Halidrys, Cystoseira jfibrosa, &c., are plentiful, and provide shade; hence
almost any of the shade-loving Florideae (except those which require daily
exposure to the air) may be met with. If shallow, the flora is more limited,

- Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 43

though sporelings and young plants of a very large number of species occur.
In Vancouver, Henkel -(’06) has worked.on the structure of rock-pools; and
Skinner’s paper (03) is one of the only attempts to analyse the flora and the
conditions obtaining. His conclusions, equally applicable to the British coasts,
are as follows:—In general, the higher the elevation of the pool, and the
less exposed to wave-action, the fewer the species found, though the number
of individuals may be great. The more gradual the slope, and the rougher
and more irregular the sides, the more abundant the plant-life. A perpendicular
or receding wall is unfavourable for the location of plants.

An attempt is made below to indicate the characteristic species of ordinary
rock-pools not more than 18 inches deep. A complete list is out of the
question. In a general way they are at their best in early spring. During
the dark days of winter many of the Florideae, which at other seasons thrive
in more shady spots, are found in shallow pools (e.g. Phyllophora rubens,
Plocamium coccineum, Laurencia obtusa, Rhodomela subfusea, Halurus
equisetifolius). Hence in winter and spring the Florideae are markedly
dominant. In March and April many transient species develop ; and in May
and June brown algae are abundant, and also species of Cladophora. The
Florideae in shallow pools are in summer of poor colour; and a great decrease
in the number of species is-noticeable. Ulva and Enteromorpha spp.
may be dominant in August and September. Excluding large species, such
as Fucus, Laminaria, &c., and small epiphytes like Myrionema, Elachista,
and Chantransia, the most typical species are as indicated in the list on
pp. 44, 45.

Cave- Vegetation.

As would be expected from the conditions obtaining in caves, shade-loving
littoral plants abound; whilst in addition species from the sub-littoral region
also occur. Provided wave-action is not too severe, the cave-flora is often
full of interest biologically, long tunnel-like caves, with pools and boulders,
being particularly instructive.

Though the Clare Island caves are neither numerous nor extensive, their
flora is characteristic and worthy of record. hey may be roughly divided
into two sets, namely, exposed and sheltered. The flora of caves fully
exposed to the sea is usually poor, incrusting species on the walls being at
times the only vegetation present; but sheltered caves, especially if stocked
with boulders, are rich in species, and possess the shaggy growth of which
Plumaria is typical, as well as the mossy and incrusting coverings supplied
respectively by Rhodochorton Rothii and Lithothamnium polymorphum,

Characteristic Vegetation of Rock-pools.

Feb., 1911.
Roonah Pt.

April, 1911. July, 1909.
Clare Island. Clare Island.

Oct., 1910.
Clare Island.

Monostroma Grevillei, rs
Enteromorpha clathrata, .
E. compressa,

Ulva Lactuca, .
Rhizoclonium implexum, .
Cladophora pellucida,

C. rupestris,

C. sericea,

C. glaucescens, .

C. albida, 5

C. lanosa, .

Codium adhaerens,

C. tomentosum,

C. mucronatum,
Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus,
Litosiphon pusillum,
Phloeospora brachiatum,
Seytosiphon lomentarius,
Ectocarpus confervoides,
E. fasciculatus,

E. granulosus,

Pylaiella litoralis,

Ismophloea sphaerophora, .

Myriotrichia claviformis,

Sphacelaria cirrhosa,

Cladostephus verticillatus, .

Chordaria flagelliformis,
Mesogloia vermiculata,
Castagnea virescens, .
Leathesia tuberiformis,

Dictyota dichotoma, .

Porphyra leucosticta,
P. umbilicalis, .
Pterocladia capillacea,
Gelidium pulchellum,
G. latifolium,
Chondrus crispus,
Gigartina mamillosus,

Phyllophora rubens,

Pay teenies

xX ab. —
x x

x XK ab.

x XK ab.

x x

x =

x x

x x

x =e

x =

x =

x x

xX? x

x x

x x

— x

_ x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x =

= x

x x

x x

= | x

= x

— x

xy Xx ab

x ab. XK ah

x a

x x".

x xr.

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

1x xxx x

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae.

15 45

Phyllophora membranifolia,
Cystoclonium purpurascens,
Calliblepharis jubata,
Rhodymenia palmata,
Lomentaria articulata,

L. clavellosa,

Chylocladia kaliformis,

C. ovalis,

Plocamium coccineum,
Nitophyllum punctatum,

N. laceratum,

Delesseria sanguinea,

D. ruscifolia,

D. hypoglossum, «
Rhodomela subfusea, - .
Laurencia obtusa,

L. hybrida,

L. pinnatifida, . .
Polysiphonia urceolata,

P. nigrescens,

P. Brodiaei, &

P. fruticulosa, .
Pterosiphonia thuyoides,
Dasya arbuscula,
Spermothamnion urneri, .
Griffithsia setacea,

Halurus equisetifolius,
Monospora pedicellata 5
Plumaria elegans,
Ceramium rubrum,

C. Boergesenii, .

C. ciliatum,

Dumontia filiformis, .
Dilsea edulis,

Furcellaria fastigiata,
Lithophyllum lichenoides, .
Corallina officinalis,

C. squamata,

C. rubens,

Feb., 19M. | April, 1911.
Roonah Pt. | Clare Island.

x

|

ab.

ab.

> i> a a> > a> Gy, a>. 4

x

x

|

Xx

|

S

mS tS OS 2S 8S BK OK SM RR

KKK KK eK GXEX

x

A Re OSE Ke EK KC SIGS Or aE

a
=

=

July, 1909.
Clare Island.

xX X X XK X

Oct., 1910.
Clare Island.

x

Xx X X X X

Ki Ki Kae Kee

15 46 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

1. Evposed Cares.—Several of these occur between Portlea and the light-
house, and are accessible at low tide. The walls, almost up to the roof, are
covered with encrusting organisms representing algae, lichens, and sponges ;
and except for local patches, shrubby species are absent. In the following
list, the first four are dominant, occurring roughly as bands from above
downward in the order mentioned, whilst the three last are scattered
irregularly a short distance above high-water mark :—

Hildenbrandtia prototypus. Lithothamnium laevigatum.
Verrucaria sp. Ralfsia clavata.
Lithothamnium Lenormandi. Cruoria pellita.

L. polymorphum.

Large sheets of sponges also occur, and amongst these Halichondria
ponicea, frequently with Rhizoclonium Kerneri f. endozoica, is abundant.
’ Small patches of a very short growth of the following fruticulose species
are occasionally found, their presence probably indicating local shelter :—

Phyllophora rubens. Plumaria elegans.
Chylocladia ovalis. Corallina officinalis.

Where fresh water exudes from the roof or walls, streaks of Cladophora
rupestris, if the exposure be not too great, mark its presence, and at times
Rhodochorton floridulum in addition. Pools are generally lacking; if present,
their flora resembles that given below for sheltered caves.

2. Sheltered Caves.—Several types of these may be distinguished according
to the nature of the shore and the manner in which they receive protection.
In our area the two following only need be mentioned:—(a) Open caves
on exposed coasts, protected by rocks at the entrance (Roonah Point);
and (b) high-level caves with the entrance at, or just above, high-water
mark. In the former there is often a variety of ground and vegetation,
especially if boulders and pools occur; in the latter the conditions are more
uniform.

(a) The encrusting vegetation at Roonah Point is the same as that on
exposed coasts, but less extensive; the mossy growth of Rhodochorton Rothii
is abundant on the drier boulders and on the upper parts of the walls;
Sphacelaria britannica and various Cyanophyceae occur with this species, and
Phillophora Traillii is found in patches. An abundant growth of shade-
loving Florideae follows at a lower level, covering rocks, boulders, and
shallow pools, Chylocladia articulata, Delesseria alata, Nitophyllum laceratum,
Polysiphonia urceolata, and encrusting species such as Lithothamnium

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 47

Lenormandi and L. polymorphum being the most usual. The pool-flora
consists chiefly of the following species :—

Phyllophora rubens. Polysiphonia urceolata.

P. membranifolia. Chylocladia articulata.
Rhodymenia palmata. Griffithsia setacea.
Nitophyllum laceratum. Pterosiphonia parasitica.
Delesseria sanguinea. Lithophyllum inecrustans.
Plocamium coccineum. Lithothamnium polymorphum.

(b) A small tunnel-like cave on the south side of Portlea was carefully
investigated each season. Though short, it was the only really dark cave
examined, and its flora proved of considerable interest, three of the rarest
algae of the island occurring in it. Near the mouth of the cave the shaggy
growth lining the walls consisted of Cladophora rupestras (dominant) and
Plumaria (sub-dominant), with the following species scattered freely amongst

them: :—

Hetocarpus Holmesii. Polysiphonia macrocarpa.
Gelidium pusillum. Rhodochorton floridulum.
Rhodymenia palmata. Callithamnion scopulorum.
Polysiphonia urceolata. — Spermothamnion Turneri.

A little further in, Plumaria becomes dominant, and, with the exception of
Cladophora rupestris, which assumes a thin feebly branched habit, the other
algae gradually disappear. On the bottom and at the margins of pools,
Derbesia marina is found, and on the sloping sides Codiwm amphibiwm under
the drip of fresh water. At the further end, the walls are mostly clothed with
a pure growth of Plumaria, though patches of Lathothamnium Lenormandi vax.
squamulosa exist, and Derbesia occupies the water-edges. The pool-flora is
remarkable ; Plumaria, Ceramium acanthonotum and Polysiphoni® macrocarpa
are.common, whilst further in there is a felt of the minute Ptilothamnion

lucifugum (sp. nov.).

(b). Sub-littoral Region.

he sub-littoral vegetation of exposed coasts is dithicult of exploration. In
calm weather much may be learnt from a boat at dead low water, but in a
general way a small boat and a hand-dredge are of little use. Two associations
only are described below, these being the only ones which were definitely
investigated. Colonies of the beautiful Cystoseira ericoides are plentiful off
the shore, in company with such plants as Saccorhiza and Himanthalia, but
unfavourable weather battled attempts at their study.

15 48 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Laminaria Association.

Clare Island is girdled at low-water mark with a fine belt of Laminaria,
which descends on all sides deep down into the sub-littoral region. With the
exception of the somewhat doubtful LZ. hieroglyphica, all the English species
occur, so that the west of Ireland presents the exposed Laminaria vegetation
of the British Isles in its most varied form. Though a submerged association.
each species reaches to the top of the sub-littoral region, and is thus visible
during the lowest spring-tides. Alaria and Z. digitata are uppermost, and
are often uncovered; Saccorhiza and ZL. saccharina follow, and usually show
in calm weather, whilst the erect stipes of Z. Cloustoni protrude in favoured
localities only. Alaria, Z. digituta, and LZ. Cloustoni form well-marked belts
which are always to be found on the type of shore that they respectively
require, whereas the growth of Saccorhiza, and LZ. saccharina, though at
times plentiful, is scattered and local.

A steep coast with almost perpendicular rocksis the A laria shore par excellence,
though ZL. digitata is also usually present. On sloping rocks the same
vegetation obtains, the amount of Z. digitata mereasing as the shore becomes
less steep, till at length Alaria disappears altogether. ZL. digitata often
descends into many fathoms (at least 8); but Alaria appears to form a shallow
belt in the uppermost part of the littoral region. JZ. Cloustoni enjoys the
Atlantic swell, but prefers a flat bottom, and is absent on steep rocks.
Within the shelter of a reef, or in other similarly protected spots, the plants
are found nearer the surface of the water, and at the lowest tides the tops of
their stipes protrude. In such positions the association may be conveniently
examined from a boat (e.g., at Roonah Quay).

A flat or gently sloping bottom with a certain amount of shelter is most
suitable for Saccorhiza and Z. saccharina. In certain spots on the south shore,
and especially in channels between the rocks, the former grows in plot-like
areas, which may be easily examined from the rocks in quiet weather. It is
also plentful in the shallow water off Kinnacorra. Streak-like patches of
L. saccharvina have also been noted in these localities, but the plant is more
characteristic of quiet regions.

As stated on p. 15, the Laminaria association, though it may be partially
uncovered during spring-tides, marks in reality the upper limit of the sub-
littoral region. The amount uncovered varies with the exposure. In the
most boisterous spots Alaria ascends high, and consequently, if a spell of
quiet weather synchronizes with spring-tides, a considerable amount, 3-8 feet,
is left bare. Bérgesen mentions a case in the Faerdes, where Alaria flourished
at a level above that of high-water line. Nothing like this has been seen in

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. ‘15 49

Ireland, and it probably only occurs where great exposure is coupled with
a wet, foggy climate.

The usual epiphytes characteristic of the species occur. Litosiphon
Alariae, Ectocarpus fasciculatus, and Myrionemaceae are frequent on Alaria—
Ohantransia Alariae vare. The laminae of JZ. digitata commonly bear
a copious growth of Ectocarpi, Ceramia, Callithamnion tetragonum, and
other small plants, while the stipes are usually clean. The rugged stems of
L. Cloustoni, on the other hand, are densely clothed with Florideae, which
show a tendency to definite sequence from above downwards as pointed
out by Berthold (82) and Bérgesen (05). As a rule this sequence is as
follows :—

Rhodymenia palmata.
Polysiphonia urceolata.
Delesseria sinuosa.
Delesseria alata.
Heterosiphonia coccinea.

But in addition to the differences due to seasonal variations many irregulari-
ties were noted. Other characteristic epiphytes are :—

Codium tomentosum. Ptilothamnion pluma.
Callophyllis laciniata. Ptilota plumosa.
Rhodymenia palmetta. Plumaria elegans.
Lomentaria articulata. Rhodochorton parasitica.
Plocamium coccineum. Cruoriella Dubyi, 7.
Nitophyllum laceratum. Cruoria pellita ».

N. uncinatum (autumn). Petrocelis Hennedyi ».

N. Bonnemaisoni, +. Dermatolithon pustulatum.

Saccorhiza is usually fairly clean, as is also LZ. saccharina in exposed
localities.

Comparison with other Countries.—As: far as Alaria, Z. digitata, and
L. Cloustont are concerned, the above vegetation agrees well with that
described by Borgesen for the Faeroes, though in that region it ascends
somewhat higher on the shore. Saccorhiza is entirely absent; but this is
compensated for by the presence of two additional species, A. Pylait and
L. faeroensis, the latter being confined to sheltered coasts. Bérgesen, in an
_ interesting paragraph on the effect of wave-action on Laminariae, points out
that the pliable stipes and fronds of Alaria and JL. digitata are able to resist
the violent conditions of a steep shore, and where the breaking of the waves
is felt; whilst the stout and comparatively rigid stems of LZ. Cloustoni are
suited to the strong pull of the rollers in deeper water.

R.LA. PROG., VOL. XXXI, G 18

15 50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The Swedish vegetation described by Kylin is very different. Alaria is
absent, and the verticai rocks are clothed with L. digitata and L. saccharina
var. bullata. In the most open spots L. digitata var. cuneata is dominant.
The LZ. Cloustoni vegetation is entirely separate from LZ. digitata, being found
only in the deeper part of the sub-littoral region, appearing first in about
15 m. of water. Boye’s account of the Norwegian flora (according to
Borgesen’s summary) agrees with that of the Faerdes:; and Kylin’s notes on
the vegetation near Bergen (’10) indicate the preponderance of Alaria and
LI. Cloustoni. The Iceland vegetation resembles that of the Faerées, but is
enriched by the presence of Z. nigripes and Succorhiza dermatodea. In the
south of England Alaria is rare except in Cornwall, but apart from its
absence the Clare Island vegetation agrees well with that noted in Dorset.
The exposed rocky coasts of Ireland are, however, more favourable for an
extensive Laminaria vegetation, and are highly suitable for a growth of
Alaria.

Encrusting Alga Vegetation (sub-littoral).

The Lithothamnium vegetation of the littoral region extends downwards
into the deepest parts of the sub-littoral, but, owing to the difficulty of dredging
amongst a dense growth of Laminaria digitata and L. Cloustoni, it is difficult
to ascertain the amount of growth and the relative abundance of the species.
An extensive coating of calcareous algae is, however, present, and on exposed
coasts probably occupies a large part of the available rock-surface, though soft
encrusting species, such as Cruoria pellita, Cruoriella, and Peyssonnelia, occur
with it. Lithophyllum inerustans enters the sub-littoral ; but, as far as could be
seen, the Lithothamnium ‘band at the lowest tide-level consists mainly of
L. polymorphum, and this extends downwards for several fathoms. Other
species dredged were ZL. Jaevigatum and L. compactum. The fruticulose
calcareous algae, such as L. caleareum and L. fasciculatum, are characteristic
of sheltered shores (p. 69).

B.—Sheltered Coast Series.
(a) Littoral region.

Several of the associations found on sheltered coasts have been already
dealt with. In some cases the principal differences noticeable in passing from
the open shores to quieter conditions have been pointed out, so that re-descrip-
tion is unnecessary. In other cases, though theassociations have been described,
their growth in sheltered localities requires special notice; yet other
communities are peculiar to such regions,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 51

Hildenbrandtia—Verrucaria Association.

Brief notes may be added to previous remarks with regard to this
association (p. 19). On the sheltered shores of Clew Bay the same species
are present, especially on boulders and smooth rocks. Where these are absent
a discontinuous growth on stones and pebbles occurs, and in such spots
Hildenbrandtia is joined near low-water mark by Porphyrodiscus simulans and
Khododermis elegans (plants hardly distinguishable in the field), and also by
Ralfsia clavata. H. prototypus itself, moreover, appears to extend to the
sub-littoral region (cf. p. 20). The difficulties of obtaining satisfactory
material and of distinguishing the species when collecting, make it no easy
matter to gain a true idea of the different societies. It is certain, however,
that in these localities the Ralfsia clavata vegetation is one with the
Hildenbrandtia association, and that it forms a part of it. It is further
evident that a vegetation composed of soft encrusting algae and lichens
extends uninterruptedly from high-water mark down to the Lithoderma
association of 5-8 fathoms. The details require working out, but roughly
the principal species form zones as follows :—

Hildenbrandtia prototypus (upper littoral).
Verrucaria mucosa (middle littoral).

Ralfsia clavata (lower littoral).

Cruoriopsis Dubyi (shallow sub-littoral).
Lithoderma fatiscens ? (shallow sub-littoral).

Fucaceae Association (sheltered).

The growth of Fucaceae on flat sheltered shores is exceedingly luxuriant,
and often forms a conspicuous feature of the landscape. The indispensable
factor is good anchorage. On flat shores, where wave-action is slight stones
are sufficient to supply this necessity, but where rocks and stones are wanting
Fuci are conspicuous by their absence. The association was studied especially
in Achill Sound, the north part towards Inishbiggle and Bellacragher Bay
having been examined, as well as the southern portion towards Achillbeg.
As far as was seen the Fucus growth in Clew Bay is of a precisely similar
nature.

The association is composed of the usual five species in their normal
sequence (see p. 23), and where fresh-water streams occur, the sixth species,
F, ceranoides, invariably appears. In some places the zones are fairly sharply
defined; in others they are much less distinct, and each zone overlaps the
next. A certain amount of irregularity exists too as to the order in which
Ascophyllum and 2’, vesiculosus occur, The former usually commences above

G 2

15 52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the latter; but not infrequently /’. vesteulosus forms a very wide zone reaching
from F. spiralis down. to F. serratus, with Ascophyllum scattered amongst it,
or forming more or less of a band in the upper part. The reason for this is
explained later. At times one or more of the species may be absent, and this
may almost always be traced to lack of suitable means of attachment at the
appropriate level. In Achill Sound, for instance, the association often stops
abruptly with Ascophyllum or F. vesiewlosus, owing to the absence of stones at
the level at which F. serratus should occur. In other places Pelvetia and
I’ spiralis are only feebly developed owing to the lack, in the upper part of the
shore, of stones of sufficient size.

Some idea of the width of Fucus association in Achill Sound will be gamed
from the following readings :—

A. Sloping shore near Achill Bridge with a narrow band of Fucaceae :—

Width of zone.

Pelvetia, . ; : ‘ ; : ; 5 2S lige
F. spiralis, ; A. : : : : SGT 55
F, vesiculosus, . : . j ; : 5 AD) 5
F, vesiculosus and Ascophyllum mixed, 3 = +0 A
F. vesiculosus, . : ? 5 : ; 5 i.
F. serratus, F : ‘ , j ; -- 0 s

B. Flat shore with a very wide Fucus association ; about 1 mile south of
Achill Bridge :—
Width of zone.

Pelvetia, ; , ; . P : : 5 yards.
F. spiralis, : P P ‘ ; ; get bea Dy 9) 58
Ascophyllum, . . : . . , Ones
Ascophyllum and F. vesiculosus, F : > 8 =
F. vesiculosus, ; ; . ; : 7 S50) May
F. vesiculosus, F. serratus, . 5 . : > G05 oy

The above figures represent fair average readings for sloping and flat
shores respectively, and serve to show that the horizontal range varies directly
with the amount of slope. On very flat shores even wider bands exist. At
Mulranny, for example, on a flat stretch of rocks and stones at high-water
level, a growth of Pelvetia 80 yards wide was noted: this was followed by a
sudden increase in the fall, and the succeeding band of F- spiralis was only 3-4
yards in width.

With regard to exposure, all the species composing the association can
tolerate the extreme shelter of the inner part of Clew Bay. On passing from
this: region to the more open, beyond a slight change in form, there is no

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 53

marked difference in the vegetation as long as Ascophyllum remains. A
slight exposure, however, is sufficient to affect this species, and with its
disappearance the association is robbed of one of its most conspicuous elements.
Ascophyllum begins to disappear on the outer sides of the islands, but
persists in all cases on the inner sides. West of the islands it is only found
in certain places, though this perhaps is largely due to the lack of good
mooring. But, in spite of this, there is no question whatever that in the
Survey-area Ascophyllum is far more susceptible to exposure than F. vesiculosus.
This is in agreement with observations in other parts of the British Isles, and
also with accounts that have been given of the Norway Fucus-vegetation
(Boye, 94, and Kylin, ’10). The conditions described for the Faeroes,
where Ascophyllum is the less susceptible of the two, are very remarkable,
and, as far as known, unique. The result of exposure in producing a change
in form in the various constituents of the association is very marked. It is
best seen in F. spiralis. F. vesiculosus also produces a wealth of form, but
the variations are more difficult to connect with external conditions.
Remarks on these points occur in the notes on each species given later.

Fucus Farms.—The botanical features of the plots, planted with stones in
order to obtain a growth of Fucus for use as manure, may be dealt with here.
The farms are formed on flat stretches of sand exposed at low water. They
may either extend from the shore, or be laid out as isolated patches in the
middle of the strand. The rapid colonization, and the luxuriance of the
subsequent vegetation, prove beyond question the effect of anchorage.

The stones are covered mostly by F. vesiculosus, though a small amount of
Ascophyllum sometimes occurs. At the lowest levels there are occasionally
encircling belts of F. serratus, but the stones are not as a rule placed
sufficiently low for this species. . vesiculosus is very luxuriant, forming large
tufts, bright yellow in summer and deep green in winter, with numerous
bladders and abundant fruit. & serratus, when present, grows equally
vigorously, with fine broad fronds often a yard in length. The plants are
cut in February after two full years’ growth, and the stones turned over for
a new crop of sporelings to develop.

It is somewhat remarkable that this artificially produced vegetation con-
sists of a practically pure association: of 7. vesiculosus, forming thus a striking
contrast to vegetation obtaining on mud-flats (e.g., Belfast Lough, South-.
ampton Water). The latter are colonized by mussels, and these support a
pure growth of Ulva Lactuca. Ulva, and many other adaptable algae, are
present in Clew Bay, but Fucus has complete sway-on the stone plots. It
would be interesting to know whether Fucus would develop if stones of
sufficiently large size could be maintained on the mud-flats of Belfast Lough. -

15 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

A few notes are appended on the species composing the association.

(a) Pelvetia canaliculata.—This is less variable than any other species. In
the sheltered parts of Clew Bay and in Achill Sound, it usually occurs on the
irregularly scattered stones, and consequently the zone is interrupted. The
growth is entirely flooded at spring-tides, but at neap-tides the upper part
of the belt is unmoistened, the plants remaining quite dry, and brittle for
several days in succession. Though Pelvetia may form a zone several yards
wide, its vertical distribution is not more than 14-2 feet. It fruits freely
during summer and autumn; but the growth being more interrupted
and not so Inxuriant as on open shores, the orange-yellow band is not so
conspicuous. |

(b) #. spiralis—Not only is /. spiralis found in all the sheltered parts of
Clew Bay, but it is capable of growing on peat and loam, and ranges from
such situations to the roughest and most exposed parts of the open coast
(ct. Borgesen, 05, p. 746). Leaving aside its growth on peat (see p. 124), we
find that on flat shores the plants are usually stone-attached, and do not form
so dense a vegetation as when growing on rock. For this reason they become
drier during the long exposure to the air, and are shorter and less branched.
When the shore is composed of rocks and large stones, the growth is more
vigorous; and under these conditions the plants attain their maximum size,
the fronds being wide, much branched, and bearing large fleshy conceptacles.
‘This form remains as long as the conditions are sheltered, but when exposure
is experienced, or where a current strikes the shore, the plants become shorter,
though they usually retain their bushy habit.

The belt formed is much wider than on steep open coasts, and its width is
proportional to the degree of slope. In Achill Sound it varies from a few
feet to 10 yards, and usually forms a pure growth, though /. vesiculosus and
Ascophyllum occasionally intrude into the lower part. The fruiting season
on quiet shores appears to extend over a slightly longer period than on those
which are more open. In Clew Bay it commences in May, and does not cease
till autumn. On sheltered shores also, a difference in colour is noticeable
during the autumn, the plants turning a bright rusty brown. The same
peculiarity has been observed on the south coast of England ; and it serves to
distinguish at a glance Ff. spiralis from F. vesiculosus, the latter being usually
yellow or only slightly brown. In some places two sharp zones of colour are
produced. Another feature, which on flat shores is very characteristic of
F. spiralis, is the presence of long blister-like swellings on the fronds. ‘These
are invariably present in the inner part of Clew Bay, and are entirely absent
from the short forms found on Clare Island. Sanvagean has lately examined
Lt, spiralis (= FP. platycarpus, 'Tluw:.) with great thoroughness (’08).

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 55

(c) Ascophyllum and F. vesiculosus.—The irregularities in the vertical
range of Ascophyllum and F. vesiculosus have been noted by several writers.
Bérgesen calls attention to the difference in the observations of Stromfelt in
Iceland, and Rosenvinge in Norway; and records irregularities noted by

‘himself in a single locality in the Faerdes. He comes to the conclusion that
the difficulty may be explained by the factor of exposure and small differences
in local topography. No doubt this solution is correct with regard to many
localities; but in Achill Sound it was found inadequate, and a further
explanation had to be sought for. It has always been assumed that in
England the Ascophyllum zone begins slightly above that of /. vesiculosus,
and Miss Baker (’09) gives figures which support that view. This sequence
is found on the stone embankments of Achill Bridge and in other places; but
on the shores in Clew Bay, as often as not, the reverse order obtains. The
explanation, so far as the sheltered waters of the Survey area are concerned,
was found to be largely one of anchorage. Ascophyllum requires a stronger
mooring than Fucus; and on the sandy shores of Clew Bay where the stones
in the upper part of the beach are small they are insufficient for Ascophyllum,
though well able to provide a mooring for a short growth of Fucus. The
absence therefore of the Ascophyllum-zone, or the presence of scattered plants
only, is explained by the absence of fock and large stones at the right level,
or the presence of isolated rocks only. In many parts of the Sound the
anchorage is sufficiently good to allow Ascophyllum to flourish at all levels,
and then the normal sequence is almost invariably maintained. Very small
stones suffice for both F. spiralis and F. vesiculosus; but it is unusual to find
even young plants of Ascophyllum on stones. The last-named shows a decided
preference for boulders, from which it hangs in festoons. The stone-attached
Fucus-vegetation is essentially one of very sheltered water, and could not
exist were there much wave-action. Where the stones are light the growth
is small, and if, by reason of a long spell of quiet weather, an extra amount
of foliage should be produced, a number of plants will be displaced with the
first ruffling of the water.

: Ascophyllum fruits in late winter and spring. In summer and autumn a
large amount of vegetative growth takes place; and young receptacles are laid
down in autumn. The latter begin to ripen in March, the main crop of spores
being liberated in April and May. The effect of exposure has been dealt
with above.

The Fucus vesiculosus belt is the widest. On flat shores it ranges from
20 to 80 yards, in the upper part usually accompanied by Ascophyllum, but
near low water often pure. No attempt was made to determine all the forms ;
but the most abundant is the ordinary type. Var. vadorwm is also common,

15 56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and var. Jaterifructus not imfrequent. In many localities var. avillaris is
found, which under certain conditions passes into F. volubilis, Huds. The
latter in its typical form was not noted in the area; but the paltonaeal
plant var. balticw is abundant. This, together with a peculiar variety named
muscoides, is dealt with later (p. 80).

(d) Fucus serratus. Whilst Ascophyllum enjoys hanging from boulders,
F. serratus prefers to lie flat. Occasionally it is found growing on sand-covered
rocks, and then rests on the bare sand. It is found on all sheltered coasts
where there is appropriate anchorage; but in many parts of Clew Bay this is
wanting; and the pebble-attached association sets in below F. vesiculosus.
Ff, serratus forms a band which unites the littoral and sub-littoral regions.
The fronds are wider on sheltered than on exposed coasts; and on the whole
ib is the least variable Fucus.

Sub-vegetation—When growing on sloping rocks a luxuriant undergrowth
of various algae is found; but when attached to stones, or where much sand
occurs, extraneous species are scarce. Amongst those almost constantly
present are :—

In wpper part. In lower part.
Hildenbrandtia. Cladostephus spongiosus.
Catenella. Ulva.

Gelidium pusillum. Ceramium rubrum,
Cladophora rupestris. Chondrus.
Gigartina.

C. rupestris,

On the more open shores where clean rocks are prevalent, the Laurencia-
Gigartina vegetation often forms the main undergrowth, though upward
extensions of the Corallina-Lithothamnium association are also frequent.
Amongst these,such sub-littoral or shade-loving plants as Ciylocladia articulata,
Delesseria alata, and Plumaria occur, with many odd plants of various
communities. In sandy places a Rhodochorton floridulum vegetation is often
developed, and this ousts many of the other species.

Epiphytes—These are likewise fewer in very sheltered than in moderately
open localities. In the quiet reaches of Clew Bay, Pylaiella is always present,
and forms in spring and summer large floating masses. Other frequent
epiphytes are :—

Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus. Ectocarpus siliculosus.
Ceramium rubrum. E. tomentosus.
C. Boergesenii. E. fasciculatus.

In late summer blue-green algae are much in evidence, Calothrix
confervicola and Liivularia atra occurring everywhere, often accompanied by

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 57

large masses of Lyngbya majuscula. The more open parts of the bay show,
with the exception of Dictyosiphon and Cyanophyceae, which are rare or
absent, the same epiphytes (see also p. 25).
For the comparison of the present association with that of other countries,
see p. 26.
The Lichina Association (sheltered).

Locally distributed on sheltered and semi-sheltered localities (Clew Bay,
Achill Sound, Bellacragher Bay). See notes on p. 26.

Porphyra Association (sheltered coasts).

The growth of Porphyra found in many sheltered places, though not noted
by previous writers, is very characteristic and worthy of record. It is found
on two types of shore, viz. (1) gently sloping beaches of low rocics and stones,
and (2) sandy bays where half-buried rocks are present. The growth
occurs more or less throughout the year, though it appears to be more abundant
in spring and autumn than in summer. On both shores it is usually
accompanied by various forms of Hnteromorpha intestinalis and E. linza.

On beaches composed of stones and flat rocks the association usually fills
up the gaps between Fucus. The latter is confined to the larger rocks, whilst
Porphyra, which extends from below #. spiralis down to low-water mark,
occupies tlie smaller stones and rocks, though it also occurs epiphytically on
Fucus. The amount of growth noted varied considerably on different occasions,
as did also the size and form of the plants. In summer it is mostly confined
to the lower levels, where it may form a distinct belt. This type of growth is
well seen at Louisburgh (immediately east of the Bunowen River), also on the
inner side of Bartraw and on Annagh Island, where wave-action is entirely
absent. Other parts of Clew Bay, which appeared equally suitable, were entirely
devoid of Porphyra. In the localities named a strong current runs along the
shore, so that the conditions though quiet are not by any means stagnant, and
this fact may in part explain the vigorous growth, and its absence elsewhere.

The second type of growth referred to, namely that on rocks in sandy bays,
is somewhat remarkable, because the expanded membranaceous thalli have to
endure the constant friction of the sand. In spite of this, however, a very
vigorous and characteristic vegetation is found. The growth is most notice-
able at the sides of low bare rocks or those crowned with a mass of Fucus.
It may be seen thus in many spots in our area, and has been noticed in other
parts of the British Isles. But in addition to this, Porphyra occurs on rocks
more or less hidden by sand, so that at first sight the growth might be taken
for loose fronds that have become embedded. The plants are in reality

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, H 15

15 58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

attached to low-lying rocks, and are thus not only exposed to constant sand-
movement, but are liable to be completely buried. -On the other hand, with
certain winds, nearly all the sand is removed by the tide; and the thalli lie on
the bare rock. They are also liable to be covered by blown sand. Under
average conditions it would appear that only a few inches at the base of the
fronds are buried, and that the upper part remains free, lying flat on the damp
eround: though one must assume that germination took place on rock.
Associated with Porphyra are Enteromorpha spp., especially the large flat
forms approaching #. linza. This plant occurs in the damper positions, being
most abundant in the lower part of the association, and reaching down to the
sublittoral region. In August the Enteromorpha growth was im all cases
much less than in May.

The zone formed by Porphyra on sheltered coasts is more extensive than
in the open. In the sandy bays described above the plant escapes a certain
amount of desiccation, and the result of this is seen in the fact that whilst on
bare rocks it does not exceed the F. spiralis level (at all events during summer),
on sand-covered rocks it frequently reaches Pelvetia. ‘he lower limit also
is further than that of the exposed association, for the plant is frequent at
low-water mark, and occasionally extends well into the sub-littoral region.

The form assumed in sheltered localities is that of the divided and lanceo-
late type, var. daciniata J. Ag. ‘This is specially well developed on damp
rocks and on margins of pools. On drier rocks and with increased exposure
there is a tendency for the fronds to become short and umbilicate. The sand-
rock form of the association is well seen at Mulranny, also between Old Head
and Leckanvy, whilst a small patch exists in the bay on Clare Island.
Though not noted, forma linearis probably exists in winter in the upper
levels, as in exposed localities.

A similar vegetation of Porphyra would, judging by the localities described
by Rosenvinge, appear to be widespread in Denmark ('09, p. 65).,

Laurencia-Gigartina Association.

Fairly well developed in many parts of Clew Bay outside the islands. See

p. 39.
Corallina-Lithothamnium Association.

At times feebly developed in the more open parts of Clew Bay. See

p- 39.
Corallina-Cladostephus Community.

In company with the Laurencia community of sheltered coasts there often

occurs a similar vegetation of short dense growth, but composed largely of

Clare [sland Survey—Marine Algue. 15 59

Corallina, Gelidium, and Cladostephus, and having a tendency to approach
the Rhodochorton floridulwm association. The presence of Cladostephus
spongiosus together with Corallina officinalis is very characteristic of this
vegetation, and hence the name selected.

The community in question is essentially one of flat, sheltered rocks,
avoiding the clean rocks and turbulent conditions enjoyed by Laurencia, but
thriving with more slope and slightly more exposure than R. floridulum. It
occupies the same bathymetric range as Lawrencia pinnatifida, and though
capable of growing in the shallow sub-littoral region, it more often gives place
to Gigartina or Laminaria. At Portlea it is intimately associated with
Rhodochorton, but the two communities are usually sharply defined, and
distinguishable at once to the eye, as well as to the tread.

Though both Corallina and Cladostephus are rock-attached, a thin layer
of sand is often found on the surface of the substratum. Corallina, under
the conditions obtaining, is short and more or less erect, its stiff branches
easily retaining sand and fine debris, so much so that the presence of
blackened sand and particles of decayed matter is almost characteristic of the
community. At the same time it is not truly psammophilous. A vegetation
of the same nature (though differing slightly floristically) has already been
described by me in connexion with the growth of Ulva, and the origin of the
blackened sand is explained (11, pp. 124 and 128).

The Corallina-Cladostephus sward is seldom so extensive as that of
Rhodochorton floridulum, being patchy, and only occasionally forming broad
belts. Gelidium aculeatum is sometimes present in quantity, and C. squamata
is common, especially in the more open regions. A very heavy epiphytic
vegetation exists, ef which Hnteromorpha clathrata, Ulva, Leathesia,
Ceramium flabelligerum, and C. rubrum are the most abundant. Callithamnion
Hookert also is found in summer on Cladostephus. In addition to the above,
a large number of sporelings occur. These succeed better on this vegetation
than on Rhodochorton (where sporelings are exceedingly numerous) ; and
though the plants do not attain their maximum size, they usually fruit, and
are sufficiently large to give distinct patches of colour. Much Cladophora
sericea and C. albida is present in spring ; Ceramiwm rubrum in various forms
is abundant in summer; whilst in October (1910) a form of Hnteromorpha
clathrata was very conspicuous. In summer Ulva also is present in great
quantity, as has already been pointed out (Cotton 711, p. 128), being saxicolous
or epiphytic.

On Clare Island the association occurs on a small scale at Portlea and
Kinnacorra; and on the mainland at many spots in the outer part of Clew
Bay (Roonah, Louisburgh, Mulranny). A similar vegetation occurs on the

H 2

15 60 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

south coast of England; and though not recorded from other countries, 1t
probably exists, at all events, on the north of France.

Rhodochorton floridulum Association.

Small patches of this are occasionally found on rocky shores; but it is
characteristic of the sand and low-rock series described later (p. 65).

Sand-Pool Vegetation.

Occasionally met with, but typically developed on- sandy shores
(see p. 67).
Cave Vegetation.

The caves of sheltered coasts are dealt with on p. 46.

(b) Sub-littoral Region.
Laminaria Association (sheltered).

The Laminaria vegetation of sheltered shores is fairly well developed. It
is found in many parts of Clew Bay, in Bellacragher Bay, and in parts of
Achill Sound. The characteristic species are LZ. saccharina and L. digitata,
the latter being, as a rule, confined to localities where current is present. In
the deeper and more open parts, Z. Clouston exists; but with the appearance
of this species Z. saccharina drops out, and the association passes gradually
into the exposed type. -

Whilst on exposed coasts the Laminaria vegetation is typically in belts,
on sheltered coasts it is commonly discontinuous, and occurs rather in plots.
This is mainly owing to the scattered nature of the anchorage. It is found
wherever rocks or large stones occur; and the amount is determined by the
extent of the stony area. In Clew Bay, the hard bottom is found in three
kinds of ground, each of which supports a different type of Laminaria
vegetation. As the latter are determined by definite ecological conditions,
and as, in Clew Bay, they scarcely overlap, it is reasonable to regard them as
three sub-associations.

The sub-association of Laminaria saccharina (most often var. latissima)
occurs in the inner part of the bay, where the conditions are quiet and the
current weak. The fronds are long and very broad—in extreme cases up to
a yard across. Occasionally the association is pure (except for small species
forming the undergrowth); but as a rule other algae intrude, such as
Cystoseira granulata and Halidrys siliqguosa. Rarely the association merges
into the Zostera beds. The second sub-association is characteristic of ground

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 61

where there is a strong current, and is found typically in the channels of
3 to 5 fathoms between the outer islands. It consists entirely of LZ. digitata.
The bottom is scoured by the tide; but the larger stones and blocks of rock
support a vigorous growth. The plants are remarkably strong, and in the
deeper parts the fronds often attain a great length. Epiphytic species are
few ; but in such localities the peculiar plant known as Rhodymenia palmata
var. sarniensis is occasionally met with. The third type of Laminaria
vegetation, characterized by the presence of ZL. Cloustont im addition to
L. digitata, is found only outside the islands. It extends over large areas
in about 7 fathoms, and passes gradually into the exposed vegetation that
oceurs further out.

Representatives of these same sub-associations are found elsewhere.
L. digitata is abundant near the south entrance of Achill Sound ; and in the
quiet waters of Bellacragher Bay a distinct Z. saccharina vegetation exists,
which in several places extends to the shore. In other countries, the sheltered
type of Laminaria vegetation has not received much attention. In the
Faeroes it is well developed, and shows similar variattons to those in Clew
Bay, though with floristic differences. JZ. /aeroensis takes the place of
L, saccharina in quiet bays, and L. Cloustoni forms the vegetation of channels.
The Laminaria zone described by Joubin (09) ineludes patches of Z. saccharina
attached to stones on a soft bottom, which obviously correspond to the
sub-association of that species dealt with above.

Encrusting Alga Vegetation.

Occasionally found, but more often on exposed coasts (see p. 50).

Il.—Sand and Sandy-mud Formation.

The present formation is characterized by a large quantity of movable
sand or sandy-mud, in which the vegetation is liable to be partially or
completely embedded. In its extreme form, the shore consists entirely of
this matrix, the algae being immersed in sand, forming, in fact, a sand-binding
community. But the sand formation passes by transitions into the
rock-formation on the one side, and to mud-flats on the other.

As an example of a sand-binder we may take Microcoleus, whilst
Vaucheria Thuretii supplies an instance of a plant that fixes sandy-mud.
Both form extensive associations. Rhizoclonium riparium also may under
certain conditions form a surface-covering on a shore of pure sand. In the
majority of sand-beaches, however, all vegetation is absent and only begins to
show when solid ground is reached. Where low half-buried rocks occur a

15 62 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.
J y

psammophilous vegetation is found, of which Rhodochorton is a good example.
With extreme shelter, this can form a mossy carpet on pure sand; but as a
rule it is only found on sand-covered rocks, or on small intervening sand-
spaces. The alga is probably in the first instance attached to rock, but as the
plants grow they form adventitious rhizoids and accumulate sand. Being
saxicolous, Rhodochorton extends to rocky shores, where sand is scarce
or even absent. As an association, however, it is only found where this
material is plentiful. Several other psammophilous species accompany
Rhodochorton. .

The Corallina-Cladostephus community represents the last stage in the
transition from sand to rock. Though frequent on sandy shores, a bed of
rock is essential for its growth, hence it has been dealt with under the rocky-
shore formation. The sand-pool vegetation is, on the other hand, described
in the present section, as the characteristic species, though attached to rock,
are markedly psammophilous. The sub-littoral associations call for no special
comment, except that the last three are not strictly psammophilous, though
in our district they are confined to sandy areas. They are placed under this
heading for convenience, and therefore provisionally.

The associations and communities recognized in the sand and sandy-mud
formation are as follows :—

(a) Littoral Region.

© Rhizoclonium riparium.

Microcoleus chthonoplastes.

| Vaucheria Thuretii.
Vegetation of vertical banks.

Sand and sandy-mud series :

Corallina-Cladostephus.

Porphyra umbiliealis.

Rhodochorton floridulum.
Sand and low-rock series:

Sand-pool vegetation.

(b) Sub-littoral Region.

Rhodochorton floridulum.
Zostera marina.

Fruticulose Lithothamnium.
Pebble-attached association.
Encrusting algae.
Channel-vegetation.

Clare Lstand Survey— Marine Algae. 15 63

(a) Littoral Region.
Rhizoclonium riparium community.

The only community found on pure sand in our area is that of Rhizoclonium,
though for this also a small amount of binding material is advantageous.
The vegetation is found immediately below high-water line, and is
occasionally very conspicuous, specially in spring and summer. At Mulranny,
where the shore is unusually flat, Rhizoclonium covers extensive areas, patches
an acre in extent having been noted.

The underlying sand (or sandy-mud) is for the most part firm, often
bound together by Microcoleus, but in other spots it is loose and apt to
become dry. In either case Rhizoclonium les as a loose covering, thus
feeling the effect of wind and tide, often being more or less buried. In some
localities the upper part of the association is during neap-tides not wetted at
all, and in this way differs from the somewhat similar filamentous vegetation
which lies on wet mud, e.g. on the Vaucheria Thuretii association in Achill
Sound (p. 64). Rhizoclonium riparium is usually a pure dominant, but
amongst it (especially in the damper parts?) occur Hnteromorpha prolifera,
LE. clathrata vay., and Cladophora fracta. The blue-green species, so common
in the corresponding association on the salt-marsh, are absent.

A very similar type of growth to that described above has been noted in
Poole Harbour, and on a small scale near the mouth of the River Bann. (See

also salt-marsh formation, p. 79.)

Microcoleus chthonoplastes association.

Of the sand- and mud-binding aleae one of the most important is Micro-
coleus chthonoplastes, a microscopic species of world-wide distribution. The
plants are often completely hidden in the substratum; but their presence
can be detected by the way in which the soil holds together, and peels off in
crusts, when lifted up. Though Microcoleus has not been previously recorded
as forming an association as such, the plant-community has as a fact been
long known, and for a description one cannot do better than quote Gomont’s
note in his revision of the Oscillarieae (09, p. 92) :—

“Le Microcoleus chthonoplastes se rencontre quelquefois a V’état de filaments
isolés mélangés 4 d’autres Aleues, . .. mais il occupe aussi a lui seul de
vastes étendues sur les ctes marécageuses ou sablonneuses. I] joue un réle
des plus utiles dans l’exploitation des marais salants en recouvrant le fond
des bassins ou oetllets Vun tapis compact qui permet d’enlever les cristaux

1 The flatness of the shore at this spot may be judged from the fact that the Pelvetia zone, which
is only about 1 foot deep, is in places oyer 80 yards wide.

15 64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

de sel sans mélange de vase. En cet état il forme des assises diversement
colorées, accumulées sur une épaisseur parfois considérable et dont les
supérieures, qui sont les seules vivantes, peuvent étre détachées par larges
plaques et roulées comme des morceaux de drap. Ce végétal mérite
done completement le nom de chthonoplastes (constructeur du sol) qui
lui a été donné par les premiers observateurs.”

In Clew Bay the Microcoleus association was usually found where there
was a certain amount of mud. It occurs in large patches at Mulranny and
also in the Belclare neighbourhood. In the small bay to the north-west of
Achill Bridge it forms a broad band just below high-water line, binding the
upper layer of mud into a firm sheet. It was also noted in several localities
in fairly pure sand, but only as covering small areas.

Various other blue-green algae enter into the composition of the
association, notably :—

Jn upper parts : Tn lower parts :
Lynebya aestuarii, Vaucheria Thuretii.
L. lutea. Rhizoclonium riparium.
Microcoleus tenuis. Enteromorpha torta.

Vaucheria Thuretii Association.

This vegetation takes us further still from the pure sand, being found only
where there is a considerable proportion of mud. Future work will probably
show that it should be regarded as an association in the mud-formation.
V. Thuretii forms a dense mossy growth embedded in the matrix, and appears
to cover very extensive areas. Several samples were taken both from Clew
Bay and from the muddy inlets north of the bridge at Achill Sound; and in
each case the mossy tuft consisted of this species, often in beautiful fruiting
condition, and practically pure. The growth is always immersed, the tips of
the filaments alone showing, thus differing markedly from V. coronata, which
forms a clean velvety growth. Felts composed of Rhizoclonium, Chaetomorpha
and Cladophora fracta often lie on top of the Vancheria, and these, in many
cases, appear to be attached, and not merely drifted fragments; so that it is
possible that careful study would reveal definite societies of other species
amongst the general vegetation of Vaucheria.

The vertical range of V. Thwretii is determined by the extent of ‘he sandy
mud. It flourishes in the lower part of the littoral region, and probably
descends to low-water mark. Its upper limit is usually immediately below
F. spiralis, but whether this was due to the lack of sufficient mud or to other
causes in addition (such as long exposure to the air) was not ascertained, On

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 65

the banks of rivers and where the water is brackish a zone of V. coronata
is the characteristic vegetation near high-water line, but in Achill Sound that
species is absent, and Microcolews chthonoplastes is the dominant alga.

Vegetation of Vertical Banks.

Vertical peat-banks, abutting on the shores of Clew Bay and Achill,
exhibit a similar vegetation to that described later for the salt-marsh formation
(see p. 82).

Rhodochorton floridulum Association.

This association, though not hitherto described, is very distinct and of
common occurrence in many parts of the British Isles, including the Clare
Island district. tis characteristic of sandy shores where rocks are present,
and is found on moderately open as well as sheltered coasts. Rhodochorton
jfioridulum is the most important of a group of finely branched, upright-growing
algae, which retain quantities of sand, if they do not actually bind it together,
Other members of the group are :—

Cladophora arcta, Ceramium strictum,
Polysiphonia fibrata, C. ciliatum.

In suitable localities the association extends from the Fucus spiralis belt
down to low-water line, but it also descends into the sub-littoral region, being
found abundantly between the islands in Clew Bay. It prefers flat or slightly
sloping shores; on steep shores the sand is washed away, and the plant is
practically absent. Being of small size, Rhodochorton cannot fix sand on the
same scale as phanerogamic plants, nor does it oecur on sand apart from rocks}
except in very sheltered areas, or where it issubmerged and beyond the effect
of rough water. It is, however, capable of covering flat or sloping rocks with
a dense mossy growth; and of carpeting the intervening sand-spaces so that
they completely resist normal wave-action. In its young state the plant
is probably attached to rock, but as growth proceeds, sand collects, and the
abundant production of rhizoidal filaments helps to retain it. The growth
forms either pads which may measure a foot or so across, or vast sheets more
or less interrupted, but extending at times over a very wide area. When well-
grown, the Rhodochorton sward is about 3em. high; but in favoured spots
pads up to 6em, have been met with. Though sometimes exposed to the full
light, especially on the lower part of the shore, Rhodochorton grows best with
partial shade. But even when exposed to light it is the ends of the branches
only that feel the full effect of sun and air, as the base of the plant is
covered with sand.

R,I.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI. I 15

15 66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Of the other species entering into the association Polysiphonia jfibrata,
Ceramium strictum, C. ciliatwm form conspicuous patches in spring and summer,
their tufts of rhizoids growing down into the sward, and attaching themselves
to the sand-grains. C. ciliatwm is found more or less all the year round, and
is of a shorter and denser habit than when growing in pools. In spring the
association often assumes a bright green colour due to the presence of
Cladophora areta. This species retains the sand well by means of hooked
branches and rhizoids which grow downwards from the main shoots. It occurs
not only within the Rhodochorton vegetation, but outside it, often forming on
its flanks large unmixed patches. A dwarf form of Sphacelaria cirrhosa is also
frequent, but, because of its small size, is apt to be overlooked. Though
a filamentous species, it is distinct from the others, being attached by a basal
disk, and not by rhizoids. In late summer, especially in the more sheltered
localities, Rhodochorton is much discoloured by the presence of cyanophyceous
epiphytes. Of these Calothrix confervicola is the most common, being at times
so abundant as to create large black patches. Aphanotheca pallida is also
frequent. On the margins, where the association joims the Corallina-
Cladostephus vegetation, many other algae appear, and it is probable that the
borders of the two communities are in a continual state of change.

Young plants of U/va Lactuca are at times present in great quantity,
especially in spring, but this species is im no way a sand-binder, possessing
only a foliose thallus and a basal disk. In the same way we may dismiss
many other intruders, the Rhodochorton sward being, in fact, a general nursery
ground, the sporelings succeeding each other in regular sequence as the
seasons come round.

With regard to distribution, the present community is probably very
widely spread in the British Isles. Lhodochorton floridulum is one of the few
species that form extensive associations on the flat sandy shores of Sussex;
and it has been found growing in the same way in Dorset and Devon. Harvey
states that at Kilkee (Co. Clare) “it often carpets large spaces on the rocks” ;
and Ralfs writes in a similar strain as to the plant at Land’s End (i Mtt.). It
is also abundant on the shores of Belfast Lough. With regard to the Survey
area, the association is found at Portlea on Clare Island (rocks giving the
necessary shelter), and on a small scale in several other bays, where protection
is afforded by a heavy growth of Fucus. On the mainland, where for the most
part no special protection is required, it is very widely spread, probably coming
next to that of the Fucaceae in the amount of area covered. According to
Harvey the plant is washed ashore in quantity during autumn; and the
hemispherical cushions are collected (under the name of “ figs”) for use as
manure (Phye. Brit.).

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 67

Corallina-Cladostephus Community.

This vegetation is frequently very well developed on sandy shores where
low rocks are present (¢g., Old Head). It retains a certain amount of sand,
but is usually found on raised or sloping rocks where the quantities deposited
are small, The community clearly forms a connecting link between the sand-
and rock-formations ; but as both the species composing it are distinctly
saxicolous, and do not form rhizoids, it is regarded as belonging to the latter,
and is dealt with on p. 58.

The Porphyra umbilicalis Community.

Though attached only by a basal disk, and clearly belonging to the rocky-
shore formation, P. wmbilicalis var. laciniata is frequently found, fringing
the sides of half-buried rocks, on sandy beaches. Its growth in this habitat
is described on p. 57.

Vegetation of Sand-Pools.

A very interesting psammophilous flora occurs in pools amongst low rocks
on sandy shores. The plants are not small and filamentous, such as Rho-
dochorton or Vaucheria (pp. 65 and 64), but large and bushy; hence, though
partially embedded in sand, they are invariably fixed to underlying rock.
Polyides and Gracilaria may be taken as typical examples; but some six or
eight other species occur, all being sand-loving plants, and found as a rule in
the sub-littoral region. When, as is often the case, ordinary rock-pools are
absent, the constancy of this sand-pool vegetation is very manifest.

Algae which thrive under such conditions have, as would be expected,
much branched thalli of erect habit. The fronds are more or less terete, and
in many cases tough. But other forms occur, especially where the amount of
sand is not excessive. Sand-pools are found at Old Head, and between that
spot and Leckanvy; also to a certain extent near Mulranny. The typical
flora is as follows :—

Polyides rotundus, ¢. Gymnogongrus Griffithsiana, 7.
Ahnfeltia plicata, c. Gelidium crinale, 7.

Gracilaria confervoides, ¢. Cladostephus spongiosus.
Polysiphonia elongata, c. Corallina officinalis.

P. atro-rubescens, c. Rhodochorton floridulum,

Furcellaria fastigiata.

The last three are not characteristic of this vegetation only ; but they are
exceedingly common if the sand-layer is not thick, and, as shown aboye,
they form part of the littoral flora of the shore in question. The species of

12

15 68 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Gymnogongrus and Gelidium were, however, not found outside sand-pools.
Where the sides are steep, ordinary saxicolous species naturally occur;
but as a rule the sides are shelving and the pools shallow. When fresh
water exudes between the rocks, the Rhodophyceae are replaced by
Chlorophyceae—i.e., Chaetomorpha aecrea, LEnteromorpha «ntestinalis,
Cladophora sericea, C. rupestris, and Ulva Lactuca; Gracilaria, however,
usually remains, being able to withstand a considerable quantity of fresh
water. ;

Where the sand-layer is very thin a number of other species are found,
and being characteristic of sandy shores, the most usual amongst them are
listed below :—

Ulva Lactuca (very thick form). Porphyra umb. laciniata.
Enteromorpha Linza. Helminthora divaricata(on Polyides).
Monostroma Greyillei (epiphytic). Gelidium spp.

Scytosiphon lomentarius. Chondrus crispus (broad form),
Punctaria latifolia. Gymnogongrus norvegicus (7’).
Chordavria flagelliformis. Chylocladia kaliformis.

Eudesme virescens. Laurencia pinnatifida.

Leathesia difformis. L. hybrida.

Chorda filum. Polysiphonia nigrescens.

Cystoseira granulata. Spermothamnion Turneri (epiphytic).
Halidrys siliquosa. Dumontia filiformis.

Dictyota dichot. va7. intricata. Lithophyllum incrustans.

(b) Sub-littoral Region.
Rhodochorton floridulum Association.

As before mentioned, this psammophilous species descends into the
sub-littoral region, covering large areas where the bottom is flat and very
sheltered, as in the inner part of Clew Bay. The association apparently
exists in certain spots as an unmixed growth ; but as arule it is more or less
interspersed amongst Lithothamnium or other algae (see p. 65).

Zostera Association.

The soft bottom of the inner part of Clew Bay is admirably suited to the
growth of Zostera, and in the muddy parts especially, extensive beds are
found. ‘The characteristic algal epiphytes are also well-developed, being most
marked in spring and early summer.

Ostenteld in his report on Zostera (’08) points out that, as a general rule,

Qlare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 69

the size of the plant is more dependent on the nature of the bottom than on
the depth in which it grows. He shows that the form with short, narrow
leaves is found on firm sand, and that the long, broad-leafed form is
characteristic of soff mud, rich in food substances. A slight difference
between the algal vegetation of the sand and mud Zostera was
observed in Clew Bay, but not with sufficient care to warrant comment,
except to note that the latter proved the most productive in the way of
algae.

In spring, masses of Ectocarpi occur, together with innumerable tufts of
Cladophora lanosa; whilst in summer and autumn species of Bangia and
Chantransia are more abundant. <Ascocyclus orbicularis is almost always
present, being noted in quantity in spring, summer, and autumn. At
the margins of the Zostera-meadows, and in spots where largest ones exist
other plants, such as Halidrys, Laminaria saccharina, and Cystoseira
granulata, are met with; and the association then tends to approach that
which Ostenfeld has termed the “mixed Zostera vegetation ” (Lc., p. 33). Of
the larger epiphytes the following are usually frequent in their respective
seasons :—

Cladophora lanosa. Myriotricha densa.

Castagnea Zosterae. Scytosiphon lom. var. zostericola.
Punctaria tenuissima. Laurencia obtusa var. crucifera.
Desmotrichum undulatum. Polysiphonia violacea.
Ectocarpus confervoides. Ceramium strictum.

E. siliculosus. Giraudia sphacelarioides, 7.

E. sp. Leptonema fasciculatum, 7.
Litosiphon pusillus. Mesogloia lanosa, 7.

Whilst among microscopic species may be mentioned :—

Calothrix confervicola. Melobesia farinosa.
Chantransia virgatula. Rivularia atra.

C. Thuretii. Isactis plana, 7.

Ascocyclus orbicularis. Erythrotrichia Bertholdi, r.

Rhodophysema Georgii.

The Fruticulose Lithothamnium Association.

Probably no group of seaweeds is more generally recognized as forming
extensive colonies or associations than the Lithothamnia. Submerged beds,
often known as “ coral-banks,” occur in the arctic, temperate and tropical
regions. In the latter they are frequently exposed at low water, and play

15 70 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

an important part in the formation of coral reefs. But notwithstanding
the many references, both systematic and biological, to this type of
vegetation, it Is not by any means easy to compare the Lithothamnium flora
of one country with that of another. This is owing to the deceptive nature
of morphological characters, and to the many erroneous determinations in
the past. Foslie has left reliable records for recent years, and the anatomical
classification elaborated by Dr. Lemoine promises more success for the
future.

Between the outer islands of Clew Bay areas of Lithothamniwm calcareum
“coral-banks”) are common. They are found on a soft but firm bottom,
consisting usually of stones and shells on sand, though occasionally Litho-
thamnium may be dredged where there is a thin layer of mud. The usual
depth in which the banks occur is 1-5 fathoms, and here and there the plants
may be gathered by hand during the lowest tides. The association is com-
posed of the following species :—

Lithothamnium caleareum, dom.
Lithophyllum fasciculatum, locally sub-dom.
L. inerustans.

L. inerustans var. subdichotomum, rare.
Lithothamnium norvegicum, rare.

In many places Z. calearewm forms a pure growth extending over a con-
siderable area, but in others it is mixed with Z. fasciculatum, and sometimes
all four species occur mixed together. A characteristic growth of epiphytes
accompanies the vegetation, of which Polysiphonia subulifera, Pterosiphonia
parasitica, Aglaozonia reptans, Spacelaria cirrhosa, Rhodochorton floridulum, and
Gelidium sp. are the most constant. Dictyota, Chylocladia kaliformis, and
Lawrencia obtusa axe also abundant in summer.

With trivial variations this is the type of fruticulose Lithothamnium
vegetation found throughout Clew Bay. It presents one remarkable floristic
feature, namely, the presence of Z. fasciculatum, a species which is only
known from the west of Ireland. Another interesting plant is Z. inerustans,
var. subdichotomum, an alga which was formerly regarded as L. dentatum, but
shown by Dr. Lemoine in the present report to be a detached and rolling
form of the common species, L. incrustans.

Other Lithothamnium banks in Ireland and Great Britain—It was of
interest to find that the Clew Bay association agreed exactly in its
composition with that which had been described for Roundstone. The latter
district is the original station for LZ. fascieulatum ; and Foslie, when working
out the European Lithothamnia, paid a special visit to the locality and

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 71

published an account of his trip (99). He found Z. fasciculatum still
plentiful, as it was also in September, 1911. The dominance of JZ. calearewm
in both Roundstone and Clew Bay is normal for the British Isles.

The remarkable “coral beaches” at Mannin Bay and Ballyconneely Bay
(Co. Galway) are due to the presence of extensive Lithothamnium associations
in the neighbourhood. When driving from Clifden to Roundstone in
September, 1911, the former spot was examined; but time did not permit of
exploration by dredging. It was evident, however, that the material washed
up is LZ. calearewm, and that the beach, a fairly wide one, is composed almost
entirely of broken particles of this species. The photographs on Plate IV,
kindly taken by Dr. G. H. Pethybridge, show two views of the beaches in
Mannin Bay. A few low rocks oceur in part of the bay as shown in the
lower illustration, but elsewhere there are stretches of pure “coral sand.”
The greater part of the sand is composed of small particles (see Plate V,
fig. 1); but at high-water line and in certain other places coarser
pieces and knolls accumulate, with a certain quantity of broken shells.
Dr. Pethybridge informs me that at low-water mark the particles are
exceedingly fine and resemble ordinary sand ; but it is probable that they have
the same origin. Vhe Lithothamnium fronds are completely bleached, and
the beach is thus dazzlingly white in the sun. ‘Though the coral sand is
carted for use as manure, fresh supplies are constantly washed up, so that it
is evident that the bank outside is extensive. A similar beach is said to exist
in Bantry Bay.

In the British Isles Z. calcarewm is certainly the dominant fruticulose
species, beds being known from several localities (Studland and Falmouth in
the south of England, and Bute in Scotland), and under certain conditions it
is washed ashore in quantities. A fine bed in 14 fathoms was once dredged
by me off Fowey (Cornwall). Another species, Z. racemus, appears to exist as
an association at Falmouth, since it is washed ashore in plenty; but this is
the only station for the plant in England, and records of Lithothamnium banks
in England or France formed by species other than Z. calcareum require
verification.

Comparison with other countiries.—L. calcarewm is also frequent in France.
It is abundant in Normandy, and in Brittany as far south as Croisic. Lemoine
(11) states that it is known from Denmark, Portugal, Naples, Morocco, and
Algeria. In all these localities it probably occurs im associations similar to

1 Several other remarkable beaches occur in the west of Ireland. A shore consisting exclusively
of broken shells is found at Knockboy (Co. Galway), which, like the coral-sund beaches, is
exploited for manure (Johnson and Hensman, ’99); whilst Dog’s Bay, near Roundstone, is famous
for its beautiful sands, composed almost entirely (up to 90 per cent.) of Foraminifera,

15 72 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

these found in the British Isles. At Morlaix and Concarneau there is “coral
sand” or “ Maerl,’ and, as in Iveland, this is used for manure. Lemoine
(10) has also published a detailed account of the biology of the plant. She
notes that at Concarnean the bottom of the bay is practically covered with
L. calearewm, and fragments of living fronds are continually cast up by the
waves. Several “coral beaches” occur on the islands of the Glenan
Archipelago, but there, as at Mannin Bay, the fragments washed ashore are
mostly dead.

In the Arctic seas, Kjellmann writes of large areas, in 10 to 20 fathoms,
covered with Lithothamnia, of which Z. glaciale and L. soriferwm are abundant.
At Mussel Bay in Spitzbergen, Z. glaciale is said to cover the bottom to an
extent of 4 to 5 square miles; whilst off the north of Norway and on the
coast of Iceland, Z. Unger is abundant. In the former country banks of
L. norvegicum also occur. The association is represented in Greenland by
L. Unger. In the south of Norway the floristic features are more in agree-
ment with those of Britain, and Z. calcarewm becomes prominent. An
association composed largely of this species has been described by Gran for
Kristianiafiord (93),

Reference must be made (though it is outside our usual circle of com-
parison) to Madame Weber van Bosse’s account of the Lithothamnia of the
“Siboga” Expedition (04). A very luxuriant vegetation exists in the shallows
and reefs of the Malay Archipelago, and several communities on different
types of ground are referred to. A description is given of a locality where
the Lithothamnium knolls are rolled backwards and forwards between the
islands by the tidal current, whilst in other parts of the same channel they are
heaped up in banks. Two photographs are reproduced of an extensive bank
of LZ. erubescens var. Haingsisiana, which Madame Weber describes as being
“covered as far as the eye can reach by the pretty, beautifully pink-coloured
knolls, which are heaped so close together, that while walking one crushes
them continually, making a peculiar noise as of broken china” (/.¢., p. 5).

Geological Importance.—In localities where masses of J.ithothamnium
accumulate on the sea-bottom, these algae play an important part in rock-
formation, and masses of limestone containing well-preserved Lithothamnia
occur in various geological strata. Structureless limestone also may be
derived from the same source, for Walther, working at Naples, showed that
the structure of recent Lithothamnium nodules is gradually obliterated by the
action of percolating water. The literature on the subject is scattered; but
Seward’s paper (94) gives a general summary with a full bibliography ;
and a brief but up-to-date account has just been published by Lemoine
(ili

Clare Islund Survey

Marine Alyue. 15 73

The Pebble-attached Association of Quiet Bays.

This assoriation represents a definite type of sub-littoral vegetation, which
is found on a soft bottom strewn with stones and pebbles. A very large
number of species go to form it, and they are for the most part characterized
by finely divided bushy fronds, though heavier and less bushy plants are found
on the larger stones and on the occasional pieces of rock. In some localities
almost every stone down to the smallest pebble bears a tuft of one or more
algae. The latter consist of members of the Green, Brown, and Red groups;
and, though they vary considerably in different localities, the mixture of
colour is a marked feature and suggests comparison with Kjellmann’s “Bunte
Formation.” But both the constituents of that association, and the depth at
which it occurs, are different from those here described. The present vegeta-
tion corresponds rather to Borgesen’s Stictyosiphon association and to Boye’s
Dictyosiphon-Spermatochnus-Corallina formation, though Dictyosiphon is
not always present. The species are annual or short-lived, which in part
accounts for the varied aspect presented during the season.

The association extends from just above low-water mark down into 3 or
4 fathoms. Its shallower regions may be studied in detail by wading at spring
tides, when the bushy fronds of Polysiphonia, Cladophora, Spermatochnus,
Dictyosiphon, ete., may be examined in situ. Dredging in deeper water
shows a very similar type of growth, though some species disappear and others
become more abundant. The colour of the red species improves with increased
depth. The association, which reaches its maximum development in May, is
well seen in many of the inner parts of Clew Bay, and has been studied specially
on the west side of Annagh Island, and, in a slightly modified form, in
Bellacragher Bay. In brackish localities an increase of Chlorophyceae is
apparent.

As it occurs in Clew Bay the principal species are as follows —

(a) In spring —

Enteromorpha clathrata. Lomentaria clavellosa.
Cladophora Rudolphiana. Nitophyllum punctatum.
Striaria attenuata. Polysiphonia urceolata.
Stictyosiphon subarticulatus. P. elongata.
Dictyotosiphon foeniculacea. P. nigrescens.
Ectocarpus siliculosus. P. atro-rubescens.
Pylaiella littoralis. Ceramium rubrum.
Cystoclonium purpurascens. Griffithsia coralhna.

Delesseria hypoglossum,

R.A. PROC., VOL. XXXL. Kk 15

15 74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(6) In summer Striaria, Dictyosiphon, Delesseria, and Griffithsia largely
disappear, but the other species remain; and in addition we find :—

Cladophora rectangularis. Polysiphonia subulifera.
Spermatochnus paradoxus. P. violacea.
Castagnea virescens (shallow P. fibrillosa.

water). Brongniartella byssoides.
Dictyota dichotoma. Ceramium spp.

As autumn advances one species after another becomes detached and
disappears, though Dictyosiphon, Ectocarpus, and Polysiphonia nigrescens
remain. <A day’s dredging in February showed that most of the spring species
had started growth; but the vegetation on the whole was very scanty com-
pared with that of spring and summer. It should be noted that a few of the
species above listed may be largely epiphytic on the others, and that in summer
the upper part of the association is very poor.

Very many other algae, both littoral and sub-littoral, enter into this
vegetation. Several of these are characteristic of other associations,
e.g. Gracilaria, Polyides, and Rhodochorton floridulum. Callithamnia likewise
are very plentiful, and the encrusting alga association is often found as an
undergrowth.

Encrusting Alga Association (sheltered).

In spite of unwillingness to change names, a new term is introduced here.
The Lithoderma formation described by Kjellmann has been recorded by
other observers; but the difficulty of determining encrusting species makes it
often impossible to be certain if Lithoderma is really dominant, or whether
other algae of similar appearance are not equally common. With regard
to Clew Bay, it is not certain that Lithoderma is even present; though,
judging from sterile specimens, it is probably abundant. A wider and more
general term has therefore been selected.

The association is found on a soft bottom overlaid with shells and flat
stones, which, instead of supporting a bushy vegetation like the last-named,
are practically covered with encrusting algae. Of these, the first four in the
following list are conspicuous and easy to recognize; the remainder are -
probably common, though not so readily detected :—

Ralfsia verrucosa. Petroderma maculiforme, 7.
Aglaozonia veptans. Lithothamnium hapalidioides, /.
Cruoriella Dubyi. L. Lenormandi, va7. sublaevis, /.
Lithophyllum inerustans. Melobesia zonalis, 7.

Ralfsia clavata, / Peyssonnelia sp., 7.

Lithoderma fastiscens ?, /.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algne. 15 75

The above vegetation characterizes much of the inner part of Clew Bay.
At times it forms an undergrowth to the pebble-attached association ; but as
a rule it appears to exist as a separate community, except for a certain
admixture of Rhodochorton floridulum and Sphacelaria cirrhosa. In winter
Cordylecladia erecta is also plentiful. The February visit was most useful in
obtaining fruiting material, but even then many of the Brown encrusting
plants proved sterile. A January visit would perhaps have been more
productive. Outside the islands the species mentioned mostly disappear, the
rocks and stones being clothed with plants which belong rather to the exposed
Lithothamnium association (e.g., L. laevigatwm and L. compactum).

Tt is difficult to compare the Clew Bay growth with that of other localities,
especially with regard to the relative abundance of the different algae, but it
appears to be richer in species than any of the Lithoderma associations
hitherto described (Kjellmann, ’78, Borgesen, ‘05, Kylin, ’07). In England
much dredging has been done by various workers, and Plymouth Sound,
which is as sheltered as Clew Bay, has been well explored. The records,
however, are poor, and there is no means of satisfactorily comparing the
vegetation. It is interesting to note that Harvey dredged Peyssonnelia
abundantly in Birturbuy Bay, whereas in Clew Bay Cruoriella Duby is by
far the most frequent species.

Channel Vegetation.

On each visit a record was kept of the species collected in the shallow
channels at Achill Sound. ‘Though far from exhaustive, the lists serve to
indicate the most conspicuous algae during the different seasons of the year,
and since no record of the seasonal development of this type of vegetation
exists, they appear to be worthy of publication. Iuckuck (97) briefly
describes the seasonal variation in Heligoland; but his paper deals with an
open shore. It will be noted that the flora of the channels resembles that
of the pebble-attached association of quiet bays—a fact which is not surprising,
since the general surroundings are similar, and in both cases the plants are
attached to stones on sand. In the channels, however, there is rapid current,
whereas in the bays the water is slack. ‘he accompanying table comprises
lists of the four seasons of the year :—

K 2

S ERKDLUT ELA COU CLE STO eT

ssndsmao snapuoys)

RyLuLoey wae “quin vadydao

‘dds wisuvayuety)

“HIB[NUBIF RITASO}S.\G,
“sisorduods snydajsopv()
“pyo “WN YG Bpsoyyy

“ST[UAOUT VipoVA |
*sllooenotuaoy MOYdtsoAqorcy

unypisnd uoydrsoz |

“Burtydjopuyy vaoydopey

Wie STIMUIGSOZUT BYALOWOIO}UHT

~emosntvu vAqsurry
“dds X1Ayyo[vy)
“dds wodueo0uiia(|

epiyd vosayjounydy

— 8 P LULL PUI BL my |
epyg StS do port
“RSOT [LU UL VUT}AR ST)

ssnidstio snapuoyy)

“BULOJOUDIP BIOAION(T
“UIVINUBA BLIAS0ISA 1)
*SIULIOJ TONY VISA
*SUODSAITA ROUSRISUL
“snsorsuods snydoysopr[g
‘steIOyy BlpO[A
‘snsopnatys sndavoo0y op
“snsop[ng snas0d0.1eds
“snitejuetmo, uoydisoyLog

‘unisnd uoydrsoyry

-vuviidjopmyy *7
“ayRuyyep vy diou09.1}Ugp

ynosntent viqou’y

SST SMSO LOUIS
“fi ‘suxoprred snuqooyeutodg
ssnsorsiiods snydaysopeyy
“SUSO[NUTAS “OT

*snso[norytis sud.mooqogp
“snso[nysy “Vy

*shso[[iq snoo000a0ds y

“SILIN} UWaO[ UY dtsoy Log
“RILOFLY BIUBIUNT

*st[.10} uoydrsosjoyg
“shaon[naruaoy uoydtsod yorcy
“SIDA BI}SA.IBUUS9(]

“NSOUBL m0)

RIOT “C)

“uurrydopnyp Btoydopr[g
RIVAYIVP) “OL

soidiuios rYydrouo1ey Usp

“BONJOV'T VAT)

“gp (2ugmiyyn[o sg) ds vydrouo19} UG )

“Wop *njootadezuon TUTOR) J

“juBULULOp

avo y Usatd-on[g roanq At0 4

‘suaostandand tno paojs.x¢

“LUN Gf Bp.louy) |
“op ‘suxopured snuqoojvutiadgy \

“slaoB[NoLua0F UOYdIsoApIT

“JUVULLUOp aus[y UMW OL

“O1G6T ‘10q0}99

“6061 ‘Ane

“CULT Une laf) }
RUTT[VAOD VISUIYPROD

sungejound winyppxydoqiy IL
“STOLLOFT[ V3 BIpu DOT AYO
Nt O[[PARlO BIIVJUSUOrY

RyRNUANT wEiMLYG J

“QUTULLULO Dp

TY Pu

“TIGL “[say

“06 °d uo st suonntiaoaqqy

‘popupour jou 193vM todoap utoary soroods poyorjocy “SULA OTTO]

“upyrruurd vroueamuy
“UINARABDVT * NT

sun avyound wonppAydoztyr
“SLULLO TRY VIPLPOOT ATH,

USO[[OANTO VLR} UOTLOT
‘suoosnindind wnra0p0ys4p

“tu FOP TOUR UL BUIIRS LD
“uunytisnd wmrprpes

ssymorrquan wadydog

“RIMOLOYIP LOLA (T
“VIN|NURAS VAtsoysA 9

“UNTY Bp.1Logg

Ls

tods snydoysoprro

“SI[MO} NOYdisodjoyg

+ Ssiuqsodnt "9
cds wy dvow0.108} UGT

“ton yor'y BAT)

SOY WNAGUA TUN TLURLAZ) )

“li “RUTL[U.L09 BISYJUFLIY)

WOSHyQus NPMOpoTAT >
UyRsuo[O BUOY dIsAyog |

“SOPLOA.LOF Woo v

Tou. J

LV DP

“LIGL ‘Acenaqo i

‘quoulesuRdIe oeMosAs Ut 4ST] [RIOTS oT} ‘Gsiy posed osvo yore ur axe soloods yurpunqe pue snonoidsuoo 4ysour oxy,

“SSTUNNVRY) TIMOW

“snpungjod saprAog,
“umsoqu A100 WOTUWR ATTN)
“supOsAIsUt *

“r1e10A0IN VULOUdISATO.T

“st[upo vas[l(y
“RyV[[IONlea vATUSaIpN(T
WMLAQNAL TIN TURLAD,

4 “dds uot yatyeg
BUT[[RI09 VIS IPLUD
“SaprossAq V[[o}IVIUsUOAg,
“VAOTT NG Ms ‘d
"SUADSAISTU *

CSOT are

“tl “BODVIOTA *

“RyeSuold *

“ayepoaain vruoydisATog
~e[Ayddsep “9
“RUTSSINU9} BIIpUOyO,
~epynrund vrouamnery
“BI[OJTOSN.A *(
“unssopsodAy vttassopaq
“UIN{RIOdR[ “NN

“umgryound wmypAudoytny

“snpungjoa saprtyo, |
‘SI[Npa vas[iq.

“pj0 ‘SUULOJTT, UT UOUN Cy
“BURISIGUFLUD vaodso.ttag
sunutiadsdpod +9

“qv ‘uinsoquts.t0d +9
-saptossAq “()

“Naso. UOTUMTR UAT [BD
“WUN[NPLLOF, UOZ.LOYIOpOTyT
“uMpy yn uorutmnpofApuodg
“SULOASALSIU * |
*SUAASOQIA-O.1U *
“NADUTOLA *

MyVsuo0ya "gq

“eye [OA.IN etuoYdtisdpog
epriqay “rT

“epgnruurd “ry

“esngqo viouaINET
“BOSINQUS VTAWOPO! YT
“VILOFIOSNA *(y
sumnsso(soddq +4

“VOUS ULS RLLASsaza(y
“WNAUTIDOD LUNTUIRIO[
“RIBNIYAV “ry

“RSOL[IAVD VIG WAWO'T
“SOPLOALOFUOD VIETLORLD,
‘suaosrandind wnto0paosé¢Q
“VSO]TIURUL BUTLARS TD
*sudstto snipuoyg

“RIVIULL] wa -quin wag

“BULOJOYStp Vy0Ago1qy

“elUINuRIS BatesojsAD

*SHPUNJO.L SOPTA[O,T

“SI[Npe Vas[l(T

“SLULLOFL YY BIQUOLUN(T

“un oqmA109 UOTUURAAT[RD,
*sUAASAISIU “q
*SUDDSAUNAOLZE “qf

"BODRIOLA “LT

15 78 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

T1L—The Salt-Marsh Formation.

The conditions obtaining on the salt-marsh resemble those of the sand-,
rather than the rock-formation ; but they differ in several important
particulars. In the first place, the salt-marsh formation is situated above
the level of high-water at ordinary neap-tides; and in the second, the
substratum contains more or less humus consisting of mud or alluvial
deposits, and in the Clare Island area peat is frequent. By reason of its
bathymetric position, the marsh is only flooded at spring-tides, and hence the
algal vegetation instead of being moistened daily by the tide is lable to
desiccation on the one hand, and to prolonged soakings of fresh-water in the
form of rain on the other. Further, there is continual competition with
flowering-plants. As a result of the edaphic conditions, we find that the
algae are not attached by a basal disk as in saxicolous plants, nor are they
completely buried as is the case with many psammophilous species; but they
either lie loosely on the substratum or are apparently rooted in the ground,
after the manner of flowering-plants. The lack of fully saline conditions
shows itself in the predominance of brackish species, green and blue-green
algae being abundant. The salt-marsh often passes by easy transitions to
sandy shores, mud-flats, or to the banks of rivers.

From the floristic standpoint, the algae of the salt-marsh are generally
uninteresting; but among the Fucaceae remarkable forms occur, several of
which have long taxed the energies of systematists; but with imereased
attention to ecological. considerations their elucidation appears more hopeful.
The Florideae are represented (amongst macroscopic forms at all events) by
two species only, viz., Catenella Opuntia aud Bostirychia scorpioides.
Cyanophyceae are abundant ; and as far as filamentous genera are concerned,
they fall into fairly well-marked species; the chroococcaceous series have not
been specially examined. Phoeophyceae are often conspicucus, and figure
largely as regards bulk, beg represented almost entirely by members of the
Fueaceae. The latter vary widely in different localities, and are often of
considerable interest. The Chlorophyceae are well represented: and, as is usual
under brackish conditions, they are often difficult to determine. Rhizoclonium,
Chaetomorpha, and the smaller species of Enteromorpha are abundant, and
show much variation in form. These green algae are doubtless largely
modified by the peculiar conditions of the salt-marsh—a result which is not
surprising, when one considers the profound modifications amongst the less
plastic group of the Fucaceae. The variation displayed by Enteromonpha
intestinalis on flat shores when fresh-water is present is most extraordinary.
With regard to edaphic conditions, a certain amount of variety will be found

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algue. 15 79

on the same marsh. In the Clew Bay district the substratum consists of
peat, or of a loamy soil derived from the boulder-clay ; patches of mud also
oceur. With the exception of the dwarf Fucus, most of the algae associations
described below occur on each of these types of ground. The mud-flora is
the most distinct, and where soft it differs markedly; but otherwise the
nature of the substratum does not appear to exert a great influence in this
particular district. With a detailed study certain differences would doubtless
be detected. The vegetation of the mud-patches of the salt-marsh approaches
on the one hand that of the mud-banks of the tidal streams, and on the other
that of the mud-flats below high-water mark. Several of the salt-imarsh
species lie on the ground, or on other vegetation ; but Bostrychia is epiphytic
on Statice, Atriplex, and similar plants; consequently the presence of these
algae is in part dependent on the character of the phanerogamic vegetation.
But the converse is also true. Hill (09, p. 102) and Baker (12) have
shown the importance of the Rhizoclonium covering in connexion with the
germination of Salicornia seeds; and the same matted growths doubtless
protect seedlings and young plants from excessive insolation.

The Clew Bay salt-marshes agree well as to their flora with the general
description given above. The four types of vegetation distinguished were :—

thizoclonium association.

i

bo

. Fucus vesiculosus va7. muscoides association.
. Bostrychia-Catenella vegetation.

H= 9

. Vegetation of vertical banks:

The areas specially explored were those on or near Annagh Island, and
below the hotel at Mulranny. Small patchesof ground supplying similar
vegetation were also examined in Bellacragher Bay and at Leenane.

Rhizoclonium Association.

Rhizoclonium riparium is the dominant species in the felt-like sheets of
green algae which are often so conspicuous on the salt-marsh. These sheets
are found typically on bare soil (sand, loam, or peat), and at Mulranny are
continuous with the Rhizoclonium association, which occurs on the sand from
half-tide level and above. On the marsh, Rhizoclonium is also abundant in
shallow pools, and it invades (especially in warm, damp weather of spring)
areas colonized by phanerogams. When Rhizoclonium alone is present, the
growth is light-green; but when, as is often the case, Enteromorpha occurs in
addition, the colour is deeper, and does not turn pale to the same extent on
drying. Brown and black streaks in the felt indicate the presence of

15 80 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Cyanophyceae; in Clew Bay usually Lyngbyu confervoides and L. majuscula
respectively.

The Rhizoclonium association is more general in some localities than in
others, and varies considerably according to the time of the year. Where
bare soil is scarce the growth is scanty; where plentiful the felt is, except
in spots where strong tidal action obtains, usually abundant. In spring and
early summer Rhizoclonium, Percursaria, and Enteromorpha spp. are very
luxuriant: later in the season Cyanophyceae develop, and the felt-like
growth, as a whole, is not so extensive. The following species compose the
association in its wide sense :—

Rhizoclonium riparium, dom. Lyngbya majuscula, /.ad.

Enteromorpha torta, 7. L. confervoides, /.ab.

E. Ralfsii, 7. Cladophora fracta rE

Pereursaria percursa, a. Chaetomorpha linum (1 shallow
i 2 het ; é depressions.

Pylaiella litoralis, f. Capsosiphon aureolus

Lyngbya aestuarii /.ad.

With certain weather-conditions the Rhizoclonium-felt is partially
destroyed. After a high tide, for instance, with a strong S.W. wind, much
of the growth at Mulvanny is rolled up into rope-like masses; whilst sheets
2 or 3 yards square have been observed deposited on the Glyceria maritima
sward, having been lifted bodily out of the shallow depression in which they
grew.

Fucus vesiculosus va7. muscoides Association.

The carpet formed by this remarkable dwarf Fucus occurs above the
uppermost Pelvetia (i.e. slightly above the mean high-tide level), and is thus
only flooded during spring-tides. It is characteristic of peaty shores. Where
the shore slopes, the Fucus vegetation forms a distinct narrow band; but
where it is flat and salt-marsh conditions obtain, it is much more extensive,
and may pervade a large area of the marsh. As a band, it is widely
distributed in our area, being frequent in Achill Sound and Bellacragher Bay.
On the salt-marsh it is usually found on the best-drained areas.

The association forms a dense mossy turf in which Glyceria maritima 1s
usually abundant, and scattered plants of Statice maritima, Glaux maritima,
and Salicornia maritima also occur. Occasionally, however, small patches of
pure Fucus may be noted. The “turf” is composed of fastigiately branched
plants which are densely crowded together, with more than half their total
length (2-3 inches) buried in the peat. The growth is very erect; but the

upright shoots are often found to arise from a more or less creeping stem.

Clare Tsland Survey—Marine Algae. i ALDESi

On firm, well-drained areas, the branches are cylindrical or nearly so, and
the whole very short and compact. On wetter areas the shoots are flatter
and the growth lax, but it is frequently checked by competition with
Rhizoclonium and Enteromorpha. In other cases, the phanerogamic vegeta-
tion in damp soil becomes rank and tall, and then Fucus, when present, tends
to assume the form of var. balticus (e.g., at Leenane). Fruiting specimens are
always rare.

The plants apparently live for many years, and increase entirely by
vegetative methods, proliferations being often abundantly produced from all
parts of the shoots. During the spring-tides a certain amount of sand and
silt is doubtless deposited, and new shoots continue to arise, whilst the basal
portions gradually die away. It is difficult to trace the basal end of the
shoot for more than 1 or 14 inches below the surface of the soil. The fact
that the plants are largely embedded enables them to avoid desiccation
even in the hottest weather during the nine or ten days which elapse
between each spring-tide. The same fact also meets the difficulty with regard
to the presence at so high a level of the mid-littoral species /. vesiculosus.
In the case of var. volubilis, no one can doubt that the large, vesicled
forms (vide Baker, 12) are derived from F. vesiculosus; yet under the
peculiar conditions of the salt-marsh they occur well above the limit
recognized as normal for that species. Thus the high level at which
var. muscoides is found is no objection to its being a variety of the same
species.

In certain localities, the presence of scattered plants of Statice maritima
is a charaeteristic feature. The mossy carpet of Fucus appears to modify
the growth of Statice, so that it forms small rosette-like plants instead
of the familiar clumps. The leaf-scars may be traced for some distance
below the ground-level, and the plants are evidently of considerable age.
In May and June the pink blossoms of Statice against the background
of Fucus produce a striking effect. The photograph on Plate VI
was kindly taken by Mr. G. Massee from a tuft brought home in May,
1911.

As far as has been ascertained, no vegetation of this nature has been
previously described; certainly not from an ecological standpoint. It is
plentiful at Roundstone, and is doubtless widespread in the west of Ireland.
The plant is characteristic of firm peaty soil, and is probably to be found in
our islands wherever peat runs down on a flat shore! On the muddy ground
near the mouth of the Bunowen, where there is a covering of spouse clay,
the var. muscoides vegetation is completely absent.

1 Since writing the above I have seen similar associations in the west of Scotland (Loch Linnhe).
R.1,A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. L 15

15 82 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Bostrychia-Catenella Vegetation.

The usual growth of Bostrychia scorpioides and Catenella Opuntia as
epiphytes on flowering plants occurs in our area, though not in such profusion
as in some localities.

The former is very plentiful, and is especially found as a dense growth
under the leaf-rosettes of Statice maritima. At Mulranny the older plants
seldom lack this Bostrychia-pad. On woody plants, such as Atriplex and
Limonium (specially when growing at the sides of streams and channels), it
hangs loosely from the lower branches. Catenella is, on the whole, scarce on
the marsh, but locally it is abundant.

Tt is worth noting that both these plants occur near high-water mark on
the banks of the Newport River, and in parts of the upper reaches of Clew
Bay. They grow here on bare rocks and boulders, showing that brackish-
water and long exposure to the air are important factors. A certain amount
of shade is usually provided by Pelvetia.

Vegetation of Vertical Banks (peat or loam).

The vertical peat-banks which occur on the Annagh Island and Mulranny
salt-marshes possess a characteristic flora showing well-marked zonation. The
same vegetation is even better developed on the peat-banks bordering on the
shores of Achill Sound. On the salt-marsh, the banks are seldom more than
3 feet in height, and are much broken up; but at Achill they are higher, and
often extend for some distance along the shore. The same type of vegetation,
showing the same sequence, is also found on the loam-banks of the Bunowen,
but with certain characteristic differences, due to the presence of fresh water
(see p. 85). The fresh-water channels of the salt-marsh are also distinct, their
banks being muddy and possessing a different flora.

Ina general way the vegetation of the peat-banks is disposed in four
bands, which invariably occur in this sequence from above downwards :—

1. Phoeococeus adnatus.
. Rivularia nitida.

Co bo

. Vaucheria coronata and Calothrix fasciculata.
4, Rhizoclonium riparium (with scattered plants of F. spiralis, car. nana).

The three lowest bands are usually each about 1 foot deep; but the
Phoeococcus band is narrow, and is not infrequently absent. Practically all
the tidal banks are clothed with this vegetation; but at times (especially
where moisture is retained 7) a growth of F. vesiculosus var. muscoides intrudes
from the grass above. The essential conditions appear to be regular flooding
with salt-water, coupled with complete shelter.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Alyae. 15 83

Vaucheria and Calothrix, which form a yelvet-like growth of light and
dark green respectively, occur often in equal proportions; but at times
Vaucheria is dominant. Rhizoclonium forms a dense felt, through which
emerge numerous plants of /. spiralis var. nana. At Achill Sound (as on
the banks of the Bunowen) a band of Rivularia Biasolettiana sometimes occurs
above Phoeococcus. An average reading would be as follows :-—

Feet. Inches.
Rivularia Biasolettiana, . j ; , ; 0 1
Phoeococcus adnatus, 3 j ‘ : 0 D=(§
Rivularia nitida, : ; : 5 5 ; if 0
Vaucheria and Calothrix, . l=?
Rhizoclonium and F. spiralis var. nana, . ee)

When a vegetation-zone exists below the Rhizoclonium band, it consists of
Enteromorpha intestinalis and F. spiralis, the latter being larger and stronger
than when it occurs at a higher level. F

A large number of readings were taken at Mulranny, Annagh Island, and
Achill, and, though the amount and luxuriance of the different species differed
considerably, the general zonation was invariably the same. Neither was
any difference noticeable on the banks composed of loam, except for the fact
that /. spiralis was practically absent, the soil being apparently too soft for it
to obtain a foot-hold.

The period of submersion can only be ascertained by observations on the
spot. At Achill Sound, the neap-tides reach the level of /. spiralis, though
the salt water soaks up through the peat to Vaucheria and Rivularia. With
spring-tides the whole vegetation is flooded, and one may see the top zone of
Phoeococcus covered with two feet of water. Slight variations due to local
topography are of course frequent.

Comparing the above vegetation with that found on the banks of the
Bunowen, one notes that / spiralis replaces F. ceranoides, and that Lntero-
morpha minima is absent. The upper zones are the same in both—a fact which
is easily understood when the source of moisture is considered. A similar
series of plant associations doubtless occurs in other districts where sheltered
banks exist. At Mersea Island (Essex) bands of Cyanophyceae in regular
sequence have been noted, but on a much smaller scale than at Achill.
The firm peat of the west of Ireland is doubtless more suitable for permanent
growth than the soft banks of the Essex coast.

lv. River-Mouths and Fresh-water Streams.
The method which has been adopted for describing the flora of previous

sections cannot easily be followed in dealing with the vegetation occurring at
L 2

15 84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

mouths of rivers. Though certain species are found to be constant, it is
difficult to obtain generalizations as to the position and sequence of the plant-
societies; and a detailed account is more apt to be merely descriptive of a
particular locality. Opportunities for comparison are fewer, not only owing
to the small number of streams available, but on account of the different
physical conditions afforded by each. In Clew Bay, for instance, there are
but three rivers, the floras of which are very different. The Newport river has
banks strewn with rocks and stones on which Fucus develops; whilst the
banks of the Bunowen are loamy and possess a vegetation of Chlorophyceae
and Cyanophyceae. The Westport river is again different. There is also a
stream at Belclare which issues as a waterfall amongst rocks in the midst of a
luxuriant growth of Fucus ceranoides, and then disperses itself on a muddy
shore. In contrast to the above the hill-side streams that descend into
Bellacragher Bay and Achill Sound are fairly constant im their flora.
For the above reasons it is more satisfactory to treat the vegetation of each
stream as such, and not to attempt a general account.

The Newport River.

This river is tidal for about 3 miles, and has fairly wide banks which
support two well-marked plant-communities, namely, an Enteromorpha
association and a Fucaceae association of brackish type. The conditions with
regard to salinity in such a river are unusually complicated. During heavy
rains, the banks may be flooded with fresh water brought down by the stream
to a much higher level than usual, and the algae composing the vegetation
must be able to endure, not only regular change due to tide, but also
prolonged submersion in fresh water.

(1) Enteromorpha Association.—This consists chiefly of 4. intestinalis,
E. prolifera, and £. clathrata, together with the numerous intermediate forms
characteristic of brackish waters. The growth is most irregular and perplex-
ing, and, as the Ulva investigations had shown, any attempt to name all the
forms occuring is at present hopeless. Time, therefore, was not wasted on
the genus.

(2) Fucaceae Association—Fucus was more interesting, the most extensive
growth of F. ceranoides seen in the district occurring here. Starting from the
mouth of the river, there is a vegetation composed of Pelvetia, /. spiralis,
Ascophyllum, and F. vesiculosus. On walking towards Newport F. ceranoides
soon appears. This takes the place of F. spiralis, and lower part of the
Pelvetia belt. The latter, however, remains a little longer, especially on
boulders, F. ceranoides meanwhile increases, and gradually usurps the

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 85

position held by Ascophyllum and F. vesiculosus, till, at 4 mile below
Newport, the association consists entirely of this species. Ascophyllum is
the last to disappear, persisting on boulders, especially in the lower part.
At Newport Bridge, 7”. ceranoides forms a very fine growth, of which some
50 or 60 yards are exposed at low-water ; as far as could be seen, it extends
right across the river. The association continues above the railway bridge
(the exact distance was not noted), where it is covered with perfectly fresh
water for many hours at a time. The upper part of the F. ceranoides belt
(at the Pelvetia level) consists of very short plants, in some cases barely an
inch high. Amongst it exists a certain amount of Catenella aud Bostrychia,
especially on slabs of rock, At a lower level the growth is large and
vigorous, and shows as usual great blistering of the thallus,

Bunowen.

Rising in the mountains near Croaghpatrick, and flowing through the
town of Louisburgh, the Bunowen cuts a sinuous course through the boulder-
clay on the plain, and immerges on the sandy shore west of Old Head. The
banks for the last mile are loamy and steep, until about + mile from the shore,
where they tend to become flatter as the river widens out. In wet weather
the volume of water is largely increased; the deep brown stream heing
perfectly fresh when the tide is on the ebb. Many algae therefore, which
are normally left dry and first moistened by the returning tide, are not
infrequently immersed for hours in fresh water.

Vertical Banks.—Beginning about 4 mile from the shore, we find at low-

2
5

water banks 3-5 feet high. Where current is felt, there is constant erosion,
and algae are practically absent: but in bays and bends a short vege-
tation exists, showing definite zonation. The sequence of the bands is
usually as follows, beginning at, or slightly above, the average high-water
level :—

Phoeococcus adnatus, t : : : : : 2-3 ins. high.
Rivularia nitida, ; F : 5 F : ; 1-13 foot ,,
Rhizoclonium riparium and Enteromorpha intestinalis var. 1 a .

Do. with Pylaiella litoralis (F. ceranoides scattered), 1 es ;

This vegetation extends more or less interruptedly for some distance till
a bend and widening of the stream is reached. Several creeks and back-
waters then appear, as well as flat, muddy slopes; and the extra shelter is
favourable for Vaucheria, which now becomes prominent, The average

15 86 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

sequence and depth of the bands on loamy or peaty banks about 4 feet high
is as under :—

Rivularia Biasolettiana (rarely present), . : 1 inch.
Phoeococcus adnatus (not always present), 9 2 inches.
Riyularia nitida, : ‘ : 5 : ; 9 ins—1 foot.
Rhizoclonium and Enteromorpha, . : : 2 feet.
Vaucheria coronata and EK. intestinalis var., ; 1 foot.

In narrow creaks (which possess little light), Vaucheria coronata clothes
the entire surface of the banks, growing very luxuriantly up to extreme high-
water level. It forms here a loose furry growth (due to copious branching)
instead of the short velvet pile found in open places. Where the banks are
flat the growth spreads out horizontally, and the clear zonation is lost.
Phoeococeus and Rivularia nitida usually disappear (cf. Bellacragher Bay,
p- 89), Rhizoclonium, Percursaria, and Enteromorpha taking their place, and
running in amongst Statice maritima, Glaux maritima, and Glyceria maritima,
so that the whole forms a miniature salt-marsh.

With regard to seasonal development and other details, R. aitida,
Rhizoclonium, Enteromorpha, Vaucheria coronata are found at all seasons.
fh. Biasolettiana is perhaps mostly a winter and spring species, it being noted in
quantity in May only. Phoeococcus forms, on the loamy banks of the
3unowen, a narrow band (cf. Achill, p. 83), and is in places entirely absent.
Tt reaches its maximum development in late summer and autumn, and occurs
above the average high-water mark. J. nitida is likewise most conspicuous
‘in autumn; in favoured spots the greenish-black band, a foot deep, stretches
for many yards; in others it is intermittent, due possibly to the crumbling
away of the soil. The Rhizoclonium-Enteromorpha association is practically
uninterrupted, andis more luxuriant in spring, forming a bright apple-green
belt ; in summer it becomes bleached, and the Interomorpha constituents are
dominant. Monostroma sp. (= JL. crepidinum? see p. 107), noted in spring,
summer, and autumn, is scattered irregularly throughout this growth; but it
is never copious, and is apt to be overlooked. The lower part of the
association, which consists of narrow varieties of Hnteromorpha intestinalis,
merges into the Vaucheria coronata zone. The last-named often stretches a
long distance as a pure growth, forming a dark-green, very short, velvet pile.
It fruits abundantly, no difficulty being found during any visit in obtaining
the characteristic oogonia. If stones exist, 7. ceranoides may occur near low-
water level; but its growth is poor.

Flat Sloping Banks.—Close to the mouth, the vertical banks give place
first to firm mud and then to stony banks, with more or less sand. The

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 87

former, as already indicated, is clothed with V. corenata, Rhizoclonium, and
Enteromorpha ; but many other algae occur, all the species mentioned for the
salt-marsh Rhizoclonium association (p. 79) being noted. Beautiful dark
patches of Capsosiphon were found in May on stones at half-tide level.
V. coronata disappears as one nears the sea; but another species with
filaments 2-3 inches long, only found sterile, becomes frequent in pools.
A fine Microcoleus association (see p. 63) is also present in the sand and
sandy mud found between the loamy ground and the stone-covered banks.

With the appearance of stones and boulders the Fucaceae vegetation
sets in. At first it- consists of pure F ceranoides, but F. vesiculosus soon
follows, appearing first on the uppermost boulders (where it would obviously
receive the least amount of fresh water), and gradually increasing till at the
embouchure the two species occur in equal proportions. A second plant-
association is represented on the stones, namely—Hnteromorpha intestinalis.
This exists as a pure, luxuriant growth in the bed of the stream. In a
modified form, it ascends the banks under the Fucus-covering, and in spots
forms a green band above it.

EF. ceranoides accompanies the river on to the flat sandy beach, and is found
on the rocks to the east of the main stream, where it is doubtless under the
influence of the fresh water. The association of Porphyra, which occurs below
(p. 58), must also receive a certain amount of brackish water.

Bellacragher Bay Streams.

The streams which descend from the high hills and peat bogs of Curraun
Achill seldom if ever dry up, though the amount of water brought down
varies greatly. A well-marked vegetation is present at the outlets, which is quite
distinct from that of ordinary streams, and which is probably characteristic
of small mountain torrents. It consists of F'. ceranoides, and a species of
Monostroma (No. 91, see p. 107), and does not appear to have been previously
described. As a rule there is a large deltoid mass of F. ceranoides, with a
smaller patch of Monostroma in the upper part; but the physical nature of
the shore modifies the horizontal distribution of the algae, so the deltoid
form is often more or less lost.

F’. ceranoides shows first on the stones in the stream near the ordinary
high-water line; and on descending the shore it spreads out laterally over
the flanks, and continues to low-water mark. Though a large portion remains
immersed all day in fresh-water, it is completely covered by each tide. The
plants fruit abundantly, but do not attain to so large a size as those found on
river-banks (¢.g. Bunowen and Newport).

15 88 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The Monostroma vegetation is at its best in spring (Apriland May). It
then occurs in deltoid patches, reaching from above FF. ceranoides to- about
half-tide level. It covers the rocks and stones in the stream with a dense
covering; and also spreads out on either side, growing chiefly on the Fucus.
The plants in the streams remain submerged; but those outside are exposed
at low-water, and in fine weather dry up rapidly, appearing as a brittle skin,
which crackles in the hand. As summer advances, the flank-growth
disappears; but in the streams themselves Monostroma was found in plenty
during each visit.

v. Vegetation of Brackish Bays.

The vegetation of inlets surrounded by mountains from which streams
descend possesses several distinctive features, and must be recognized as afford-
ing a definite vegetation-type. Certain species of diatoms are abundant, also
Cyanophyceae ; whilst the complete absence of several of the larger algae, and
the prevalence of others, are also noticeable.

Other factors, besides the addition of fresh water, have, however, to be
considered. Being more or less land-locked, the tide is shght, and the condi-
tions exceedingly tranquil : consequently the aeration of the water is probably
very poor. Mineral salts moreover are brought down by the streams, and in
our area peaty acids and other compounds from the peat-bogs are doubtless
plentiful, the streams being deep brown in times of much rain.

Bellacragher Bay was selected as a spot for systematic investigation. It
is land-locked, and, except for a few months in summer, receives a large
amount of fresh water. Samples of water taken in August showed almost
normal salinity, but this was after the dry summer of 1911. This inlet is,
therefore, not an extreme case; but the features shown may be useful for this
very reason. Bays of much feebler salinity doubtless occur in Ireland, as
they do abundantly in the west of Scotland.

The following associations are represented in Bellacragher Bay -—

Hildenbrandtia-Verrucaria.—Very well marked on stones and pebbles

from half-tide downwards, ascending higher in damp places.

Fucaceae.—All five species present. Fronds of F serratus narrow. . cera-

noides forming delta-like patches at the bottoms of streams, but not
general in any part of the bay.

Lichina.—Very feebly developed. L. conjinis most frequent.

Laurencia-Gigartina.—Poor. Isolated patches in sub-littoral region

common.

Laminaria.—Sub-association of L. saccharina on big stones and blocks of

rock frequent. Plants usually long, but not wide, 10 to 12 ft. by 1 ft.

Clare Islund Survey —Marine Algae. 15 389

Evecrusting Algae.—Lithothamnium polymorphum belt well developed,
usually with Corallina officinalis.

Pebble-attached association—Extensive and well developed, but poor in
species. Examined by wading at extreme low-water,

Zostera.—Loeal.

Special features—Two societies not referred to elsewhere are very
prominent in the littoral region. (1) Rivularia nitida, the species of vertical
peat-banks (p. 82), occurs as a broad horizontal band. It is noticeable
throughout summer, but in October forms a black band along the whole shore.
(2) Cladophora rupestris, as narrow strips or effused patches, is also very
abundant, indicating the presence of fresh water. It is remarkable that
Enteromorpha, which usually serves this purpose, is, except as a short
growth near high-water line, almost absent. Associations of Porphyra
and Rhodochorton, which might have been expected, were completely
absent. :

A general coating of the diatom Cocconeis Scutellum is especially
characteristic of the vegetation of this bay. Species of Cladophora, Ectocarpus,
Polysiphonia, etc., are in spring so completely covered as to be utterly
unrecognizable. The plants appear quite black owing to a ring of brown
substance round the valves of the diatom. The ring is apparently secreted
from the peaty water by Cocconeis. Mr. W. West, who kindly identified
the diatom, tells me such a copious deposit is unfamiliar to him.

Fresh-water streams.—See p. 87.

With regard to the flora, the lists kept show that a very large number of
species occur in the bay, but in small quantity only. Many species were only
found once, but, on account of the poorness of the tide, the low-littoral flora
is compressed into a very small space. The dominant associations—Fucaceae,
Laminaria, Zostera, and pebble-attached—practically cover the ground, and
there are no pools. This type of vegetation is probably not peculiar to Bella-
cragher Bay, as from cursory observations elsewhere (Killary, Roundstone,
also in Scotland) it appears to be frequent in brackish bays of like nature.
In summer Cyanophyceae are abundant, especially Lyngbya majuscula, Calo- °
thriz aeruginea, C. confervicula, and Anabaena torulosa. Stictyosiphon subarti-
culata, Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, Striavia attenuata, and Chylocladia
kaliformis are dominant on pebbles in spring: whilst in summer Cladophora
Rudolphiana, Enteromorph clathrata var., and Spermatochnus occur in extra-
ordinary profusion. Of species apparently absent, the following may be
noted :-—WMesogloia vermiculata, Nitophyllum punctatum, Griffithsia corallina,
G, setacea, and Monospora pedicellata.

R,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. M 15

15 90 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acaaemy.

I1.—THE ALGAL FLORA.
1.—SyYsTEMATIC LIsT OF THE FLORA

The subjoined list includes all species, and the most noteworthy varieties
found during the Survey, with the addition, in brackets, of those recorded
previously by other observers. Notes on habitat are given when of interest,
and local distribution is indicated, except where the species is of general
occurrence. Critical notes on the list are given later (pp. 102 et seq.).

The classification adopted is that of Batters’ “ Catalogue of British. Marine
Algae” (1902), except for the group Melobesieae, for which Lemoine’s scheme
(10) has been used. The nomenclature also of that catalogue has been
followed, except in the case of certain old names revived by Batters. When these
names appeared invalid or doubtful, the usual and more familiar nomenclature
has been employed. Critical work naturally has necessitated a few additional
name-changes. ,

The following signs and abbreviations are used :—

*—new to Ireland. 7 =rare.
+ =new to British Isles. J = frequent.
CI = Clare Island. ¢=common.
CB = Clew Bay. ab = abundant.
AS = Achill Sound. /=local.
BB = Bellacragher Bay. y = young.
CYANOPHYCEAE.
COCCOGONEAE.

Chroococeus turgidus Naeg.—ClI, CB, f. Isolated specimens on various algae.
*Aphanocapsa pallida Rabenk.—ClI, CB, 7.
*Dermocarpa violacea Crm.—Cl, CB,7. On various filamentous algae.
Pleurocapsa fuliginosa Hauwck.—ClI7. On bare rocks near high-water line.
> amethystina Rosenv.—CI, CB,7. On Rhodochorton floridulum and Corallina.
Hyella caespitosa Born. et Flah.—CB /.
HORMOGONEAE.
Spirulina subsalsa Oersted—Cl1, CB, f.
var. oceania Gom.—CI7. On Halichondria panicea.
*Oscillaria margaritifera Kiitz—ClIr.
+ nigro-viridis Thw.—CIr.

'The additions to the Irish list are calculated from a revised and annotated copy of
Mr. J. Adams’ ‘‘Synopsis.’’ With regard to the Cyanophyceae, several species, which do not
figure in the marine section of the Synopsis, have been previously recorded from Ireland, but
from fresh-water or brackish localities. These were listed by Mr. Adams in the fresh-water
section.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algac. 15

*Oscillaria Corallinae Gow.—CIf. On Lithothophyllum incrustans.
laetevirens Crm.—CI 7. On Gelidiwn repens. See note.
brevis Avitz —C1r.

* sancta Kiitz—CI7. See note.
limosa dy.—CI, CB,/. See note.

*Phormidium fragile Gom.—Cl 7. With Hectocarpus on Patella.
tenue Gom.—Cl r.

i persicinum Gom.—CI7. See note.

i subuliforme Gom.—Cl7. See note.

*Lyngbya Meneghiniana Gom.—ClIr. On Codiwm tomentosun in pools.
aestuarii Liebm.—CBe, AS f.
majuscula Harv.—cCB, AS, f.

t confervoides C. Ag.—CB/. See note.

** semiplena J. Ag.——_Cl, CB, AS, 7.
lutea Gom.—Cl1 f. Onrocks near high-water line.

Symploca hydnoides Avitz—CI7. On Corallina in shallow pools.

} dubia Gom.—CI7. On brackish rocks.

*Plectonema Nostocorum Born.—Cl, CB, AS,/. In Rivularia wtida.
tenebrans Born. et Flah.—ClI, The Bills,7. In shells of Balanus.
Battersii Gom.—Roonah Pointr. With Calothria scopulorum.
norvegicum Gom.—ClIr.

*Microcoleus chthonoplastes Thur.—AS, CB,ab. See note.

zo tenerrimus Gom.—AS r.

Malounns confervicola Ag.—ab.

x consociata Born. et Flah.—CBr. On Fucus vesiculosus var. muscoides.
scopulorum dg.—Clab, CBr.
pulvinata A4g.—CB, AS, f.

= parasitica Thw.—Old Headr. In Nemalion mvultifidum.

s aeruginea Thwr.—Cl7, Old Heady. See note.
fusea Born. et Flah.—Mulranny7. See note.
crustacea Tur.—Cl7. On limpets in high-water pools.
fasciculata dg.—AS f, On peat-banks.

+ endophytica sp.20v.—Annagh Island. See note.

91

Isactis plana Thw.—CB f, BB/. On stones, and on stems of Laminaria digitata.

Rivularia Biasolettiana Menegh. (=R. coaduncta Fosl).—Bunowen River /.

atra Roth.—ab.
nitida 4g.—CB, AS, BB, ab, Clr.
bullata Berk.—Cl1 f, Mulranny f. On exposed rocks at half-tide level.
*Brachytrichia Balani B. and #.—Cl7. In cave at Portlea.
[Mastigocoleus testarum Lagerh.| —Roundstone (coll. Johnson, 1893).
*Microchaete grisea Thux.—CBry. On shells in 5 fathoms.
Anabaena torulosa Lagerh.—CB, BB, f. On various algae.
M 2

15 92 ~ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

CHLOROPHYCEAE.
PROTOCOCCINAE.
Chlorochytrium inclusum Ajellm.—c. In Dilsea edulis.
{Halosphaera viridis Schm.|.—f. See note.
*Codiolum gregarium A. Br.—Cl f, Old Head 7. On rocks near high-water line.
*Petrocelidis Kuck.—Cl, Old Head f. In Petrocelis cruenta and Cruoria pellita.
CONFERVOIDEAE.
Prasiola stipitata Swhr.—Cl, CB, The Bills, /. On bird cliffs ab, on bare rocks/.
crispa vay, marina Borg. (= Gayella).—ClI /, Caher I., The Bills.

*Protoderma marinum Rke.—CB, AS, BB, f. On pebbles, near low-water mark.

*Ulvella fucicola Rosenv.—Old Heady. On F. vesiculosus, probably frequent.

*Monostroma orbiculatum Z’hwr.—CB f. See note.

sp. No. 95 (M. crepidinum Farlow ?).—Old Head, Mulranny, /. See note.
sp. No. 91.—AS, BB, 7. See note.
Grevillei Wittr.—Cl, AS, c. Hpiphytic near low-water mark.

var. Cornucopiae Bati.—CI, AS, 7. On Corallina.

*Capsosiphon aureolus Gobi.—-Old Head, Mulranny, /.

Percursaria percursa Rosenv.—c.
Enteromorpha clathrata J. dg.—c.
paradoxa Avitz.—CB 7, Roundstone (coll. McCalla). See note.
* torta Reimb.—CB f.
prolifera J. 4g.—CB 7. Attached to stones on flat sandy shores.
compressa Grev.—ab.
Linza J. Ag.—e.
intestinalis, Link.—ab.
micrococea Kiitz—CI ry. On rocks near high-water line.
minima Nag.—Clc. On rocks near high-water line.
Ulva Lactuca L.—ab. See note.
Ulothrix flacca Thwr.—CB f. See note.
2 consociata Wille—Roonah 7. See note.
+ pseudoflacca Wille.—CI, Old Head, Roonah, f. See note.
+ subflaccida Wille.—CB, AS, 7. See note.
*Phoeophila dendroides Bati.—BB r. In old Chylocladia kaliformis.
Bulbocoleon piliferum Pringsh.—CI7. In old Chordaria flagelliformis.
Blastophysa rhizopus Rke.—AS7. In old Ralfsia sp.on Achill Bridge.
Endoderma viride Lagerh.—CI, CB, f. In Nitophyllum and Delesseria spp.
Wittrockii Wille.—f. In Pylaiella litoralis.
Flustrae Batt.—r. In Flustra sp.

Tellamia contorta Batt.—CI, Roonah, f. In Littorina.
intricata Batt.—Roonah 7. In Littorina.

Urospora mirabilis dvesch.—Cl f. See note.

iT

Gomontia polyrhiza Born. et Flah.—CB, AS, f.

Olare Island Survey—Marine A

Chaetomorpha litorea ('ook.—Mulranny. See note.

[tortuosa Avitz.] CI 7., Roundstone.

linum Kiitz—CB, AS, c. See note.

aerea Kiitz.--Clc. In high-level rock-pools.
melagonium Avitz.—CI7, Achill Bridge +.
Lerassa Kitz. |—Achill (coll. Hanna, 1899).

implexum Batt. non Kiitz. (= R. tortuosum Kiitz.)—
viparium Harv.—ab.
Kerneri f. endozoica Wille.—CI., Achill Bridge, r.

Cladophora prolifera Kiitz. See note.

pellucida Kiitz.—CI7r. In deep or shady rock-pools.
Hutchinsiae Harv.—CB f.

[ Macallana Harv.] —Roundstone (coll. McCalla).
rectangularis Harv.—--CB7. Dredged in 3 fathoms.
Neesiorum Avitz.—CI7. Rock-pools.

rupestris Avitz.—ab.

(var. distorta Harv. |—Roundstone (coll. McCalla).
sericea Kiitz.—ab.

slaucescens Harv.—CI7. In rock-pools.

flexuosa Harv.—see note.

albida Aiitz—CIf. On rocks and in pools.

lyue. 15 93

[Rhizoclonium Kochianum Aiitz.]-—-Roundstone (teste Batters).

Cle.

See note.

var. refracta Thur.—Cl1f. On rocks and in pools.

Rudolphiana Harv.—CB, AS, BB,f. See note.
fracta Witz.—CB, Asc.

[cornea Avitz.] —Roundstone (coll. Painter, 1883).
corynarthra vai. spinescens Batt—BB/. See note.
areta Kiitz—Clc. See note.

uncialis Aiitz—CIf. On exposed rocks.

lanosa Kiitz—CBe. Epiphytic.

SIPHONEAE.

In various shells.

*Ostreobium Quekettii Born. et Hlah.—Roonah 7. In shells. Probably frequent.

t

Bryopsis plumosa Ag.—Cl, AS, f.

[hypnoides Lamow. |—Roundstone (coll. Harvey).

Derbesia marina, Ajellm.—CI v7. See note.
Vaucheria Thuretii }Vor0n.—CB, AS, c. See note.

coronata Nordst._-CB, AS, Bunowen River, c. See note.

littorea Bang. et Ag—CB ce. See note.

amphibium Moore.—CI v 7, Roundstone. See note.

Codium adhaerens A4g.—CI/f. In rock-pools, and on steep, damp rocks.

tomentosum Stackh.—CI c, CB, r. See note sub C. mucronatwm.
mucronatum var. atlanticum var. vnov.—Clc¢; Cb, bb,7. See note.

15 94 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

FUCOIDEAE.
PHOEOSPOREAE,
Phoeococcus adnatus West, comb. nov.—CB, AS, c. See note.
Desmavrestia viridis Lam.—ClI, CB, f.
aculeata Lam.—c.
ligulata Lam.—ClI r.
(Dresnayi Lam.|—Roundstone (teste Johnson, 1899).
Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus Grev.—CB, AS, BB, c.
hippuroides Kiitz.—Cl, CB, c.
Phoeostroma pustulatum Awck.—CI 7. See note.
Litosiphon pusillum Harv.—Cl 7; CB, AS,c. See note.
Laminariae Havv.—Cl1 f. On Alaria.
Phloeospora brachiata Born.—CI f. On Rhodymenia palmata.
Stictyosiphon tortilis Rke.—CB, BB, c.
subarticulatus Hauck.—CB c.
i adriaticus Kitz.—Bartraw 7. See note.
Striaria attenuata Grev.—CB c, AS x. In shallow sub-littoral region.
Puncetaria plantaginea Grev.—CB 7.
latifolia Grev.—Cl, CB, f.
tenuissima Grev.—CB f. On Zostera.
undulata J. dy—CB 7, BB >. On Zostera.
*Phyllitis zosterifolia Rke.—CI 7.
Fascia Kiitz, C1, CB, AS, 1.
Scytosiphon lomentarius J. Ag.—c.
Asperococcus fistulosus Hook.—c.
bullosus Lamour.—CB, CI, c.

*Streblonema sphaericum Derb & Sol—CI7. In Nemalion multifidum.

*“Hetocarpus clandestinus Sawv.—Cl1/. On Fucus serratus, October, 1910.
luteolus Saw.—Cl f.

* microspongium Batt.—Clr. On Ralfsia verrucosa.
tomentosoides Marl.—C1 7. On Himanthalia and Laminaria.
yelutinus Kiitz.—Cl 7. On Himanthalia.

S Battersii Born.—CB ry. On Taonia atomaria.
simplex Crn.—Cl ce. On Codiwm tomentosum.

ts Holmesii Batt.—Cl, AS, 7. In caves and on dark ledges.
globifer Kiitz.-C17. On exposed ledges.

Mitchellae Harv. (= E. virescens Thwr.)—CI r.
confervoides Le Jol.—c.
var. arctus Kjellm.—CB f.
siliculosus Kiitz.—c.
fasciculatus Havv.—Cl ec. On Laminaria and Himanthalia.
tomentosus Lyngb.—e. i
Hincksu Hurv.—Cl r. On Laminaria digatata.

Clare Tsland Survey—Marie Algue. 15 95

Eectocarpus [Landsburgii Harv.].—Roundstone (coll. Harvey).
granulosus 4g.—f.
[Sorocarpus uvaeformis Pringsh.|—f. Roundstone (teste Johnson, 1899).
Pylaiella litoralis Ajellin.—ab.
Isthmoplea sphaerophora Ajellm.—CI f. On Plwmaria elegans.
Myriotrichia clavaeformis Harv.—c.
filiformis Harv.—-c,
rs densa Batt.—CB 7. On Zostera.
repens Hauck.—Old Head 7, On Eudesme.
| Dichosporangium Chordariae !ollny.—CI 7. See note.
Myriactis pulvinata Kwtz.—ClI c. On Cystoseira ericoides and (. granulata.
Areschougii Batti—CI 7. On Himanthalia.
a stellata Batt——ClI f. On Dictyota in pools.
BE Haydeni Batt.—Cl1 rv. On Seytosiphon in pools.
Hlachista fucicola #ries.—ab.
flaccida Aresch.—CI, Old Head, c. On Cystosewa granulata and Halidrys.
seutulata Duby.—Clc. On Himanthalia. tee
*Leptonema fasciculatum Rke.—CB r. On Zostera.
Giraudia sphacelarioides Derb. d Sol—CB r. On Zostera,
Sphacelaria cirrhosa dg.--c. See note.
britannica Sawv.—r. See note.
plumula Zan.—CB, Roundstone.
Cladostephus spongiosus Ag.—c.
verticillatus Ag.—f.
Halopteris filicina Avitz—CBr.
Stypocaulon scoparium Avitz.——1.
Myrionema strangulans Grev.e.
* Corunnae Sawv.—CI 7.
papillosum Sawv.—f.
aecidioides Sawv.—CI 7.
saxicola Kwck.—Cl7. See note.
reptans Hos!.—Old Head. See note.
Ulonema rhizophorum F’osl.—Clc. See note.
Hecatonema maculans Sawv.—Cl f.
reptans Aylin.—Cl, CB,f. See note.
speciosum comb. nov.—Cl f. See note.
*Microspongium globosum Reinke.—CIf. See note.
*Chilionema Nathaliae Sawy.—Clr.
ocellatum Saw.—CI>r.
Ascocyclus orbicularis Magn.—CB ce. On Zostera.
foecundus comb. nov.—Cl, Old Head, f. See note.
# Saccharinae sp. nov.—CI 7. See note,

15 96 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Ralfsia clavata Farl.—ClI, Cb, f.
verrucosa Arvesch.—c.
*?L. fatiscens Avesch CBr. See note.
}Petroderma maculans Kuck.—CB 7. See note.
Spermatochnus paradoxus Kiitz.—CB, AS, BB, c.
, Stilophora rhizodes J. dy.—AS7.
Chordaria flagelliformis 4g.—/.
Mesogloia vermiculata Le Jol.—ClI/.
lanosa Crn.—CB7. Dredged in3 fathoms.
Griffithsiana Grev.—CB, AS,7. Washed ashore.
tAcrothrix gracilis Kylin.—CB, AS,7. See note.
Castagnea virescens Thur.—Clc; Ola Head f.
Zosterae Thur.—CB, BB, 7. On Zostera.
Microcoryne ocellata Strémf.—BB7. On Dasya arbuscula.
Petrospongium Berkeleyi Na@g.—CI f. On rocks, and on Ralfsia verrucosa.
Leathesia tuberiformis Aresch.—ab.
crispa Harv.—Cl v7. See note.
Sporochnus pedunculatus 4g.—CI, AS, 7. Washed ashore.
Chorda filum Stackh.—CB, AS, c.
tomentosa Lyngb.—CI7. In narrow channels.
Laminaria saccharina Lamouwr.—c.
var. latissima (Twrn.) Batt—CB c.
var. Phyllitis Le Jol._—Cl c.
digitata Lamour.—c.
var. stenophila Harv.—Clc.
var. vallida Fos!.—CB f.
Cloustoni Hdm.—CI ec.
Saccorhiza polyschides Batt. (= 8. bulbosa De la Pyl.)—CIf.
Alaria esculenta Grev.—Cl c.
Cutleria multifida Grev.—CB 7. Dredged 3-5 fathoms.
(forma Aglaozonia reptans Crn.—CBab. Dredged 3-5 fathoms.)
FUCINEAE.
Fucus ceranoides L.—CB, AS, BB, c. See note.
spiralis L.—ab. See note.
var. platycarpus Batt,—CB, AS, ab.
var. nanus Stackh.—CB c. See note.
vesiculosus L.—ab. See note.
var. evesiculosus Awct.—CI ab:
var. laterifructus Grev.—AS c.
var. vadorum Aresch.—CB ec.
var. balticus J. Ag.—CB, AS, c.
t var. muscoides var. nov.—CB, AS, ¢.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 97

Fucus serratus L.—ab.
var. angustifrons Stackh.—ClI /f.
Ascophyllum nodosum Le Jol.—-Cl7; CB, AS, ab.
var. Mackaii (Turner) comb. nov.—Roundstone Bay f. See note.
Pelvetia canaliculata Decne et Thur.—ab.
Bifurearia tuberculata Stackh.—Dog’s Bay, Roundstone. Rock-pools.
Himanthalia lorea Lyngb.—Cl ad.
Halidrys siliquosa Lyngb.—CB, BB, c.
Cystoseira ericoides Ag.—ClI c.
eranulata dg.—CBe. In pools, and in shallow water.
| discors dg.] —Roundstone (teste Johnson, 1899).
fibrosa dg.—CI 7. In rock-pools.
TILOPTERIDEAE.
[Tilopteris Mertensii Aiitz.] —Roundstone (coll. McCalla),
DICTYOTACEAE,
Dicytota dichotoma Lama.—ab.
var. implexa J. Ag.—Cl ¢.
Taonia atomaria J. 4g.—CBr. See note.
Dictyopteris membranacea Batt—CBr. See note.

FLORIDEAE.
PORPHYREAE.
Conchocelis rosea Batt.—CB f. In shells,
Goniotrichum elegans Le Jol.—Off Annagh Island 7. On Champia parvula,
HErythrotrichia carnea Le Jol.—f.
Bertholdii Batt.—Achill f. See note.
investiens Lorn.—See note.
Boryana Berth.—Cl vr. On Laarencia pinnatifida.
Welwitschii batt.—Cl 7. See note.
Bangia fuscopurpurea Lyngb.—c.
*Porphyra coccinea J. Ag.— C17. See note.
leucosticta Thw.—ClI f. On Fucus spp.
umbilicalis Avitz.—ab. See note.
var. laciniata 7. Ag.—c.
var. linearis Thur.—e.
NEMALIONINAE.
*Colaconema Bonnemaisoniae Batt.—AS 7. In Bonnemaisonia asparagoides.
Chantransia virgatula Thur.—See notes.
ci var, luxurians Rosenv.—Cl c, CB 7.
var. tetrica Rosenv.—Cl, CB, 7.
var. secundata Rosenv.—ab.
+ Thuretii Kylin.—CB, AS, c. See note.

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, N 15

15 98 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Chantransia endozoica Darb.-CB 7. See note.
Alariae Jons.—Cl7. See note. _—
[Daviesii Thur. |—Roundstone.

Nemalion elminthoides Bait—Cl/j. See note.
multifidum J. Ag.—Cl c.

Helminthora divaricata J. 4g.—Old Head ec, Clr.

Scinaia furcellata Bivona—CBr. See note.

Choreocolax Polysiphoniae Reinsch.—Old Headr. On Polysiphonia fastigiata.

*Harveyella mirabilis Schm. et Rke—CI, CB,7. On Rhodomela subfusca.

Pierocladia capillacea Born.—ClI r.

Gelidium crinale J. 4g.—Old Head. In sand-pools.
pusillum Le Joi.—CI, CB, 7.
pulchellum Kitz.—Cl 7.
latifolium Born.—ClIr.

* aculeatum Batt—j. See note.
corneum Lamour.—f.
GIGARTINAE.

Chondrus crispus Stackh.—e.

Gigartina mamillosa J. Ag.—c.

Phyllophora rubens Gvev.—CI/; Roonah, Old Head, c.

Brodiaei J. Ag._—_Mulranny?. See note.
Traillii Holmes and Batt—Roonahr. In caves.
membranifolia J. 4g.—CI, Roonah, f.

Gymnogongrus Griffithsiae Wartius—Old Heady. In sand-pools.
norvegicus J. dg.—Old Head.

Abnfeltia plicata F’7.—f.

Actinococeus subcutaneus Rosenv.—Mulrannyr. On Phyllophora Brodiaet.
ageregatus Schm.—Old Head?. On Gymnogongrus Griffthsiae.
peltaeformis Schm.—Old Head. On G. norvegicus.

Colacolepis incrustans Schm.—Old Headr. On Phyllophora rubens.

Sterrocolax decipiens Schm.—7. On Ahnfeltia plicata.

Callophyllis laciniata Kiitz._f. Washed ashore.

Callocolax neglectus Schm.—f. On Callophyllus laciniata.

Callymenia reniformis J. Ag.CI7. Washed ashore.

=! Larterae Holmes.—CIr. Washed ashore. See note.

Cystoclonium purpurascens Kiitz.—c.

Catenella Opuntia Good. and Wood.—CI7r, CB, AS. c.

Rhodophyllis bifida Kiitz—CI 7. Washed ashore.

RHODYMENINAE.
Sphaerococeus coronopifolius Grev.—C1f. Washed ashore.
Gracilaria confervoides Grev.cCB, AS,c. See note.
* var. procerrima Batt.—See note.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 99

Calliblepharis ciliata Kiitz—CIf. Washed ashore.
jubata Kiitz.— C1 f. Rock-pools.
Rhodymenia Palmetta Grev.—CB f. Onstems of Laminaria Clouston.
palmata Grev.—c.
var. sarniensis Grev.—CBr. On stems of Laminaria digitata.
Cordylecladia erecta J. dg.—CB f.
Lomentaria articulata J. dy.—c.
clavellosa Gaill.—f.
Champia parvula Harv.—CB r.
Chylocladia kaliformis Hook.—ab.
ovalis Hook.—c.
Plocamium coccineum Lyngb.—ab.
Nitophyllum punctatum Grev.—CB, AS, c.
Bonnemaisoni Grev.—CB, AS, r. Washed ashore.
ee var. crassinerva Batt.—CI 7. On Laminaria Clouston.
uncinatum J. 4g.—CB /. See note.
laceratum Grev.—e.
var. uncinatum Batt.—f. See note on N. wncinatum.
Gonimophyllum Buffhami Batt.—f.
Delesseria sinuosa Lamour.—c. On stems of Laminaria Clouston.
sanguinea Lamour.—f.
alata Lamouwr.—c.
[augustissima Grif?.] —Galway (coll. Reilly, teste Harvey in Phye. Brit.).
ruscifolia Lamour.—Cl r, CB, AS, c. .
hypoglossum Lamouwr.—c.
Bonnemaisonia asparagoides Ag.—Cl, CB, 7. Washed ashore.
* hamifera 4g.—CI, AS, Roonah Pt.,7. Washed ashore. See note.
Bostrychia scorpioides Mont.—CB, CI, J. ‘
Rhodomela subfusea Ag.—f.
Laurencia obtusa Lamour.—CB, AS, c. See note on L. hybrida.
hybrida Lenorm.—c. See note.
pinnatifida Lamour.—ab. See note on L. hybrida.
Chondria tenuissima 4g.—CB r.
dasyphylla 4g.—CB, AS, f.
Polysiphonia macrocarpa Harv.—ClI f. See note.
fibrata Harv.—Cl c. Hspecially on flat, semi-exposed rocks.
urceolata Grev.—e.
elongata Grev.—CI 7; CB, AS, ab. :
elongella Harv.—aS r. COLE |
violacea Grev.—CB, AS, /.
fibrillosa Grev.—CB ip:
furcellata Harv.—Cl1, Roundstone, *.
N 2

15 100 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Polysiphonia fastigiata Grev.—CI 7; CB, AS, ab. See note.
atro-rubescens Grev.—Cl 7, CB ab.
nigrescens Grev.—CB, AS, c.
Brodiaei Grev.—e.
subulifera Harv.—CB, AS, l. See note.
fruticulosa Spreng.—c.

Pterosiphonia parasitica Schm.—j. In deep pools and in sub-littoral region.
thuyoides Schmitz.—ClI 7, Roonah ab.

Brongniartella byssoides Bory.—CB ab.

*“Dasya corymbifera C7vw.—CB 7. Dredged in 5 fathoms, and washed ashore.

arbuscula 4g.—Cl 7, Bellacragher Bay vy. See note.

Heterosiphonia coccinea Falk.—y.

Spondylothamnion multifidum Ndg.—Cl 7, CB /.

Spermothamnion Turneri, dvesch.—ClI 7, Old Head ab.

t var. subyerticillatum, comb. nov.i—CB f. See note.
Piilothamnion pluma Thur.—Cl, CB, 7.. On stipes of Laminaria Cloustoni.

t lucifugum sp. nov.—Cl yr. See note.

Griffithsia corallina A4g.—CB, AS, ab. See note.
setacea dg.—CI 7, CB f.
Halurus equisetifolius Aiitz.—f.
*Bornetia secundifiora Thur.—Cl very rare. See note. \
Monospora pedicellata Sol.—CI 7, CB 7. In rock-pools and in sub-littoral region.
Rhodochorton membranaceum Magn.—CB 7.
Rothii_Ndg.—Cl1 7, Roonah 7. In shady situations only.
parasiticum Batt.—7. On stipes of Laminaria Cloustont.
floridulum Nag.—ab. :

Callithamnion byssoides 477.—CB, AS, r. See note.
polyspermum dg.—/.
scopulorum 4g.—CI 7. See note.
roseum Harv.—AS8, BB, 7.
[tripinnatum dgardh.] —Roundstone f (coll. McCalla).
Hookeri 4g.—Cl ce. On Cladostephus spongiosus.
arbuscula Lyngb.—Clc. On steep exposed rocks. See note.
tetragonum 4g.—CI yr. On blades of Laminaria digitata.
corymbosum Lyngb.—CB, AS, c. See note.
granulatum 4dg.—CI7. See note.

Seirospora Griffithsiana Harv.—AS r.

- hormocapa Batt.—AS very rare.

(Compsothamnion thuyoides Schm.| —Roundstone (coll. McCalla).

Plumaria elegans Schm.—c.

Ptilota plumosa Ag.—c. On stipes of Laminaria Cloustoni. See note.
Antithamnion cruciatum Vag.—Cl very rave. On vertical rocks near low-water.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 101

Antithamnion crispum J. Ag.—f. See note.
Ceramium tenuissimum J. Ag.—CB /.
strictum Harv.—f.
var. zostericolum Le Jol.—CB, BB, f.
diaphanum Roth.—f.
Deslongchampsii Chawv.—Cl r.
Boergesenii Petersen.—c. See note.
rubrum dg.—ab. See note,
var. pedicellatum J. dy.—c.
var. secundatum Petersen.—Cl f.
| atlanticum Petersen.—ClI, The Bills, 7. See note.
flabelligerum J. dg.—Cl f.
echionotum J. dg.—ClIr.
cilatum Ducluz.—c.
acanthonotum Carm.

Cle.
CRYPTONEMINAE.
Gloiosiphonia capillaris Carm.—CIr. See note.
Dumontia filiformis Grev.—c. ; ‘
Dudresnaya verticillata Le Jol.—CIr, CB f. Washed ashore.
Dilsea edulis Stackh.—CI, Roonah, c.
Schizymenia Dubyi J. dg.—CI7. See note.
Halarachnion ligulatum Avitz.—f. Washed ashore.
Furcellaria fastigiata Lamowr.—c.
Polyides rotundus Grev.—CB ¢.
Petrocelis cruenta J. dg—CIc. On smooth rocks near low-water.
a Hennedyi Batt.—CBr. On stipes of Laminaria Cloustont.
Cruoria pellita Lyngb.—Cl, CB, 7. In caves, and dredged in 5-7 fathoms.
adhaerens J. dg.—Dredged in 4 fathoms. See note.
Cruoriella Dubyi Schm.—CB ab. See note.
Peyssonnelia sy.—CB 7; Roundstonec. See note.
Hildenbrandtia prototypus Nardo.—ab.
*Porphyrodiscus simulans Batt.—CBr. See note.
*Rhododermis polystromatica Batt.—CB 7. See note.
Rhodophysema Georgii Batt.—CB, AS, c. On Zostera. :
Sehmitziella endophloea Born. and Batt.—Cl r. In Cladophora pellucida.
Choreonema Thuretii Schmitz.—CIr. See mote.
Melobesia farinosa Lam.—CB, AS, ce. See note.
zonalis Fosl.—CB f. See note.
Lithophyllum (Dermatophyllum) pustulatum Fosl.—CI c. See note.
var. Corallinae Fosl.—CI c. See note.
var. Laminariae Fos!.—CB f. See note.
hapalidioides /os/.-CI, Roonah, f. See note.

15 102 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Lithophyllum hapalidoides var. confinis Fos/—CB 7. See note.
incrustans Phil.—ab. See note.
if var. subdichotomum Heyd7—CB, Roundstone, r. See note.
lichenoides EHilis.—CI, CB, c. See note.
[var. agariciformis| Fosl.—Roundstone 7. See note.
fasciculatum Fosl.—CB l. See note.
Lithothamnium caleareum AreschCB c. See note.
cs norvegicum /jellm.—CB f. See note.
laevigatum Fosl.—Cl, CB, 7. See note.
polymorphum Avesch.—c. See note.
compactum Kjellm.—CB 7. See note.
Lenormandi Aresch.—c. See note.
* var. sublaevis Fosl.—f. See note.
var. squamulosa Fosl.—f. See note.
Sonderi Hauck.—CB f?. See note.
Epilithon membranaceum Hedyr.—Cl, CB. f. See note.
Corallina officinalis L.—ab.
squamata Ellis.—c. See note.
rubens Hillis et Soland.—c.

The above list contains the names of 457 species and 36 varieties. Of these
5 species and 2 varieties are new to science; 18 species are additions to the
flora of the British Isles,and in all 92 species and 11 varieties are new to
lreland. For further details consult Part iv. of the present report.’

2.—NOTES ON THE LIST.
Oscillaria laete-virens Cru.
The cells of the Clare Island specimens are slightly longer than usual in

proportion to their width, the filaments being 4 » wide, and the cells 6-8 u

long.
Portlea, May, 1911: with Gelidivm repens on the under-side of boulders.

' Mautxe Fune1.—Four species of marine fungi were observed, and may be noted here. (See
Report No. 13 of the present series. )
Ostracoblabe implexa Born et Flah.—A shell-boring species. CB rare.
Epicymatia Balani Winter.—Common on barnacles. CB and CI.
Mycosphaerella Ascophylli Cotton.—Constantly present on receptacles of Ascophyllum.
Leptosphaeria Chondri Rosenvinge.—Very rare, and second record for British Isles. On
Chondrus, washed ashore on Clare Island. (For notes on the above fungi see Cotton, ’09.)
Miss J. Stephens drew my attention to an endophytic organism growing in the sponge Zerpios
fugaz, and giving it a deep blue colour. The organism is apparently a Schizomycete (see Topsent,
Arch. Zool. exp. et gén. (3) viii 1900). Zerpios fugaris rare on Clare Island, but not uncommon at
extreme low-W4! mark on the islantis of Clew Bay.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 103

Oscillaria sancta Kiitz,

a fresh-water species, common in Britain ; but. with? the, exception ‘of
specimens sent out by Holmes (“ Algae Rariores,” No. cen it has not: ‘been
recorded for our islands from a marine habitat.

Portlea, October, 1910; May, 1911; on various algae at mouth of cave

0. limosa Ag.

As in the case of many Cyanophyceae, 0. /imosa, though usually a fresh-
water species, should certainly be included ina list of marine algae. - It was
found intermixed with other brackish species on piles at the side of a stream
at Mulranny (Aug., 1911).

In addition to the above record, a cyanophyceous growth on the sand, both
in Achill Sound and at Mulranny, appears to be referable to this species. At
Achill the growth occurred between the Fucus plants in the “farms”
in the middle of the Sound; and at Mulranny it was found amongst
Rhizoclonium and Vaucheria on the upper part of the tidal region. The
filaments are straight, non-attenuated, non-capitate, bright blue-green in
colour, and measure 10-16 » in diameter. In some cases a distinct, somewhat
mucilaginous sheath is present, a peculiarity which has been noted previously
in O. limosa, and which led to a distinct species, Lyngbya obscura var. aestivalis,
being described by Hilse. The only point in which the specimens differed
from the normal fresh-water 0. limosa was in the filaments being at times
slightly torulose.

Phormidium persicinum Gom.

This very distinct species, which is new to the British flora, was described
by Reinke in 1889, and has since been recorded from various localities in
Europe and America. The rose colour, coupled with the exceedingly fine
filaments (1°5-2 ») and long cells (2-7), mark it sharply off from other
marine species. The previous record of this plant as British (Journ.
Bot., xxxiv, p. 7) was an error, the plant found being Phormidiun Ketocarpi
Gom. (Batters, ‘00, p. 369).

Clare Island, October, 1910, forming a dense rose-coloured coating on

Codium tomentosum in a rock-pool.

’P. subuliforme Gom.

The plant referred to this species was found with Calothrix scopulorum on
rocks near high-water line. First described by Giunow. from St. Paul
(Pacific), it has since been recorded from Nebraska and Iceland’ (Journ.
Bot., xl, p. 245). Though not previously noted as marine, it, agrees so‘well

15 164 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

with Gomont’s description that it is here recorded under his name, though it
is possible that further work may show that it is a distinet species. In
St. Paul and Iceland it occurred in warm springs: but it is well known that
many algae which usually grow in ordinary temperatures are also found in
such positions.

Clare Island, Kinnacorra rocks, near high water, October, 1911.

: Lyngbya confervoides C. Ag.

Well known on the north coast of France, but apparently not hitherto
recorded as British. It closely resembles LZ. aestuarii, and might almost be
regarded as a form of that species; Gomont, however, keeps them distinct.
The Clew Bay specimens are rather slender, usually measuring 10-14, diam.
The sheaths, even in old and empty filaments, remain quite hyaline.

Louisburgh and Mulranny, September, 1911, in brackish pools; probably
common. a7) Ns
Microcoleus chthonoplastes ‘hur.

It is surprising that this well-known and cosmopolitan species should not
have been previously recorded for Iveland, where it forms,as elsewhere,a definite
though inconspicuous plant-association (see p. 63). Adams listed it in his
‘ Synopsis ” (08), but excluded it in 1910 (p. 211), as no published record of
the plant could be found. It is abundant in Clew Bay, and is doubtless
common in other parts of Ireland. I took several samples from the banks of
the river Bann in May, 1910.

Calothrix aeruginea Thur.

“Apparently new to Ireland. Recorded by Adams in his “ Synopsis,” but
removed in his second paper (’10, p. 211). Epiphytie on various algae, especially
at Old Head.

C. fusca Born. et Flah.

A species usually regarded as being confined to fresh-water; but found
in plenty on Rhizoclonium vipavium in brackish pools at Mulranny. It was
listed by Adams as an Irish fresh-water species.

C. endophytica sp. nov.! (Plate 10, figs. 1-3).

Plants endophytic in the thallus-cavity of Enteromorpha sp., nearly black
in the mass. Filaments simple or rarely slightly branched, very short,

1 C. filis intra thallos Enteromorphae-entophyticis, brevissimis 70-130 altis, 7-10 crassis,
aeruginosis; yagina tenni, achroa, vel lutescente, sursum gelatinosa, diffuente: trichomatibus
7-8 crassis, attenuatis; articulis diametro brevioribus vel subaequilongis; heterocystis 1-2,
basilaribus, rare intercalaribus,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 105

70-130 x 7-10 uw; blue-green to olive-green.; base not thickened. Sheaths
thin, colourless, or becoming slightly. yellow with age; diffluent above or
absent. Trichomes 7-8 » thick, attenuated, but not ending in a hair (dried
specimens only examined); cells usually shorter than wide. Heterocysts 1-2,
basal or rarely intercalary.

In Enteromorpha torta Reinke(?). Salt-marsh, Annagh Island, Oct., 1910.

This species gives to the Enteromorpha filaments in which it grows a

deep, almost black, colour, which caused them to stand out conspicuously
against a background of Rhizoclonium. The plant-mass was distinguishable
in the field from Oscillaria and Lyngbya, and was collected as a very dark
species of Enteromorpha. On examination, however, the tubes were found
to contain blue-green filaments, which for the most part were tightly packed
along the whole length of the Enteromorpha fronds. A good supply of
material was collected, all of which showed the same phenomenon, so that
there can be no question of accidental growth.

Its remarkable habitat renders the plant very distinct ; and except for
C. parasitica, no species of similar habit has been described. In the latter,
the filaments are embedded in the thallus of Nemalion; but they occur in
fascicles, and project at right angles from the host-plant. The cells of the
present species vary considerably in length; and the lateral walls may be
straight or markedly torulose. In October, 1910, the plant was plentiful on
the sait-marsh ; but in May, 1911, it was searched for in vain.

Haplosphaera viridis Schm.

Mr. G. P. Farran tells me that this species has been noted in the
plankton of the Clare Island district during the cooler months of the
year.

The following table, drawn up from Gough’s list (04), is of interest in
showing the marked seasonal development of the plant :—

Skullmartin (Co. Down), March, April.

South Arklow (Co. Cork), February—April ; September, October.
Coningbeg (Co. Wexford), January-May ; September—December.
Fastnet (Co. Kerry), February, March; (July) September—December.

Codiolum gregarium braun.

Much diversity of opinion exists as to the limits of the species of
Codiolum. All the Clare Island forms occurring commonly on the rocks
in company with Calothria scopulorwm, 1 have referred to OC. gregarium.
The plants vary much in size and length of stalk; the head in the larger
specimens being about 250, long by 50-70 broad, and passing either

R.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. O 15

15 106 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

gradually or abruptly inte the stalk; but im any one gathering many
intermediate forms are found. It agrees well in form with Braun’s specimens
(Rabenhorst, “ Alg. Eur.,” No. 1841), but is somewhat smaller. It also
appears to agree with the Berwick gatherings (Holmes, “ Algae Rariores,”
No. 33), which Batters (89, p. 44) referred to ©. gregariwm, but which, in
1902, he placed under C. pusilum Foslie. Judging by Borgesen’s figure
of the original material (02; fig. 107), it would appear that Batters’ earlier
view was the more correct. The specimens of C. pusilluwm distributed
by Wittrock and Nordstedt, and by Hauck and Richter (Exsice., Nos. 457
and 472 respectively), agree with Borgesen’s figure in possessing an extremely
long head, and such specimens are easily distinguished from the normal form
of C. gregarium. :

With regard to the other species, the Clare Island observations tend
to show that names have been proposed far too freely: and it is clear that
nothing but a special study with careful and systematic collecting throughout
the year will bring abont a true understanding of the genus.

MONOSTROMA.

In common with many algae of brackish regions the Monostromas
present endless trouble to the systematist; but it would seem that few
of these genera would so readily repay careful study in the field. The
characters upon which the species are founded—the size, shape, and thickness
of the frond, and the size and form of the cells—are known to vary much
with external conditions. li the ecology of the plants could be studied, and
their growth traced through from the earliest attached stages to the loose
floating forms, it is certain that many puzzling intermediates could be placed,
and that several of the so-called species would have to disappear.

Of the numerous forms noted in Clew Bay, IZ. orbiculatum was recognizable ;
and two others that were sufficiently distinct and frequent to be worthy of
record, could not be satisfactorily determined, and are hence referred to by
collecting-numbers only.

M. orbiculatum Thur.

A plant common during April and May in the brackish pools of the salt-
marsh near Belclare. It is at first attached to stones, sticks, or leaves
and shoots of flowering plants, but finally becomes free. It often grows
in dense tufts, and may reach as much as 1 foot to 18 inches across. The
fronds are densely plicate, usually orbicular, but sometimes partly sub-
lanceolate; on detachment they become very irregular, but, owing to
spring-tides flooding the pools, it is difficult to be certain as to the origin
of free-swimming plants,

Clare Islund Survey—Marine Algae. 15 107

No. 91.

This well-marked plant occurs abundantly at the bottom of the hill-side
streams which flow into Achill Sound and Bellacragher Bay. It grows
attached to stones or other algae such as J” ceranoides, and though flooded
by every tide, it is for the greater part of the day immersed in fresh water.
A certain amount of growth occurs above the average high-water line; and
this is bathed in salt water at spring tides; but the plants are small, and the
growth very poor, compared with that of half-tide level. he lower limit is
at or slightly above low-water mark. Monostroma gives the stony beds of
the Bellacragher torrents a deep green colour in spring; but in other streams
(eg. to the north of Achill Bridge) the beds are muddy, and the alga
occurs only on the stone fords or where there is good means of attachment.
The growth is found in spring, summer, and autumn; in February,
also, a certain amount was visible. The maximum is reached in April and
May, at which season it extends to the stones and Fuci on the flanks of the
streams (see also p. 87).

The plants themselves are of a deep green colour, growing in rosettes
or dense tufts, regularly orbicular at first, but becoming more or less lobed
or even lanceolate later. They are usually 5-8 cm. across; but lobed
specimens reach a length of 15-18 em. The thallus is thin, that of the
adult plant seldom measuring more than 20-25 thick, and the cells
small, about 10-15 x 6, im section; but in young plants they are often
larger. It adheres very well to paper, even in the dry air of the herbarium.
The plant has only been found attached, as detached specimens are swept
down by the stream and carried away; in a free state, it would probably
reach a larger size. .

With regard to affinities, the plant agrees in structure with
Thuret’s J. Jlaceratwm; but he describes this as floating in ditches
with Obione. From J/. orbiculare, so common near Belclare, it differs
in its smaller size and thinner frond; but it is possible that this is
due to its peculiar habitat. On the other hand, the plant may be regarded
as a small attached form of MZ. latissimwm, or as a distinct species peculiar
to the situation referred to.

No. 95 (= IV. crepidinum Farlow ?), pane =

The second species left unnamed occurs on the banks of the streams

on the sandy shore at Mulranny, and at the mouth of the Bunowen at

Louisburgh. It is attached to the stems of Ascophyllum and /. vesiculosus

(especially on the under branches), but is also found on the stones and rocks

covered by these algae, and occasionally in the open. The plants ave always
02

15 108 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

uncovered during low-tide, and have not been noted in pools; thus, though
swept with a considerable amount of brackish water on the ebb-tide, its
habitat differs considerably from that of the last species. It is not abundant,
but has been found, with the exception of the February visit, each time the
localities have been searched.

When young, the plants are more or less orbicular, but soon become
deeply divided and very irregular. They occur in small clusters and are of
medium size, an average specimen being 10-12 cm. in length: a few larger
fronds were found floating in pools; but it was not quite certain if they
were detached from this species or from Jf. orbiewlaris. The thallus is usually
about 30 thick; and, unless growing in deep shade, is of a very pale colour
(cf. No. 91).

The agreement with MZ. crepidinum is, in deeply-cut angular specimens,
fairly close; but, in others, it is less marked, the fronds being large and
irregular. The American specimens in the Kew Herbarium adhere very
tightly to paper, which is not the case with any of the Clew Bay material.
The lobed fronds appear to separate it from being a marine form of
MW. orbicularis.

Enteromorpha paradoxa var. tenuissima (Kiitz.), Batt. _

A few specimens of this beautiful species were found washed ashore at
Old Head (August, 1911). Though in poor condition, they are without doubt
referable to the plant named #. Hopkirkii by McCalla. The small chromato-
phores, and the monosiphonous ultimate ramulae, separate it from the majority
of the richly-branched species; and its extreme delicacy distinguishes it from
£. erecta Hook. The plant has suffered much at the hands of systematists,
and its position will probably continue uncertain till the genus is thoroughly
revised. I have followed Batters {without investigating the point) who has
united it with Kiitzing’s Z. tenuissima, which he regards as a variety of that
author's £. paradoxa.

Ulva Lactuea L.

For recent work on the biology and ecology of Ulva, and especially its
growth in polluted waters, see Reports to the Sewage Commission (Letts and
Richards “11; Cotton 114). An account of the structure of the basal disk
has also been published recently by Miss Delf (712).

In the pure waters of Clare Island the plant is one of the most abundant
species in the more sheltered rock-pools during summer and autumn. It
is frequent on rocks also at Portlea and at Old Head; but in none of these
localities does it attain a great size. Large specimens may be dredged in

Clare Island Survey— Marine Alyae. 15 109

Clew Bay, where the water is quiet and muddy ; but here it is local, and not
generally distributed. On the bridge near Murrisk it was noted attached to
mussels, as at Belfast and Southampton.

ULOTHRIX.

The species of Ulothrix were kindly determined by Dr. N. Wille. Two
new species are added to the British flora, but one of these may represent the
plant named by Batters U. wmplexa.

U. flacca Thur.

Common on the flat sheltered shore of the mainland, but not found on
Clare Island, the plant of exposed coasts being now regarded as a distinct
species—viz., U. pseudoflacca Wille.

On my February visit especially, U. jlacew was found in thin, felt-like
masses, just below high-water line, on the muddy shores of Clew Bay and
Achill Island. The filaments usually measured 40-50 diam. ; and the cells
contained a large ring-like chromatophore with 4-6 pyrenoids. U. flacca is
not listed in the “Synopsis,” but Mr. Adams tells me that the plant was
included as a synonym of Urospore isogona (see Urospora mirabilis),

U. consociata Wille.

Apparently common in the district during winter and spring. It was
found on boulders near high-water line at Portlea, and was abundant at
Roonah in similar positions during February. Collins (09, p. 186) designates
this species U. lactevirens (Kiitz.) Collins.

U. pseudoflacca Wille.

Not previously recorded for the British Isles, though doubtless passed
over as U. flacea. On Clare Island it is the dominant species of the Bangia-
Ulothrix-Urospora association, and is also frequent as an epiphyte on various
algae, especially the stems of Fucus vesiculosus. On Alnahaskilla it formed a
dense and tangled coating on Lichina pyymaea.

U. subflaccida Wille.

To this species a very slender plant, found-on muddy stones near high-tide
level, is referred by Wille. The filaments are only 7-10 w diam, and-possess
band-like chromatophores, with one- pyrenoid... From the-deseription- given
by Batters (89, p. 35) it appears probable that it is the plant referred by him
to U. impleaa Kiitz.; but Professor-Wile informs me that-it is quite impossible,
from the meagre description, to determine the identity of Kiitzing’s species.

Bunowen River and Achill Sound, February; 1911

15 110 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Urospora mirabilis Aresch. (= U. isogonu, Batt., (02, p. 14.)

This is the common species on Clare Island, only a few filaments doubtfully
referable to U. Wormskioldiw being found in addition. The combination
proposed by Batters is questionable. No type of Conferva isogona Eng. Bot.,
can be found; and even if it could, it is improbable that its specific identity
could be recognized. The present plant was confused, in the older Irish
records, with Ulothria flacca.

Chaetomorpha litorea Harv.

Some sinall pieces of a Chaetomorpha collected at Mulranny appear to
belong to this species. The cells are 90-110 p diam., and 1-14 times as
long, and rather thick-walled. Carmichael’s Appin gathering is not to be found
at Kew, and consequently Wyatt Exsicce., No. 220, must be regarded as the
type (see “ Phye. Brit.” Pl. 335). It is doubtful if the species is not merely
a slender form of C. dinwm.

C. linum Kiitz.

Adams records C. dinwm in (?08), but excludes it in (10). In the second
paper it was regarded as a synonym of C. crassa; but as it is most unlikely
that all the Irish records of this common plant could be referable to that
species, | have not considered the Clew Bay gatherings as an addition to the
Ivish flora.

Rhizoclonium Kerneri Stockm. f. endozoica Wille.

This addition to the flora of the British Isles appears to be not uncommon
in the west of Iveland, being found on several occasions during the Survey.
It is probably general on our shores, but its curious’ habitat—within the
tissues of the sponge Halichondria panicea—doubtless accounts for its being
overlooked.

The first specimens were collected under the bridge at Achill Sound,
where patches of sponge of a deep green colour were noted. The latter were
found to contain algal filaments which agreed with Wille’s description of
R. Kerneri f. endozorca that had just been published (10, p. 291). Specimens
were forwarded to Dr. Wille, who confirmed the point, and added, “Es ist
doch sehr zweifelhaft ob die Alge zu &. Kerneri gehort, aber ich habe keine
sichere .Vermehrungsorgane gefunden, und mochte -deshalb vorlaufig . nicht
eine neue Gattung aufstellen.” The alga was found later in sheets of
Halichondria in the caves near the lighthouse on Clare Island, and was noted
on both subsequent visits to Achill Sound, but in each case the specimens
were sterile, so that no fresh light on the affinities of the alga could be
gained. A curious bacte1ium-like plant living in the sponge Z'erpios fugax is
recorded on p. 102 (foot-note).

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 111

Cladophora prolifera Kiitz.

One of the interesting additions to the Irish flora, and found on The
Bills rocks only. It is not uncommon on various coasts of southern Europe,
and a single record exists for the British Isles, the plant having been washed
ashore in profusion at Weymouth in November, 1884 and 1885 (see Holmes,
“ Ale. Brit. Rar.,” No. 32). The Ivish specimens were found in rock-pools on
the shady side of the islets (July, 1910).

C. flexuosa Harv.

The plant referred to this species was collected in pools under the shade
of boulders in Clare Island in July, 1910. It agrees very closely with the
specimens in “ Aleae Danmonienses” (No. 227), on which the species was
founded, though it is open to question whether the plant is not-a form of some
other species,

C. Rudolphiana Harv.

This species, though rare in England and Scotland, is,as noted by Harvey,
abundant on the west of Ireland. Itis Conferva Kaneana of McCalla (« Algae
Hibernicae ”). The Clew Bay specimens agree well with Harvey’s figure and
description, and are undoubtedly the same as his plants; but whether they are
identical with C. Rudolphiana, as understood on the Continent and in America,
is not certain. (See “ Phye. Brit.,” Pl. lxxxvi.)

C. corynarthra Kiitz., var. spinescens Batt. (00, p. 370).

A curious plant, which appears to agree with variety spinescens of this
little-known species, was found amongst stones and damp soil near high-
water mark at the Mulranny end of Bellacragher Bay. Batters’ specimens
were collected at Roundstone, and occurred amongst the roots of Zostera.
The Mulranny habitat is a remarkable one, the more so as the plant appeared
to be confined to the stone-area referred to.

C. arcta Kiitz.

The name C. arcta is used here in its wide sense, and includes several
other so-called species. Ijellmann’s work, though useful, left things in a
most confused state. A point which has been largely overlooked is that the
original C. arcta im its best-known and typical forms has hooked branches,
though these are not so numerous as in some of the recently proposed species.
Many of Miss Hutchins’ Bantry Bay specimens (on which the species was
founded by Dillwyn) exist at Kew; and the plant is common in England and
Treland. Hooked branches are always present. In certain forms (especially
those in the north of Britain) the growth is less dense and the recurved

15 112 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

branches are more numerous. These are inseparable from Acrosiphonia
albescens Kjellm., and A. incurva Kjellm., which Borgesen found so abundantly
in the Faerées. C. Traillii Batters is also hardly distinct from (@. arcta. All
these forms appear to exist on Clare Island; but they pass imperceptibly
into one another, The species vary greatly with age, and with habitat, so
that for a satisfactory revision it is essential that much time tbe spent in
field work.

Derbesia marina Kjellm.

Two patches of this plant were found—(1) in a cave near Portlea, and
(2) on the dark under-side of a slab, at Kinnacorra, attached to Halichondria
panicea. In the latter case the alga formed tufts about 1 em. high of a pale
green colour. At the base there is a mass of creeping filaments, and from
these spring upright shoots with numerous lateral branches coming off at an
acute angle. The latter are much more slender than in the Finmark and
Faeréese plants, being only 20-30u diam., but they agree in possessing the
short cells at the base.

The cave-specimens (which grew in or at the margins of shallow pools)
were much less regular in growth, the branches springing from the main
filaments at various angles, but they agreed in size and in presence of ‘the
short cells. The matted growth at the base is more copious and the upright
filaments are shorter than in the plants from the open. Sporangia were
found on the caye-specimens only. These were few in number and hardly
mature; the largest measured 120-65, which is smaller than those recorded
previously.

Kjellmann described D. marina (Lyngb.) in full ;.and Borgesen in dealing
with its distribution records the plant from Lerwick (’02, p. 520, ’03, p. 303).
Up to the present this has been the only certain record for the British Isles.
It appears probable from the Portlea specimens that Crouan’s D. repens may
be a form of the present species.

Vaucheria Thuretii Woron.

This species occurs half-buried in the mud on the lowest part of the shore ;
and it covers wide areas of the mud-flats in Clew Bay and Achill Sound (north
end). It is distinguished by numerous small sessile antheridia found in the
neighbourhood of each oogonium and on the same filament. At times the
growth is so covered with mud as to be hardly visible, but even. in this
state it provides, on. washing, excellent fruiting material. Found in fruit,
May, July, September, at Annagh- Island, Mulranny, and Achill Sound. . (See
p, 64.)

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 115

Vaucheria coronata Nordst.

Easily recognized when in fruit by the feeundation-tubes which crown
the oogonia. It occurs on the upper parts of muddy shores in which it forms
beautiful velvet-like sheets of a deep green colour. It is common at Louis-
burgh (Bunowen River), Annagh Island, and Mulranny, and was found in
spring, summer, and autumn.

V. litorea Agardh.

Common on the muddy shores of the inner part of Clew Bay. It is
monoecious, and fruits freely, Belclare material showing abundance of ripe
oogonia in May,1911. The latter are subglobose, and borne on the extremity
of straight or recurved branches which in many cases appear to represent the
main shoot, indicating that the branching is of a sympodial nature.

Codium amphibium Moore.

This rare species was found on a ledge at the mouth of a cave on Clare
Island (1909 and 1911). In 1909 its identity was doubted, as it appeared
possible that the specimens represented a crop of young plants of C. tomentoswm.
But in. August, 1911, a much more characteristic growth was found in the
same cave, the sheet measuring some 15 x 9 inches. A passing shower proved
fortunate in showing that the patch occurred in a spot where rain dripped
from the roof, which confirmed its claim to be amphibious.

A special search for the plant was made at Roundstone (from whence
it was described in 1845) during September, 1911, but without success. The
amount of suitable ground in the neighbourhood is large, and though not
discovered in a one-hour search, it is quite possible that it still exists.

In the Clare Island specimens, the fronds are 5-8 mm. high, and 1°5-2 mm.
thick ; the full-grown utricles are clavate and thin at the apex ; they measure,
on the average, 500 150m. The creeping filaments forming the effused
stratum at the base are freely branched, somewhat irregular, and contain much
chlorophyll; they vary from 30-50 u in thickness. Though a large number of
fronds were examined, no fertile utricles were found. Outside Ireland,
C. amphibium has been recorded from Cornwall and the Isle of Man.

C. tomentosum Stackh.

As great difficulties exist in many countries with regard to the limitations
of C. tomentosum, a full description is here inserted. The species varies
considerably, and has been recorded from all parts of the world; but as it was
originally described from an English specimen, the British plants may be
regarded as typical.

R.I.4. PROC., VOL. XXXI. P 15

15 114 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Description—Plants rather slender, much branched, 9-15 inches high as
a pool plant, 2-23 feet when growing in deep water. Colour dark green.
Fronds slender, 3-4 mm. thick, cyclindrical, often slightly flattened at the
axils, dichotomous; surface often very tomentose, becoming smooth with
age. Utricles cylindrical, small, 500-650u long, by 120-170 (rarely to 220,)
wide, apex usually distinctly thickened, blunt; smaller utricles sometimes
pointed, but never mucronate. Gametangia (2) small, 200-250 x 40-70n; —
gametes 20-22 x 10-12u.

Habitat.—On rocks near low-watermark usually semi-exposed, or in deep
or shady rock-pools ; saxicolous or epiphytic: also in the sub-littoral region,
often on stipes of Laminaria Cloustoni.

Season.—All the year round; many plants reaching maximum size in winter.

In comparison with many localities on the south and east of England,
C. tomentosum is common in the west of Ireland. Very large plants were noted
in February, both in pools and from deep water. One specimen on Laminaria
Cloustoni measured a yard in length. In most cases the fronds are cylindrical,
but in some there is a marked flattening, especially in specimens washed
ashore from the sub-littoral region.

The chief points of distinction between the present species and
C. mucronatum are (1) the slender branches (3-4 mm. thick), and (2) the
small utricles (500-650 long) (ef. figures 1-2 and 3-5, Plate 8). Further,
C. tomentosum does not assume a light green colour when growing in sunlight,
and it apparently reaches its maximum size during winter, at which season
C. mucronatum appears to be almost absent. The utricles moreover are often
thickened, but never mucronate. Both species are more or less tomentose,
but C. tomentosum more often so than C. mucronatum.

C. mucronatum var. atlanticum var. nov. (Plates VII and VIII, figs. 3-5).

Plants robust, slightly branched, usually 6-9 inches high, rarely forming
large tufts 12-18 inches high, and much branched from below. Colour deep
green, bright green when growing in sunlight (due to the presence of bubbles
between utricles). Fronds robust, 5-7 mm. thick, entirely cylindrical (not
flattened below axils), dichotomous or dichotomously fastigiate, surface smooth
or slightly tomentose when young. Utricles very large, cylindrical or slightly
clavate, 800-1000n long by 250-300 wide, apex thin-walled, surmounted in
the younger parts of the frond by a small, sharp or blunt mucro, in the older
parts mucronate utricles often absent. Gametangia (2) large, 300-400 x
80-120n.

‘Var. atlanticum. Utriculi parte frondis adultiore laeyes vel mucrono breyissime acuto aut obtugo
instructi, parte juniore mucronati.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 115

Habitat—Sunny rock-pools, common; rocks near low-water or shallow

sub-littoral region, rare.

Season.—Spring to autumn. (Absent in winter ?)

Distribution —IkELAND, Co. Antrim (Giant's Causeway), Co. Donegal
(Bundoran), Co. Mayo (Achill, Clare Island, Roonah Point, Old Head,
Bellacragher Bay), Co. Galway (Dog’s Bay), Co. Clare (Kilkee), Co.
Cork (Bantry Bay, one spec. in Herb. Univ. Cambridge).

SCOTLAND, Ayrshire (Ballantrae, Herb. Ball, Dublin), Bute (Cumbrae,
Herb. Batters), Orkney (Herb. Harvey, Holmes), Iona (Herb. Greville).
ISLE OF MAN (Port Erin, frequent in pools).
Hxsice.—C. elongatum, Ag., Holmes, “ Algae Rariores,” no. 282.
Distinguished from C. tomentoswm by its more robust fronds, and the very
much larger utricles which are often mucronate. The degree of mucronation
is variable in different specimens, and also in different parts of the same
specimen. In some individuals it is marked throughout the entire plant, in
others in the younger parts only, whilst in a few cases it is absent except in
the tips of the branches and in proliferations. In the latter mucronation is
often very marked indeed.

The correct determination of this plant gives an additional species of
Codium to the continent of Europe. Entirely absent from England, and also,
as far as can be ascertained, from France and the Mediterranean, yet abundant
on parts of the west of Ireland and known to occur in the Isle of Man and
Scotland, it is to be regarded as one of the most interesting of the Clare Island
discoveries. Its distinct field-characters, and the fact that it is no recent
introduction, makes its previous non-recognition the more remarkable.

Before discussing the question of the Irish plant, it may be well to refer
to C. mucronatum as generally understood. J. Agardh founded the species in
1886. He distinguished three varieties (with no definite typical form) as
follows :—

var. tasmanicum, ''asmania and Australia,
var. Novae Zelandiae, New Zealand.
var. californicwm, California.

The characteristic feature of the species was the mucronate utricle ; and the
varieties were based on the degree and form of mucronation. In addition to
the countries mentioned, the plant has since been recorded from South Africa,
Japan, and Cape Horn, but not from the North Atlantic.’ There is a plentiful
supply in herbaria of both Australian and Californian material. An examination

1 The Japanese and South African specimens require verification.

P2

15 116 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of the Kew specimens tends to support Agardh’s conclusion that all three
varieties belong to one species, and shows that in a general way mucronation
is correlated with robust habit and very large utricles (points not noted in
the original diagnosis). The Ivish plant does not agree exactly with any of
Agardh’s varieties. It resembles closely var. Novae Zelundiae, but differs in
the usually blunter mucro, and also in the occasional partial absence of this
structure.

Notes on the mucronation of the four varieties are given below, Agardh’s
description of the first three being amplified or shghtly emended.

var. tasmanicum.—Utricles in youngest parts tapering to a long sharp
point; in older parts broad, cylindrical, sharply mucronate. Distribution—
E. and §.E. Australia and Tasmania.

var. Novae Zelandiae—Utricles surmounted with a small, sharp mucro, in
both young and old parts of the fronds, but usually slightly more marked in
the younger. Distribution—New Zealand and E. Australia.

var. californicum.—Utricles surmounted with a long or short mucro, which,
though sharp at first, is usually blunt later, and sometimes apparently
articulate. Mucro very variable in length, sometimes partially absent.
Distribution—Pacific Coast of N. America, (Japan ?)

var. atlanticum.—Utricles in younger parts surmounted with a very short,
sharp or blunt mucro; in older parts utricles sometimes non-mucronate.
Distribution—N. and W. of Ireland, Isle of Man, $8.W. Scotland, Orkneys.

The above four varieties form an irregular series with regard to their
mucronation. Var. californicum, although in some respects intermediate
between fasmanicum and Novae Zelandiac, is apart from both in the bluntness,
articulation, and occasional great length of the mucro.

Identification of the Irish Plant.—It is certainly remarkable that so
conspicuous a species should have so long escaped attention. Known from
Kilkee, and plentiful in the pools at Dog’s Bay, Roundstone, it is almost
incredible that such acute observers as Harvey and McCalla should not have
detected it. A single specimen collected in Bantry Bay by Miss Hutchins
(Cambridge University Herbarium), and two collected in 1839 from the
Ayrshire coast (Dublin National Museum), show that it is no recent
introduction.

The plant attracted attention on the first day spent on Clare Island,
and on one or two occasions only was there the slightest difficulty in
distinguishing it at a glance from C. tomentosum. Its light-green colour in
summer, and preference for shallow sunny pools, cannot fail to strike the
collector, whilst its sturdy habit is also noteworthy. With the exception of
the last, these characters are not of course visible in the dried specimen, and

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 117

hence herbarium botanists have been off their guard, and have not detected
the microscopic characters which are even more striking and important.

Batters was the first to recognize the species as distinct. In 1897 he
received a specimen from Kilkee collected by E. George, and this he identified
with the Mediterranean C. elongatum. He did not apparently record the
discovery ; but in his “Catalogue” (1902) he lists C. elongatum, and gives
Kilkee as the only locality. On my return to London after the first Survey
visit, [examined Batters’ specimen. In external iform it agreed fairly well
with small specimens of (. clongatum, and possessed large utricles, as does
that species. The Clare Island gatherings differed somewhat: but it was
established beyond question that the two plants were specifically identical.
As there was no other European Codium to which the species could be
referred, the name C. clongatwm was accepted, though each subsequent visit
rendered the identification more questionable. Occasional mucronation was
noted; but this was regarded as an irregularity.

During the second season the matter was thoroughly investigated, and
herbarium material of all known species of Codium was examined. As a
result, the Irish plant was found to be constantly more or less mucronate,
and to resemble very closely the Australian plant C. mucronatum J. Ag. As
the position of this species in Europe would be extremely isolated, and since
the Irish plant was decidedly less mucronate than the Australian, it was at
first thought advisable to describe it asa new species. But on further investi-
gation it was found that, as far as could be ascertained from dried material,
it differed in no important particular from Agardh’s species, the Australian
gatherings varying largely amongst themselves as to degree of mucronation.
Further, the Ivish plant differed much less from var. Novae Zelandiae than does
that plant from var. fasmanicwm, whilst the Californian variety is far and
away more distinct. On the other hand, it was undesirable, in the present state
of our knowledge, to definitely link the European plant with var. Vovae
Zelandiae. I have therefore described it as a new variety, which may be
distinguished from the last-named by the small size of the mucro, and by its
partial absence in some cases,

The drawing on Plate VII shows its robust habit,! and on Plate VIII the
form and size of the utricles are depicted. ‘Though mucronation may at times
be absent, the greater length of the utricles, and the absence of apical
thickening, render these structures perfectly distinct from those of
C. tomentosum (cf. figs. 1-2 and 3-5),

‘Unless the specimen be carefully dried, the stout character of the branches may be lost, as is the
case in many herbarium specimens. On the other hand, it is possible by excessive pressure to
give specimens of C. tomentoswmn the appearance of C. mucronatum.

15 118 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Biology and Ecology—The bright green colour referred to is an optical
effect due to the presence of air-bubbles between the utricles. Two explanations
suggest themselves: (1) A physiological disturbance in the tissues due to the
heating of the pools, and (2) the retention of oxygen given off during
photosynthesis in bright sunlight. Plants growing in the shade are dark in
colour, as were those collected in February. But in April, when there is
sufficient sunlight to cause heating and rapid photosynthesis, the bright green
appearance is, on the south shore of Clare Island, everywhere in evidence. At
the Giant’s Causeway, however, where the coast faces north, a few plants
collected on May 1 were still dark. It is noteworthy that when C. tomentosum
grows in sunny pools, which is very rarely the case, no gas is found between
the utricles, and the normal colour is retained.

The habitat of our plantis well marked. It is distinctly an alga of sunny
rock-pools, being found at any level, but more commonly at a quarter to three-
quarter tide. It also occurs occasionally in the shallow sub-littoral region, or
on bare rocks near low-water mark, where, though liable to be exposed to the
air during the lowest tides, it may attain a large size. In this position it is dark
in colour. In a general way the plant is frequent on the south shore of Clare
Island; also at Roonah and Dog’s Bay. It prefers moderately open rocky
ground, but extends into Clew Bay as far as Old Head. Several plants were
noted in the quiet, brackish waters of Bellacragher Bay; but they were
decidedly unhealthy, the fronds being not only irregular in form, but
exhibiting abnormalities in microscopic structure. The utricles were for the
most part strongly mucronate, and showed a tendency to become irregularly
thickened at the apex.

C. mucronatum vax. atlanticum appears to be an annual. On the February
visit young plants only were observed, and large plants are prevalent in
summer, though a few sporelings may be found all the year round.
C. tomentosum, on the other hand, attains its maximum size in winter.

Distribution.—The remarkable feature with regard to distribution is not so
much its link with the Australian forms (our other species, C. tomentosum and
C. adhasrens, apparently occur in the Southern Hemisphere), but its isolated
position in Europe. It is not known from the Mediterranean or from North
Africa, and is apparently entirely absent from the remainder of the North
Atlantic. Dr. Marshal Howe, who has collected largely on the American
coasts and in the West Indies, writes in reply to an inquiry, that as far as
he is aware “no mucronate Codium has ever been found on the Atlantic
coast of North or South America, or on any of the outlying islands.”

The distribution in the British Isles is given on p. 115. No English or
French specimens have been found in any of the herbaria examined ; neither

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 119

have friends in England or Wales, to whom I have written, been able to detect
it on the shore. Professor Harvey Gibson kindly sent a plentiful supply from
the Isle of Man; and stated that the plant is frequent in the pools at Port
Erin (Bradda Head), but was not noted elsewhere. Judging from certain
statements in his memoir (00), it was probably established there in 1900.
The herbaria examined were as follows:—Kew, British Museum (including
Herb. Batters), Trinity College, Dublin (including Herb. Harvey), National
Museum, Dublin; Birmingham University (Herb. Holmes), and Cambridge
University ; Edinburgh University (including Herb. Greville).

Phoeococcus adnatus West, comb. nov.
(Gloeocystis adnata Niig., Batters Cat., p. 9).

Owing to the diffivulty in ascertaining the correct group to which it
belonged, this alga caused considerable trouble, and was ultimately
determined by Professor G. 8S. West. The plant was imperfectly described
by Cooke and Rabenhorst under the name of Gloeocystis adnata Nig., and was
listed thus by Batters (lL.¢.). It is recorded from four localities in England ; and
was added to the Irish flora during the Lambay Survey. In Clew Bay it is
common, forming a definite zone of dull-yellow colour on the vertical peat-
banks (p. 82). Professor West informs me that the species certainly belongs to
the Phoeophyceae, and should be removed from Gloeocystis to Phoeococeus ;
also that he hopes to publish shortly an account of the genus, and will
include observations on the minute structure of the present species.

Phoeostroma pustulatum Kuck.

The alga here referred to is the plant not uncommon on the tips of
Laminaria saccharina var. Phyllitis, and which was identified as P. pustulatum
by Batters (Journ. Bot., xxiii, p. 275). It appears to differ slightly from
Kuckuck’s plant; and further investigation may show that it should be
separated as a distinct species.

Litosiphon pusillus Harv.

Abundant on Chorda, Zostera, and not uncommon on other algae.
Occasionally it is found on rock amongst such species as MRhodochorton
floridulum.

Stictyosiphon adriaticus Kiitz.

A few specimens of this species, which is new to British flora, were
dredged in Clew Bay (in 3 fathoms) during May, 1911. They were noted as
unfamiliar on dredging, and were ultimately referred to Kjel/mania sorifera
Reinke. Dr, Kuckuck, to whom a fragment was sent, confirmed the

15 120 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

identification ; but tells me that Reinke’s plant is synonymous with Stictyosiphon
adriaticus. The branches in the latter alga, though usually regarded as
opposite, are frequently alternate. The distribution of S. adriaticus is
therefore much wider than was formerly thought, the plant being known not
only from the Mediterranean, but from Kiel (Reinke), Cherbourg (Kuekuck,
1904, in Vitt.), and Clew Bay (1911).

Dichosporangium Chordariae Wollny.
(Hedwigia, xxv, 1886, pp. 127-1380, tab. I, figs. 1-5, tab. ii, fig. 3.)

Though not previously detected in the British Isles, this minute endophyte
is probably frequent in the old fronds of Chordaria flagelliformis, as it is in
Heligoland. The Clare Island specimens were found in October, 1910, in
fronds that were also infested with Bulbocoleon. The plant is not related to
the original species of Dichosporangium (i.e. D. repens = Myriotrichia repens
Kuck.) ; and there appears to be no reason why it should not be placed in
Streblonema.

Sphacelaria britannica Sauv.

Professor Sauvageau, who kindly looked over the material of Sphacelaria,
confirms the determination of this species, which is not uncommon on
boulders in caves and in similar shady spots. ‘The plant was added to the list
of Irish algae by Batters, who found it at Lambay.

S. cirrhosa Ag.

Exceedingly common in ow’ area, extending from the shallow-littoral
1egion, through the littoral, and up to the highest rock-pools. It is usually:
epiphytic; but on semi-sheltered shores it forms an element in the sand-
association of the Rhodochorton floridulum. In this condition it has often
been mistaken in the past for S. radicans.

S. plumula Zan.
New to Ireland. A few specimens of this were dredged in 4 to 5 fathoms
in Clew Bay and at Roundstone. :

MYRIONEMACEAE.

The Myrionemaceae, as presented in our algological works, are in great
confusion, but it is hoped that the monograph, shortly to be published, will
bring about a measure of order. In the present report some of the results
are forestalled, alterations in nomenclature being made when necessary, and
an explanation given.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 121

Myrionema saxicolum Kuck.
Some very beautiful specimens of this rare plant were found on limpet-
shells on Clare Island in October, 1910. The sporangia and filaments were

slightly larger than in the Heligoland material, but Dr. Kuckuck tells me it
is undoubtedly the same species.

M. reptans Fosl.

(= Ectocarpus reptans Crouan; Ascocyclus reptans Reinke ; Phycocelis reptans
Kjellm.; Chilionema reptans Sauv.; Hecatonema reptans Sauv.; Heeatonema
Jfucicola, Kylin).

Though no one has thrown more light on the Myrionemaceae than
Professor Sauvageau, a few alterations with regard to his “Mémoire” have
been found necessary. The present plant proves to be a Myrionema, and not
a Chilionema ; hence Foslie’s name is restored. It is frequent in the south
of England on Fucus spp., but is apparently rare in Co. Mayo, having been
searched for on many occasions, but found once only. ;

Ulonema rhizophorum Fosl.

It is most probable that Ulonema is merely a form of JZ. strangulans
occurring on Dumontia, but some curious stages occasionally found make one
hesitate to reduce it till the point has been more thoroughly investigated.

Hecatonema reptans Kylin (= Letocarpus reptans Kjellm., non Crouan) ;
Streblonema reptans De Toni).

The full synonymy of this species and Jf. reptans will be given in the
Monograph. Suffice it to say here that I have examined Kjellman’s type, and
there is no doubt that it should be placed in Hecatonema. It is not
uncommon in our district on Cladophora sericea and C. rupestris.

H. speciosum Cotton, comb. nov. (= Myrionema speciosum Borg.; Heeatonema
diffusum Wylin).

The type-specimens of both these plants have been examined ; and it is
quite clear that H. digfuswm Kylin is an early stage of Borgesen’s W. speciosum.
Hecatonema is, however, the most suitable genus. The plant is common in
the British Isles, especially in spring, and was noted frequently in Clare
Tsland on a variety of plants during both the April trips.

Microspongium globosum Reinke (= Myrionema globosum Fosl.; Hecatonema
globosum Batters).

A difficult species to place; but when well grown it is evident that it is
most suitably located in the genus Microspongium.

R,J-A. PROC., VOL, XXXI. Q 15

15 122 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Ascacychus foecundus Cotton, comb. nov. (= Phycocelis foecunda Stromf. ;
A. sphaerophorus Sauv.; A. islandicus Jons.).

Phycocelis foeeunda has long bafiled algologists. The type-specimen shows
that it is an Ascocyclus, and identical with the plant so well described by
Sauvageau as A. sphaerophorus. The number of ascocysts varies greatly in
different specimens; but, as Strémfelt’s name suggests, the sporangia are
yery numerous. Common on Rhodymenia palmata.

A. Saccharinae sp. nov.' (Plate X, figs. 4-9). A. affinis Cotton, ‘07, non Sved.

Plants forming dark brown circular spots 1-2 mm. diam., rarely 5-4mm.
Discoid thallus monostromatic or partly diplostromatic, 8-l4y thick, not
parenchymatous in centre: margin rather irregular; radiating filaments
regular, 7-S » wide, by 1-2 times as long; chromatophores 4-6. Hairs
numerous, basal; sheath well developed; adult cells 60-80 x 7-8y.
Assimilating filaments few or absent, simple, cylindrical, 70-120 » long, thin-
walled ; cells, 7-9 u wide by 1-2 times as long. Ascocysts usually abundant,
appearing very early on conspicuous wide margin of basal thallus, sessile,
rarely stalked, thick-walled towards the base, typically clavate, 30-40 x 9-10
fon young plant sometimes globose, 15 x 20 x 10-14). Unilocular sporangia
unknown. Plurilocular sporangia very abundant, sessile, subsessile, or stalked,
lanceolate or elliptic-oblong, rather small, 30-40 x 10 m» (on old plants
30-55 x 10-12 u), 1-2 seriate; locali 4-6 uw high.

Habitat—On Laminaria saccharina.

Fruiting Season.—Early spring till late autumn.

Distribution.—England (Swanage, Weymouth, Plymouth), Ireland (Clare
Tsland).

This species, hitherto undescribed, is not uncommon on the south coast of
England, and was found more than once on Clare Island. It occurs on young
plants of Z. saccharina, usually on the decaying tips of the fronds, where it
forms dark-brown spots often intermixed with Myrionema Corunnae. It may,
however, also occur on older fronds, in which case it is usually larger and
often presents irregularities in microscopic structure.

The species most closely resembles A. foccundus, but it differs in the
typically clavate ascocysts, although in young plants there is a tendency for
these bodies to be subglobose. The spots formed are not so large, and the

1 Maculae minutae, fuscae 1-2 (raro —4) mm. diam. Discus unistratosus vel partim duostratosus,
cellulis cirea 12-16 x 6—8 u, organa verticalia emittens (1) pilos numerosos, ce!lulis 60 x 80 x 7-8 u,
(2) fila assimilantia rara, breya, 7—9 u lata, chromatophoris 4—6, minutis (3) sporangia plurilocularia
numerosissima, sessilia vel breviter aut interdum longius pedicellata, elliptico-oblongata, 1—2 seriata,
plerumque 30-40 x 10u.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 123

plant is usually smaller in all its parts, especially in the basal thallus. It
is, moreover, apparently to be found throughout the entire year, whereas
A. foecundus has a much shorter season.

Ralfsia verrucosa Aresch.

Very common in many parts of our district. In shallow rock-pools on
the upper part of the shore it forms large spreading sheets, which may com- -
pletely cover the bottom. At a lower level it usually occurs on bare rock.
Occasionally it was dredged from the shallow sub-littoral region.

Lithoderma faticens Aresch.

It is disappointing not to be able to record this plant (a species supposed
to be widely distributed) with certainty for Ireland. Many Lithoderma-
like plants were dredged in Clew Bay during summer, but these, as was
expected, proved sterile. The special February trip provided a large number
of specimens, some of which Dr. Kuckuck informs me can be doubtfully
referred to Lithoderma. A few of the specimens obtained proved to be Petro-
derma maculiforme, which shows the risk of naming these plants from
imperfect material.

Petroderma maculiforme Kuck.

A few specimens of this species(which is an addition to the British flora)
were detected by Dr. Kuckuck amongst material dredged in Clew Bay
during February. The plant resembles Lithoderma very closely in external
appearance, but differs in the character of sporangia and other minor points,

Spermatochnus paradoxus Kitz.

Extremely abundant during July and August in the low-littoral of Achill
Sound, Bellacragher Bay, and in the inner part of Clew Bay. It is epiphytic
on many of the larger algae, and forms large tangled masses a yard or more
square: in some of the channels of Achill Sound it is for a time com-
pletely dominant. In contrast to the present species Stdophora rhizodes is
comparatively rare.

Mesogloia lanosa Crn.

Several plants of this rare alga were dredged near the lighthouse in Clew
Bay during July, 1909. Its season is probably short, as it was not met with
in any subsequent dredgings.

M. Griffithsiana Grev.

It was very satisfactory to find during the last days of the field-work the
true M. Grifithsiania, since the specimens collected as this species in 1910

Q 2

15 124 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

proved to be Acrothriz mirabilis. The plants are indistinguishable in the
field, but with microscope the greater length of the peripheral filaments of
the present plant are at once noticeable. Found floating near Achill Bridge
and at Old Head, September, 1911.

Acrothrix mirabilis Kylin (07, p. 93).

The specimens on microscopic examination were at first determined as
Mesogloia neglecta Batters, with which they agree closely; butDr. Kuckuck
informs me that they are identical with A. mirabilis Kylin, authentic
material of which he has seen. Kylin’s genus is based on a good character,
and should be maintained ; but if the two plants are synonymous, Batters’
specific name should be employed, as he first detected and published the
species (Journ. Bot., 1906, p. 2). A difficulty, however, presents itself, since
the type of JZ. neglecta cannot be found in the Batters collection, and hence it
is impossible to re-examine the points in which the Clew Bay material differs
from the description. The discrepancies are trivial, but until we are certain
that all the Mesogloiae of our shores are known, it seems wiser to let JZ. neglecta
stand as a separate species, and not to link it with A. mirabilis.

The present plant bears a striking resemblance to JZ. Grifithsiana, and
Was assumed to be such on collecting. It is remarkable also that it was found
in practically the same localities. Four plants in all were taken, two at Old
Head and two at Achill Sound, July, 1910.

Leathesia crispa Harv.
A few specimens of Z. crispa were collected during the first trip to Clare
Island, but on no subsequent visit. In Journ. Bot., xlvi, p. 329, I have
dealt with the synonymy and distribution of this species.

Fucus ceranoides L.
Invariably present where fresh-water streams occur on sheltered shores.
(See pp. 83-88.)
F, spiralis L.

For remarks on the various forms assumed by this species see Fucaceae
associations (pp. 23 and 51). One variety, however, requires special notice.

Var. nanus Stackh.—In many spots in Achill Sound, the sheltered form
of var. nanvs is found growing on vertical peat-banks at high-water mark.
An unbroken series may at times be traced from the normal form. The
plants measure 1-4 inches in length, are slightly (1-3 times) branched, and
fruit freely at the proper season. In many of the receptacles examined
the oogonia were unripe (May); but they appeared to be perfectly healthy

Clare island Survey—Marine Algue. 15 125

and not abortive. Occasionally specimens only 1 inch high were observed
in fruit. In channels on the salt-marsh, the same plant occurs; but it is
not so easily traceable to the normal /. spiralis, and is liable to be confused
with FP. vesiculosus var. balticus, It may be distinguished from that plant by
its slightly wider, regularly bifurcating fronds, over which the cryptostomata
are evenly distributed, and by its scattered habit. The fronds, moreover,
are always fertile in summer; and their hermaphrodite conceptacles, with
projecting paraphyses, are very marked.

F. lutarius Kutz., which has lately been described with great care by
Sauvageau (08), agrees with / spiralis in possessing projecting paraphyses
—a character which strongly suggests that it may be a reduced salt-marsh
form of that species. In J. /utarius the conceptacles do not reach maturity,
and the eryptostomata are marginal. A difference in form, together with an
abundance of proliferating branches, is also noticeable; but this may be
caused by its peculiar habitat (mud-banks). Proliferating specimens of
F. spiralis var. nanus were frequently noted at Mulranny.

F. vesiculosus L.

See notes on Fucaceae association (pp. 23 and 51).

Var. evesiculosus, auct.—To var. evesiculosus auct. I refer the short non-
vesicled form of /. vesiculosus which is abundant on Clare Island. The name
is not altogether satisfactory ; but till the British Fuci have been studied and
described in greater detail, it appears the most suitable. The plant is
abundant on, and characteristic of, exposed coasts in west Iveland, and also
in south England. It is found likewise in the north of France, and is
probably similar to that recorded by Sauvageau, under the above name,
from north Spain (97). A non-vesicled form of /. vesiculosus is described
by Kylin for the exposed shores of west Sweden; but this variety, which he
identifies as compressus racemosus Kjellm., is, judging from specimens kindly
sent by him, a decidedly longer plant, of a much less sturdy habit.

Var. balticus J. Ag.—To this plant I have referred a dwarf Fucus
tolerably abundant in Clew Bay, which is intermediate in size between
Ff. vesiculosus var. volubilis (Huds.) and the very dwarf form described
below as var. muscoides.

Great confusion exists with regard to the identity and nomenclature
of these forms. The paper just published by Miss Baker (’12) clears
up the uncertainty as to & volubilis Huds. The many different forms
assumed by this plant on the salt-marshes of Essex and Norfolk are described
and illustrated; and I am indebted to Miss Baker for notes on the differences

15 126 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

between the Clew Bay and the East Anglian forms The specimens collected
by Ray at Chichester and referred to by Hudson in his original description
of F. volubilis (Fl. Angl., ii., 1778) are unknown; but there can be no doubt
that Miss Baker is correct in referring the twisted plant described by her
from Mersea Island and Blakeney to the Fucus volubilis of Goodenough
and Woodward (1797), and of Turner (“Synopsis,” 1802), who cite it from
Frambridge Ferry and Wells, respectively—localities in the immediate
neighbourhood of those she has investigated. Several Frambridge Ferry
specimens exist, moreover, in the British Museum.

The smaller forms of this same plant, F/ volubilis Hudson, have, on
the other hand, often been referred to F. vesiculosus var. balticus. At Mersea
Island, the dwarf forms are clearly linked by intermediates with the large
twisted forms; but in Clew Bay it is otherwise, large plants being entirely
absent. This being the case, I have thought it best to use the name baltieus,
which has already been employed for the Ivish plant (Harvey, Johnson,
Batters). At the same time the whole question of F. balticus requires
investigation, as it is highly probable that more than one plant is included
under that name. Svedelius (’01) shows that several dwarf Fuci occur in
the Swedish Baltic, all of which he regards as varieties of F. vesiculosus,
Before, therefore, the identity of our British plants can be settled, a careful
examination of Agardh’s plants and fresh gatherings if possible from the
original locality are required. When the dwarf forms are not connected by
intermediates with normal plants, there is great difficulty in ascertaining
from which species they are derived. The distribution of the cryptostomata
and the nature of the receptacles (if present) give the most hopeful clues,
whilst a careful study of the ecology of the plants should aid the elucidation.

In Clew Bay var. dalticus is usually found on the sides of narrow channels
and creeks on flat peaty areas. The flat surface of these areas is commonly
carpeted with var. muscoides, which grows densely crowded together, and is
of a short bushy habit. At the margins where there is more space, the plants
are longer and hang down. These marginal forms I refer to var. baltzcus.
The fronds are narrow, 5-4 inches long, slightly or not at all twisted, and
with cryptostomata for the most part marginal. They usually lie in the
channels, and are thus in contrast to the upright-growing muscoides. The
receptacles are small, seldom measuring more than 8 x 5mm. and often
less; they are dioecious, not markedly mucilaginous, with non-projecting
paraphyses. Male receptacles are more frequent than female, but both are

: F. volubilis is, without question, a curious salt-marsh variety of F. vesiculosus; and when the
systematic aspect of the British Fucaceae is next dealt with, it will have to be placed under that
species.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 127

rare; the oogonia appear to develop normally. The largest specimens of
var. balticus noted were found on a little piece of wet marsh at Leenane
(growing here on the flat as well as the vertical banks)—a fact which gives
support to the view that soft ground and a large amount of moisture favour
its development.

From the above it will be seen that the var. balticus of Clew Bay
approaches very closely to the smallest forms of var. volubilis as described by
Baker. At Mersea Island, however, receptacles are only found on the large
plants ; and the fronds are always much twisted. At Blakeney small plants
fruit; but the receptacles are much larger than in the Irish specimens. In
both these localities there ismuch mud ; and the plants are free, or more or
less imbedded. In Clew Bay the substratum consists of firm peat, and mud
is absent.

Var. muscoides, var. noy.,' Plate VI, figs. 1 and 2.—Plants very short,
fastigiately branched, densely crowded together, 5-6 em. long. Branches
cylindrical or compressed, 1-3mm. wide, not twisted, with marginal
cryptostomata. Receptacles very scarce, minute, 2-4 mm. diam., dioecious,
paraphyses not projecting.

Habitat.—On firm peat, near extreme high-water mark.

With some reluctance I describe this Fucus as a new variety of
F. vesiculosus. It approaches in form some of the Baltic filiform varieties of
this species; but it differs in its peculiar habitat,and appears to be worthy of
a special name. At the same time, though the evidence points to its being a
variety of F. vesiculosus, the fact is not proved. By giving it pro tem. specific
rank, complications in the future are less liable to occur; but this would
necessitate the record of an additional new species in the list of novelties;
whereas the plant is almost certainly merely a remarkable variety of an
already known plant.

As previously stated, var. muscoides is connected with the Clew Bay form
of var. balticus, of which it may be regarded as a very dwarf upright-growing
form with filiform branches. The plants are packed very closely together,
and form a dense mossy carpet, a feature which serves to distinguish the
present variety from the filiform plants found in the Baltic. In a general
way, the more closely packed the plants are, the smaller and more terete the
fronds. The eryptostomata are conspicuous, and are, of necessity, marginal.
The fastigiate branching is characteristic; but the branches are often very
irregularly produced, and a crop of lateral proliferations is not infrequent.

1 Frondes perpusillae, dense caespitosae, filiformae vel compressae, 5-6 cm. longae, 1-3 mm. latae,
eryptostomatibus conspicuis, receptaculis rarissimis, minutis, oyoideis 2-4 mm. latis. Ad terram
turfosam.

15 128 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Receptacles are only known in the wider forms of the plant; they are
unisexual, and apparently normal even in the smallest examples, ripe
antheridia being noted in a receptacle only 2x2 mm.

The chief reasons for regarding var. muscoides as a form of F' vesiculosus,
are the unisexual conceptacles and the fact that it is clearly linked with var.
balticus. It is true the specific identity of the latter is not quite certain;
but the nature of its conceptacles precludes the possibility of its being a form
of F, spiralis. The only other species with which var. balticus or var. muscotdes
could be connected is #. ceranoides, but as seen growing there is nothing
suggestive of any link with the dwarf forms of that plant. A hybrid origin is
possible, but scarcely probable, since var. muscoides occurs in profusion where
F’. ceranoides is completely absent. The principal objection to its being a
variety of F. vesiculosus is its elevation on the shore (above &. spiralis and
Pelvetia) ; but this, as pointed out in the ecological section, can be explained
by the high water-content of the substratum.

Ascophyllum nodosum var, Mackaii, comb. nov.

From the historical standpoint this is one of the most interesting of the
Trish seaweeds. 1t was first described from the Roundstone neighbourhood
by Dawson Turner in 1808 (“ Hist. Fue.,” Pl. 52), and is the earliest algal
record from that well-known locality. It still occurs in profusion at Round-
stone, being found in September, 1911, between the bridge and Ballinahinch.
The plant cannot be certified from any other station in Ireland, and, with the
exception of a few localities in W. Scotland, it is unknown elsewhere in the
British Isles. Turner’s remarks will, therefore, be of interest. He states :-—

‘For the present very interesting addition to the Catalogue of British Fuci
we are indebted to Mr. James Townsend Mackay, to whom I am also obliged for
the specimen here figured, and by whose name I have ventured to call it, as I find
no description of it in any preceding author, in memory of the services that he has
rendered to the botany of these islands, particularly by his discoveries in Ireland, the
south-west districts of which, a part hitherto least known to naturalists, he has more
than once, under the auspices of Dr. Scott, explored with extraordinary zeal and
suecess. It was in one of these excursions, in the summer of 1805, that he met
with the plant here figured, in a small creek at the upper end of Biztebui Bay,
near the hill of Cahil, Cunnamara, but nowhere else. He informs me that he
could not find a single specimen attached to the rocks, but it was all lying in loose
balls upon the shore, and in such quantity as to entirely cover that part of the
strand upon which it was thrown. With it was £. nodosus, which, though
produced in great abundance upon rocks in the neighbourhood, seemed to exist at
that place only in a similar manner, without being fixed to anything ; both of

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 129

them beg rolled: up. as if by the action of the waves, and in that state apparently
continued to grow, and throwing out from the root, which was in the centre, a
prodigious number of shoots in all directions, so as to give the thick and bushy
appearance above described.”

There can be no doubt that the present plant is merely a variety of
A, nodosum, and is comparable to the peculiar detached forms of Fucus and
Pelvetia which occur in other localities. (See Baker, ’12, p. 283, and Oliver in
Tansley, ‘11, p. 364.) Whether it originates in the manner described below
for var. scorpioides I was unable to decide, but it appears highly probable. No
intermediates between the detached form and the normal A, nodosum were
found, but there was an evident link with var. sconpioides, and certain specimens
were difficult to place. It is possible that the variety Muckaii arises only at
certain seasons of the year, in which case a prolonged stay in the locality
might be necessary in order to discover its origin.

The plants lie as loose densely branched tufts (up toa square yard in area)
on the flat sandy mud between patches of rock, and when the tide returns
they do not float, but become perfectly submerged. They appear to be seldom
disturbed by wave-action. Air-bladders are numerous, but very small. A
few tufts of Polysiphonia fastigiata were noted on some specimens, and also
on var. scorpioides; but on the whole this epiphyte was absent. Many quiet
land-locked areas exist in Achill Sound and Bellaeragher Bay; but no
examples of var. Mackaii were found, so that the Roundstone locality still
remains the only positive station in Ireland for the plant.’

Although C. Agardh, as early as 1824, reduced Fucus Mackaw to a variety
of F. nodosus, no one appears to have used the combination employed in the
present report. Of late years there has been a tendency to follow Haryey,
who regarded it as a distinct species. Holmes and Batters (90) removed the
plant to <Ascophyllum; and their name, A. Mackazi, has since come into
general use.

Var. scorpioides Hauck.—A few plants of this curious variety occurred in
some muddy areas in the inner part of Roundstone Bay intermixed with var,
Mackaw. They were more or less imbedded in the mud, and formed much
smaller tufts than the latter. Reinke’s explanation as to the origin of this
form in the brackish waters of the Baltic Sea is as follows :—Isolated floating
pieces of A. nodosum are washed in by currents from the more open Skagerack,
and come to rest in the quiet creeks, where they put forth numerous small
adventitious branches from the marginal cryptostomata of the thallus.

1 Miss Knowles kindly informs me that specimens labelled 4. Mackaii, collected in Larne and
Belfast Loughs by D. Moore and J. Doran respectively, exist in the Dublin Museum. There is,
however, some uncertainty as to both specimens, and though the districts have been fairly carefully
worked, other observers have not noted the plant.

R,I.A. PROC,, VOL. XXXI, R 18

15 130 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Through the growing out of such branches and the decay of the old fronds,
colonies of young plants arise, which lack a discoid base, the latter being only
produced by sporeling plants. The cylindrical form of the branches, the
absence of air-bladders, and the complete sterility are induced, according to
Reinke, by the low salt-content of the water; and he suggests that in less
brackish localities such floating shoots of A. nodosum might give rise to
A. Mackaii. (See Reinke, 89 and 92.)

Bifurcaria tuberculata Stackh.

It appears probable that the Roundstone neighbourhood is the northern
limit in the British Isles for this species. It occurs on the coast of southern
England, and is known in Ireland from the counties of Cork, Clare, and
Galway, being abundant in the last-named at Dog’s Bay. The pools of Clare
Tsland, and the more open parts of Clew Bay, which are eminently suited
for it, were carefully worked, yet not a single plant was observed.

Taonia atomaria J. Ag.

Dredged in Clew Bay, and washed ashore between Old Head and
Leckanvy (1909, 10, ’11). Frequent on the west coast and known as far north as
Bundoran (Johnson); on the east coast it has been collected at Wicklow
(Harvey).

Dictyopteris membranacea Batt. (= Haliseris polypodioides Ag.).

In contrast to Bifurcaria, an extension of distribution can be recorded for
this southern species, Roundstone Bay having hitherto been its northern
limit. Several specimens were dredged in Clew Bay by Mr. J. Adams, in
August, 1909; but the plant was not seen again during the Survey. The
specimens were large and strong; and the species is evidently quite at home
as far north as Co. Mayo.

Erythrotrichia Bertholdii Batters.
Useful notes on the genus Erythrotrichia will be found in the paper by
Batters, in which this species is described (00, p. 374). The cylindrical
filaments resemble those of Z. ciliaris (Carm.) Batt. (non Thur.) ; but the plant

is distinguished from that species by the absence of a basal disk.
Achill Sound, October, 1910, on old Zostera leaves.

E. investiens Born.

With slight hesitation I have referred a few odd filaments found at Old
Head to this little-known species. The plants fit no other species of the

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 131

genus, and agree well with the description given by Zanardini. The filaments
are bright rose in colour, rather thick (25-35, when sterile), and unbranched.
There is no true basal disk; but a few horizontal cells are developed at
the base, and the filaments occur in tufts, as shown in Zanardini’s figure ;
lateral mamillose protuberances as described by him are also present. The
specimens were found on Fucus (possibly attached to it), and agree well with
Haucke and Richter’s Exsicc., No. 655 (also on Fucus), which Batters suggests
should be referred to #. investiens rather than £, ciliaris (00, p. 374).

E. Welwitschii Batters.

This little-known and apparently very distinct species was found on limpet-
shells encrusted with Ralfsia verrucosa near low-water mark, in October, 1910.
The plant was originally described by Ruprecht as Cruoria (?) Welwitschit, and
the same specimens were later referred to by J. Agardh as Callithamnion
lepadicola. Batters (02) removed the plant to its right genus, and made the
new combination Lrythrotrichia Welwitschii. A portion of the Lisbon
gathering, collected by Welwitsch, exists at Kew, with which the Clare Island
specimens agree well.

The species appears to be confined to the thalli of Ralfsiae, and is worthy
of further study. Hitherto it has been recorded in the British Isles from
Swanage only; but it is probably widely distributed. When wet it is
inconspicuous ; but when the limpet-shells are becoming nearly dry, it shows
as a pale-pink felt.

Porphyra coccinea J. Ag.

Somewhat rare, and not previously recorded for Ireland. I noted it,
however, in Co. Antrim in May, 1910; and a specimen collected by Miss
Hutchins, from Bantry Bay, was found unnamed in the Kew collections.

P. umbilicalis Kiitz.

Var. umbilicalis J. Ag—The exposed Porphyra association, described on
p. 28, consists entirely of this form.

Var. laciniata Thur.—Abundant throughout the area, being saxicolous or
epiphytic, and occurring in the littoral and upper sub-littoral regions, and
also in pools. It is the variety which forms the Porphyra association of
sheltered localities. sete

Var. linearis Harv. (= P. linearis Grev. in. Batters “02, p. 56; see
Rosenvinge, 09, p. 61).—Unless the growth of the plants be watched from
month to month, P. linearis Grev. would never be taken to be the same
species as P. wnbilicalis Kiitz., especially as sporelings of the latter often

R2

15 132 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

develop directly into broad frondose thalli, I fully agree, however, with
Thuret and with Rosenvinge, who regard P. dinearis as a young and winter
form of P. umbilicalis, Observations made at Swanage, though not so
extensive as those of Rosenvinge, led to that conclusion. On exposed coasts
a very large proportion of the growth does not survive the spring. On the
more sheltered shores of Clew Bay the plant doubtless develops, as it does at
Swanage, into var. /aciniata. A typical band of P. linearis was, however, only
observed on the exposed parts of the Clare Island district.

CHANTRANSIA.

The species of this genus have been very erroneously named in the past ;
and it is highly satisfactory to have had the Survey material named by
Dr, Rosenvinge. The following account is derived from his report :—

The epiphytic covering of Chantransia, which is conspicuous on many
algae on Clare Island, appears to consist almost entirely of various varieties
of C. virgatula. In sheltered localities (e.g. Clew Bay and Achill Sound)
the same species is abundant; and C.. Thuretii also is exceedingly common.
It will be noted that in his work on the Danish species (’09) Rosenvinge
places C, seeundata and C. lucurians (which are given specific rank by Batters
(‘02)) as varieties of C. virgatula.

C. virgatula Thur.

Var. luxurians (J. Ag.) Rosenv.—Common and very conspicuous on
Ceramium spp. in rock-pools at Kinnacorra and Portlea (Clare Island), On
the mainland it was found on Gracilaria and Zostera dredged in shallow
water. New to Ireland.

Var. tetrica Roseny.—This variety, which is also new to Ireland, occurred
on Codium tomentosum on Clare Island, and on Gracilaria at Old Head. It is.
distinguished by the presence of tetraspores on short opposite branches.

Var. secundata (Lyngb.) Rosenv.—Exceedingly abundant in all parts of
the Survey area. On Clare Island it is the form which gives the pink colour
to the growth of Porphyra on exposed rocks; and it is also found on the
Rhodymenia and the Lawrencia pinnatifida communities. The plant moreover
covers Codium and Ceramium spp. in pools, and can endure a certain amount
of fresh water, being found in the spray of the waterfall at Portlea. On the
sheltered mainland it is common on many algae, both in the littoral and
sub-lititoral regions. ‘
©. Thuretii (Born:) Kylin.

Though a new record for the British Isles, this species is common 1h
Britain, and has doubtless been passed over as C. Daviesti. It is distinguished

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algue. 15 133

from that plant by its more slender filaments, which are composed of very
long cells, and by the occasional ‘occurrence of. sexual reproduction ; but
Rosenvinge remarks that he is not yet certain if the two are sufficiently
distinct to be kept apart. ©. Thuwretii appears to be a species of quiet waters,
being abundant in Clew Bay and Achill Sound, but only collected once on
Clare Island and then in pools at Portlea. It is especially plentiful on Zostera,
and is most conspicuous in late summer.

C. endozoica. Darb.

A species of Aleyonidium washed ashore at Old Head was infected with a
Chantransia apparently referable to this species. Dr. Rosenvinge writes that
the parts are smaller, and that the fertile branches are less branched than in
Darbishire’s plant.

C. Alariae Jons.

Noted on several occasions on old fronds of Alaria which had been washed

ashore. It extends at times over a very considerable area of the lamina.

Nemalion elminthoides (Velley) Batters.

Velley’s figure (in Withering, “ Bot. Arrang.,” ed. 2, vol. iii, p. 255, pl. xvii,
1792) is unmistakable, and it is confirmed ii his specimen in Herb. Kew ;
his name, therefore, is rightly adopted by Batters in favour of the more familiar
NV. lubricum, 1830. Velley’s plants were collected at Portland Bull in (or
previous to) 1792, and it was interesting to observe in July, 1911, that the
plant still grows there in profusion.

_A more difficult matter is the separation of this species from the w ell-
known N. multifidum, described by Weber and Mohr in 1804. Ecological
observations on Clare Island (p. 37) and elsewhere increase the suspicion that
the two may be forms of one species; but the point requires detailed study.
Interesting notes on the protonemoid stage of Nemalion and its biology are
given by Chester (Bot. Gaz., xxi, p. 340) and by Rosenvinge (’09, p. 144).

Scinaia furcellata Bivona.

Found during the first year of the Survey only by J. Adams whilst
dredging off Mulranny in about 7 fathoms Geers eee Distribution in
Clew BBEy probably local. a5

Gelidium aculeatum Batt. (= G. corneum var. aculeatum Grev.). -

Having no personal knowledge of the value of characters in Gelidium, I
follow Batters, who raises this plant to specific rank. It thus figures as an

15 134 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

addition to the Irish flora; but it is not unlikely that it has often been
collected as a variety of G. cornewm, though no record of the fact has been
found. cha, are

Phyllophora Brodiaei J. Ag.

A boreal species. Not previously collected on the west coast, but known
from the north of Ireland, Scotland, and northern England...

All the specimens labelled P. Brodiaet from the south of England i in ‘ike
Kew and British Museum herbaria are misnamed, being forms either of
P. palmettoides or P. rubens, and there is little doubt that the same applies to
other south coast records (cf. Batters, 02, p. 65).

Callymenia Larterae Holmes, Journ. Bot., ’07, p. 86.

Several plants washed ashore on -Clare Island in October, 1910, have
been determined by Mr. Holmes as belonging to this species. The plant is
characterized by the tapering base of the frond and its repeated proliferous
branching. It has doubtless been overlooked in the past as a variety of
C. renifornus.

Gracilaria confervoides var. procerrima (Turn.) Batt.

: Amongst the many forms assumed by this species, this variety is one of
the most distinct. It is doubtless the same as Harvey’s variety Jongissima, of
which he remarks: “Var, (3 is often 6 feet long, and quite simple, or with a
few short lateral ramulae. Its peculiarities appear to result from its place of
growth (Charlestown Harbour, Rhode Island), aud intermediate forms connect
it with the ordinary much-branched varieties.” The Irish species confirm,
Harvey’s opinion. They were dredged in Clew Bay, though some _ fine
specimens 5 feet long were gathered by hand in the channels in Achill Sound.
The amount of branching varies cc msiderably ; but the short subulate
ramulae ave almost constant. Probably common in Ireland, but no record
found.

Nitophyllum uncinatum J. Ag.

This species is usually regarded as synonymous with .. duccratum var.
uncinatum—an error which is due to the citation of a false synonym in the
original description. The plant was described by J. Agardh in 1852. “He
states that it is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and was characterized
by the possession of acuminate fronds and of occasional uncinate branches ;
the sori were produced immediately behind the apex of special short branches.
Untortunately, Agardh quoted WV. daceratum var. uncinatum, which is ‘a

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 135

perfectly distinct plant, as a synonym. I have already pointed out this
confusion. (Kew Bull. 1909, p. 242); but the following notes, based on
observations at Plymouth and in Clew Bay, deal with the subject in greater
detail. ae a

Taking first WV. laceratum, we find that the variety wneinatwm is directly
connected, with the ordinary forms of this common plant. NV. laceratum is
(with very rare exceptions) the only species found in rock-pools on open shores,
and, though it exhibits great variety of form, there is usually no difficulty in the
specific identity of the plant, the iridescent fronds of a pale brick-red or dull
purplish-red colour being very characteristic. The uncinate form is not
uncommon in pools, being found from early summer till autumn; it appears
to be connected with a more or less vertical habit and contact with other algae,
being usually found clinging to Corallina. The hooks may be few or numerous,
and terminal or apparently lateral. ‘he form of the frond is very variable,
often lobed or bluntly pinnate, but never possessing the definitely acuminate
branches of WV. wncinatum (Plate X, fig. 11).

When UW. laceratum occurs in the sub-littoral (1-7 fathoms), the form of
the thallus differs somewhat, being longer and more or less regularly
dichotomous; but the iridescence and characteristic dull colour are maintained.
Uncinate specimens occasionally occur; but, except for increased length and
greater regularity, they differ little from the rock-pool form. They are clearly
connected with the normal plant. Tetrasporic sori are frequent ; these are
found, as is characteristic of the species, either in special proliferations or along
the margins of the fronds. :

N. uncinatum J. Ag. is, on the other hand, a plant confined to the sub-
littoral region, and, though abundant in Clew Bay, is less generally distributed
and apparently very local. It is found in late summer and autumn, being
washed ashore in profusion in August, September, and October, in 1909, 1911,
and 1910 respectively. It is distinguishable at once by its deep crimson or
erimson-lake colour, and lack of iridescence. Most often it is attached to the
stems of Laminaria Cloustoni; but it is found on various stiff algae such as
Cystoseira, Gracilaria, etc., and by means of its hooked branches is entangled
with loose weeds of all kinds. The acuminate character of the branches is
always noticeable, but is most marked in young plants. The hooks are formed
at the termination of the shoots, but not infrequently new branches grow out
below the apex and take on the function of the main shoot so that the growth
is sympodial (Plate X, fig. 10). The same course of development probably.
occurs in NV. laceratwm var. uncinatum ; but if this be the case, the sympodial:
growth is more perfect, as the uncinate branches appear merely as small lateral
hooks (Plate X, fig. 11). Cystocarps are unknown in N, uneinatum, but

15 136 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tetrasporic sori are not infrequent, being produced in special short branches.
The plant is very closely allied to ¥. reptans Crn.; and it is doubtftl whether
they are really distinct. I have not had the opportunity of examining a good
series of the latter plant. For an account of the anatomy and physiology of
algae with uncinate branches see Nordhausen (’99).

To sum up, the deep colour, lack of iridescence, and acuminate branches
clearly mark this species, whilst its sub-littoral habit and obviously terminal
hooks also aid in separating it from the uncinate form of NV. laceratum. It is,
however, allied to that species; and they have this- feature in common, that
they are both liable to be infected with the parasite Gonimophyllum.

Bonnemaisonia hamifera Hariot.

The discovery of Bonnemaisonia hamifera on the west of Ireland raises
doubts as to whether this alga is not after all indigenous to Europe. Originally
described from Japan, it has been usually regarded as a plant introduced to
the south coast of England. It was collected by T. H. Buffham at
Falmouth in 1895, and was subsequently found at Torquay and Shanklin
(Isle of Wight). The Rey. H. Boyden tells me he has gathered it within the
last few years at several widely separated localities in Cornwall (West
Looe, Falmouth, and Penzance); and I have noted it for some five or six
seasons in rock-pools at Weymouth. Chalon lists it from Cherbourg on the
other side of the Channel, but it is not known elsewhere in Europe. It is
locally frequent, but never abundant.

With regard to Clare Island it was with some astonishment that several
fronds of the plant were emptied out of a tube of mixed algae collected at
Kinnacorra in June, 1910. In October of the same year, and in April of the
next, the locality was specially searched, but no further specimens were found.
During August, 1911, however, one or more loose fronds were noted in Achill
Sound, Roonah Point, and Clare Island, so that there is no doubt whatever
that the species occurs in the district (see p. 165).

Laurencia hybrida Lenorm.

Although our three British species of Laurencia are perfectly distinct,
considerable confusion exists with regard to the present species, which is
usually found in herbaria, not only under the names of ZL. hybrida and
L, caespitosa, but also on the same sheets as L. pinnatifida and L. obtusa. The
plant is poorly described in most of our floras, and the confusion is increased
by a difficulty as to names.

Nomenclature.—The name to be used is clearly L. hybrida (DC.) Lenorm.
Fueus hybridus was described by De Candolle in 1805 (“Flore Francaise,” ii,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 1387

p. 30).!. It was transferred to Laurencia by Lenormand in 1830 (Duby,
Bot. Gall., p. 951); and his name has been used by Kiitzing, J. Agardh,
Le Jolis, and De Toni. Dawson Turner in 1808 named the plant Z. pinna-
tifida var. angusta, giving a figure (Synopsis, Pl. 20, fig. 7), and quoting
L. hybrida as a doubtful synonym. Turner’s name was adopted by Greville
(who gives an excellent figure), Hooker (Brit. Flora), and Harvey (Manual
Ed. I, p. 69, and Phye. Brit., Pl. 55). The ideas of these writers as to the
plant were not very exact, and they confused it with narrow forms of LZ. pinna-
tifida. A third name (and one which has been largely used in this country)
is LZ. caespitosa Lamx., which dates from 1813. This, however, was a nomen
nudum, and was moreover reduced to a synonym of Z. dasyphylla by C. Agardh
in 1822. But in 1840 it was taken up by Montagne (for a plant which he
afterwards decided was a new species, Z. canariensis, Pl. Crypt. Can., p. 154,
and Kiitz., Spec. Alg., p. 854), and was used by Harvey in the second edition
of the Manual and also in Phyc. Brit. (Pl. 286). Our plant, therefore,
figures in the latter work under two names; and Harvey himself admits doubts
as to the species. J. Agardh, at a later date, examined some of Lamouroux’s
specimens, and redescribed what he considered the true J. caespitosa Lamx. ;
the identity of this plant is, however, doubtful. Though most of the older
writers confused the species with narrow forms of JL. pinnatifida, the plant
they had in mind is perfectly clear, both from their descriptions and from
specimens in herbaria. Some have used one name, some another. The name
hybrida (1805) has priority over caespitosa (1813), which, as we have seen, was
merely a nomen nodum till 1840. There is no question that the plant is
distinct from L. pinnatifida.

Description and Habitat.—L. hybrida is abundant on the British shores and
forms part of the Gigartina-Laurencia association of exposed coasts, but it is
also frequent in rock-pools. It may always be distinguished from Z. pinnatifida
by the constantly cylindrical fronds and its pyramidal outline. The small size,
greenish colour, and caespitose habit are also noteworthy, whilst its marked
winter growth and absence in summer are quite characteristic. Small sporelings
2-3 mm. high are discernible in September ; these develop during autumn and
winter, and fruit in early spring. By May the plant begins to disappear, and
is not seen again till September or October. When growing on bare rocks
which are left dry by the tide, the plant is very compact, and seldom more
than 1-2 inches high ; but in shallow pools fully exposed to the light, it is more
lax, and may attain a height of 4-5 inches. In autumn and winter Z. hybrida
is a dark greenish purple; but with the advance of spring the purple hue

1 Tn some copies of this work the date is erroneously stated to be 1815.
R-I,A, PROC., VOL, XXXI, i) 15

15 1388 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

disappears, and the plant assumes a green colour, pale when growing in sunny
pools, but darker when on bare rocks or under the shade of other plants. It
should be. noted that Z. pinnatifida also reaches its maximum development in
spring ; but it is present more or less throughout the summer, and appears to
possess a persistent base (see p. 35).

L. hybrida has been also confused with L. obtusa with which it agrees in
possessing cylindrical fronds. The colour and habit of the two are, however,
very distinct. Z. obtusa is a sub-littoral plant of dark red colour which becomes
yellow with sunlight. It is also found in pools and shallow water, especially
in winter and spring, and is almost always epiphytic. There is further an
important morphological distinction to be noted in the structure of the
antheridial conceptacles. The conceptacles of LZ. hybrida will be found to
resemble those of Z. pinnatifida, and to be quite distinct from ZL. obtusa
(see Falkenberg, ’01, pp. 242 and 249).

The distribution of the present species is more restricted than that of
the other two. It is common in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and is
found on the north and west coasts of France ; but I have not seen undoubted
specimens from other countries, The records from the Mediterranean, Ceylon,
Japan, and the West Indies require verification. The antheridial character
referred to above will possibly aid in the identification of this species, since
in Laurencia exact similarity of form cannot be insisted upon when climatic
conditions are different.

Polysiphonia macrocarpa Harv.

First described by Harvey in Mackay’s “ Flora Hibernica,” part ii, p. 206.
It was wrongly united in “ Phye. Brit.” with P. pulvinata, but is rightly
presented in Batters (02). Amongst British species it is very distinct;
but Bornet suggested that it might be a form of the Mediterranean
P. sertularioides, though in his “Algues Schousboe ” he preferred to keep them
apart. P. macrocarpa usually grows in shallow crevices near low-water on
exposed rocks, being not uncommon on Clare Island, and the only species
of the genus noticed on The Bills.

P. fastigiata Grev.

Though usually confined to Ascophyllum nodosum, it is interesting to note
that in exposed localities (where that plant is absent) P. fastigiata is frequently
found on Fucus spiralis. In a general way F. spiralis on exposed rocks on
Clare Island is free from the epiphyte ; but at Alnahaskilla scores of infested
plants may be counted. P. fastigiata was noted on the same host at other
spots on the island, and in one ease it occurred on F, vesiculosus,

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 139

P. subulifera Hary.

This rather rare species is apparently frequent in the west of Ireland,
being found abundantly in Clew Bay, Achill Sound, and also in Roundstone
Bay. Harvey notes its frequency on the Lithothamnium banks at Round-
stone; and in September, 1911, it was the dominant species. It was also
dredged on similar ground in Clew Bay, and appears to be one of the
Florideae which can withstand considerable insolation in shallow water.

_Dasya arbuscula Ag.

The frequency with which this plant is met with in Ireland at once strikes
the collector as a great contrast to the south of England, where, though found
from Land’s End to the Isle of Wight, it is always rare. Harvey (Phye. Brit.)
notes its abundance at Bantry Bay, and on Clare Island it may be regarded
as one of the most frequent and constant of the miscellaneous collection of
Redweeds that occur near low-water mark on moderately exposed rocky
shores (e.g. Kinnacorra). At certain seasons also it is washed ashore in
plenty (July, August ?).

Ptilothamnion lucifugum sp. nov.! (Plate IX).

Plants gregarious, minute, 1-1-bcem. high. Fronds decumbent at the
base, then erect, producing branches and pinnae irregularly. Branches
3-6 mm. long, irregularly beset with pinnae ; cells, 35-50 « wide, by 3-4 times
as long. Pinnae short, 2-3mm, long, opposite, but more often irregular,
usually naked below, but bearing above regularly opposite forked pinnulae ;
cells 25-304 wide by 14-2 times as long. Pinnulae bifid through the
production of a lateral branch on the under side of the lowermost cell, rarely
simple, very rarely trifid; cells 15-20 » wide by 13-2 times aslong. Decumbent
portion of the frond irregularly attached to the substratum by rhizoidal
pinnae, which occasionally terminate in a discoid expansion. Tetraspores
and cystocarps unknown. Antheridia borne on the terminal cells of the
pinuulae.

Habitat.—Attached to rocks in shallow pools in a dark cave, Portlea,
Clare Island, August, 1911.

Closely allied to P. miceropterwm (Mont.) Bornet, but distinguished by its
irregular branching, larger size, and peculiar habitat.

The present species was found as a dense mossy covering on the bottom

1 Frondes caespitosae, 1-1°5 cm. altae, ramis primariis repentibus secundariis erectis. Pinnae
2-3 mm. longae, pinnulis omnibus furcatis aut rare simplicibus. Articuli ramorum 3-4plo
pinnarum 1-2plo diametro longiores. Sporangia et cystocarpia ignota. Antheridia in articu!o
terminali pinnularum eyoluta. Hab. In spelunca.

Species P. microptero proxima sed frondibus majoribus irregularibus differt.

$2

15 140 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of a dark cave-pool during the last day spent on the island; owing to its
minute size, it was difficult to secure, the plants on detachment being easily
lost in the water. No tetrasporic or cystocarpic plants were obtained, but
sufficient material was collected to show general characters. The plant
is closely allied to P. micropterwm, which was described by Montagne from
the Canary Islands. Sauvageau also collected it on Cystoseira at Guethary,
and in recording the same, adopted a suggestion by Bornet, and removed
the plant from Callithamnion to Ptilothamnion (Sauv.,’07, p. 206). Monsieur
Hariot kindly allowed me to examine the Canary Islands type from the
Paris Museum; and it was found to consist of a smaller and much more
compact plant, probably of epiphytic habit. The Guethary specimens appear
to have been mislaid. Reinsch’s C. pinastroides (suggested as a synonym in
De Toni, Syll. Alg., iv) is certainly distinct; but Hauck’s C. pluma from
Trieste (Beitrage, vil, 1878, p. 131) proves, on examination of the specimens
kindly lent me by Madame Weber, to be P. mieropteron. No other record
exists. As P. micropteron is so very little known, it is within the bounds
of possibility that the Irish plant is an extreme form of that alga; but
taking all things into consideration, it appears wiser to regard it as a
distinct species.

Spermothamnion Turneri var. subverticillatum cums. nov.

Callithamnion Turneri var. subverticillatum, Lenorm. Ms., in Herb.
C. subverticillatum, Zanard, in Kitz. Tab. Phyc., xi, tab. 81 ?

The specimens referred to this variety agree precisely with plants so
named by Lenormand in the Kew Herbarium. C. subverticillatwm Zanard.
is most probably the same plant, but apparently Zanardini’s specimens
were not kept, as the plant is not listed in De Toni’s catalogue of his
herbarium. The variety differs from the ordinary form in the elongated
slender shoots, and in the sub-verticillate branching. In Clew Bay it
was found on several occasions, but always in a floating condition. As
seen thus it is very distinct, and would appear to be a good species, as
Zanardini believed; but whether the characteristic habit is due merely to
growth subsequent to, and resulting from, detachment was not ascertained.
Until this can be determined, and the question of Zanardini’s plant inquired
into, it appears best to regard the alga as a variety.

Griffithsia corallina Ag.

Occurs in the greatest profusion during spring in Clew Bay and Achill
Sound. It is largely epiphytic and is found in channels and in shallow water.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 141

Beautiful specimens, perfectly spherical in form and sometimes as much as
20cm. in diameter, may be seen floating in with the tide during May. No
plants were noted in the rock-pools on Clare Island.

Bornetia secundiflora Thur.

Bornetia is one of the most interesting additions to the Irish flora. It is
abundant in the Mediterranean (south France), and common in the Biarritz
neighbourhood. It extends up the Atlantic coast as far north as Normandy
and Brittany, and is found as a very rare plant on the shores of Devon and
Cornwall. Two fine plants were collected in a deep pool on Clare Island,
in July, 1909, and though neither bore mature fruit, there can be no doubt
as to their identity. The pool was searched on each subsequent visit; but,
with the exception of a small frond found in August, 1911, no further
specimens were observed.

Callithamnion byssoides Arn.

The specimens referred to this species agree well with those from
Devonshire collected by Mrs. Griffiths, and with the plant as generally
understood in this country. In general habit it bears a very close resem-
blance to C. corymbosa, and even with a lens it is not easy to separate the
two. The distinctive feature is the irregular pinnate branching, which
connects it in the other direction with C. rosewm. From the latter it is
marked off by the very much more slender growth, and by the tetraspores
being usually single on the pinnae. The form of the cystocarp is also
different.

C. byssoides is common in Clew Bay and Achill Sound (as a spring
and early summer plant), occurring as an epiphyte on various algae in
the low-littoral and sub-littoral region. It is very closely allied to, if
not identical with, C. Purcellariae of the Swedish botanists.

C. scopulorum Ag.

I follow Borgesen in regarding this plant as a distinct species, which
differs from C. polyspermwm in its dwarf size, absence of cortication, and
saxicolous habit. It is abundant on Clare Island, on moderately exposed
rocks, but, owing to its minute size, is not conspicuous.

C. arbuscula Lyngb.
An alga belonging to the boreal group, but abundant on Clare Island,
Tt apparently occurs on all the Irish coasts, but is quite absent on the south
of England (see pp. 164 and 169),

15 142 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Callithamnion corymbosum Lyngb.

Very abundant in spring and early summer, and found probably throughout
the whole year. It was plentiful in October, 1910, at Achill Sound; and
numerous young plants were dredged in Clew Bay the following February.

C. granulatum Ag.

When Harvey dealt with (. spongiosum in“ Phye. Brit.,” he suggested
the possibility of its being united with C. granulatum Ag. In 1851,J. Agardh
carried out this prediction, and his view has been generally accepted. There
are, however, two very distinct forms. One, which oceurs in the C. arbuscula
association, is compact, densely branched, and turns a pale greenish-yellow in
summer; and the other, which hangs from vertical rocks in company with
Plumaria elegans, is larger, less compact, and does not occur in sunny places.
The former agrees in habit with the Mediterranean C. granulatum; and the
latter is undoubtedly Harvey’s C. spongiosum. The matter requires careful
investigation, as it appears possible that Harvey’s plant may after all be
a good and distinct species. Both forms occur in Clare Island, and no
intermediates were seen.

Ptilota plumosa Ag.

This species, which is said to occur all round the Ivish coasts, is perhaps
the most noteworthy of the boreal algae that are found on the west of Ireland
(see pp. 165 and 169).

Antithamnion crispum Thur. in Le Jolis’ “ Liste,” p, 112.
(A, Plumula vay. crispum J. Ag., Batters, Cat., p. 89.)

This plant is distinguished from 4A. Plumula by its short recurved pinnae
and thorn-like pinnulae: It is widely distributed, and often occurs where
A. Plumula is absent (ie. in the Adriatic; see Krasser in Zahlbruckner,
Krypt. Exsiec., No. 648). Batters follows Agardh, who regards it as a variety;
but the views of Thuret, Kvasser, and others appear warranted. The true
A. Plumula was not found in Clew Bay, and the Bantry Bay species in Herb.
Kew are also referable to A. erispum.

Ceramium Boergesenii Petersen.

Dr. H. Petersen, who is at present investigating this genus, kindly
undertook to examine my material. To him is due the discovery of this, and
the following addition to the flora of our islands. C. Boergesenii has doubtless
been passed over as a form of C. decurrens, to which it is very closely allied.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 145

It is chiefly distinguished by the corticating cells which grow upwards as

well as downwards from the nodes. Frequent in our district, being found

especially on the receptacles of Himanthalia on Clare Island.
Distribution.—Iceland, Faerées.

C. atlanticum Petersen.
A pretty little species, described by Petersen, from Iceland and the Faerées.
On Clare Island a few specimens only were found. It apparently enjoys open
conditions, being collected on exposed rocks and on The Bills

C. rubrum Ag.

Dr. Petersen distinguishes the following forms in my material of this
perplexing species :—
(@) prohfera-secundata, forms typica, secundata, and irregularis.
(b) pedicellata-virgata, f. irregularis.
(c) subtypica-modificata, forms vera and irregularis.

Abundant in great variety of form in all parts of our area.

Gloiosiphonia capillaris Carm.
Found in several spots on the island during the first year of the Survey
only (July, 1909). Not present in the same spots in June, 1910, nor
August, 1911.

Schizymenia Dubyi J. Ac.

This is a distinctly southern plant, being known in England from Devon
and Cornwall only. In Iveland it has been recorded from Belfast Lough, but
not from the west or south. Several specimens were noted on Clare Island in
May, 1911.

Cruoria adhaerens J. Ag.

The distinctive features of C. adhaerens are not well known; but relying
on the slides in the Batters collection in the British Museum, I have regarded
it as being characterized by the possession of short filaments which adhere
closely together. The individual cells also are short, but the tetraspores very
large.

Cruoriella Dubyi Schm.

C. Dubyi is the dominant species of incrusting algae in the shallow waters
of Clew Bay. It occurs abundantly on sheils and stones atall seasons ; and, in
the inner parts of the bay, is found occasionally on the stipes of Laminaria

15 144 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cloustont ; tetrasporic fruits were collected in February. The flabellate
arrangement of the cells on the under-surface of the thallus (a feature which
Schmitz makes characteristic of the genus) distinguishes it at once, in our
area, from allied plants.

Harvey records C. Dubyi (sub Peyssonnelia Dubyi) as occurring in great
profusion in Birturbuy Bay, Roundstone (“ Phye. Brit.””) ; but, as pointed out
below, this was an error, since the specimens preserved are those of
Peyssonnelia. It is remarkable that in Clew Bay Cruoriella should be
dominant, and at Roundstone Peyssonnelia.

Peyssonnelia sp.

The species of Peyssonnelia occurring in west Ireland must for the
present remain undetermined. It was recorded by Harvey as P. Dubyi (now
Cruortella Dubyi); and he states that it is abundant in Birturbuy Bay.
Batters (96, p. 11) showed that Harvey’s material consisted of a genuine
Peyssonnelia (the T.C.D., Kew, and Linn. Soc. material was examined), and
he referred the plant to P. rubra Grev., a species originally described from the
Ionian islands, and, as generally understood, common in the Mediterranean.
Though the genus is correct, the specific identity appeared questionable.
From Greyille’s description, his species is a plant with free-growing lobes,
i.e. with the habit of P. sywamaria; whereas the Clew Bay plant has an
attached encrusting thallus, such as is found in P. Harveyana. In order to
settle the point it was necessary to examine the type in Greville’s herbarium
at Edinburgh ; and through the kindness of Professor Bayley Balfour, it was
sent to Kew on loan. The specimens fully confirmed Greville’s description and
figure, and there is no doubt that the Irish species must be kept distinct.
Madame Weber van Bosse, who is engaged in unravelling the tropical species
of the genus, informs me that the form of the rhizoids, to which much value
has been attached, is an unreliable character. The species of this, and allied
genera, have in the past been so poorly described, that it is impossible to be
certain if any of them are identical with the present plant. On this account
it appears advisable to wait till a monographic work is available. The
alga is rare in Clew Bay, and fruits in winter.

Porphyrodiscus simulans Batters.

On account of its characteristic nemathecia, the genus Porphyrodiscus was
founded by Batters for the reception of this plant (Journ. Bot., 1897, p. 439).
He detected it at Berwick in 1889, and apparently it has not been found
elsewhere. The Clew Bay specimens were obtained at Annagh Island, on
stones in muddy ground near low-water mark,

Ciare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 145

Rhododermis polystromatica Batters, i obs., Journ. Bot., 1896, p. 389
(R. elegans var. polystromatica Batters).

The variety polystromatica is so distinct from Crouan’s P. elegans that it
certainly ought to be regarded as a distinct species. Batters himself proposed
the combination in 1896 (l.c.); but in 1902 he (probably inadvertently) used
the older designation.

Choreonema Thureti Schmitz.

A minute species, which requires to be carefully searched for. It has
been stated to be common in Ireland, and to occur on all three species of
Corallina ; but this is probably an errer. On Clare Island it was found only
on C. squamata (its usual host), although a large amount of C. officinalis was
carefully examined with a lens. The plant is also known to occur on
C. rubens.

MELOBESIEAE,

The material of this group, as noted above, was examined by Dr. M.
Lemoine, who kindly furnished critical observations on the specimens, and
also prepared a complete list of the species obtained, together with notes
on their distribution. In view of the confusion existing, the general
distribution of each species as supplied by her is published in the present
report. It will be noted that the nomenclature differs slightly from that
employed by Batters.

Attention should also be drawn to the account given by Johnson and
Hensman (99), where analyses of the Knockboy and Bantry Bay sand,
together with other details of local interest, are given. Since that date much
critical work has been done, and hence seven of the plants listed there as
distinct species are in the present report regarded as synonyms or varieties.

Melobesia farinosa Lamx.

Abundant on Zostera in Clew Bay, and found at all seasons.
Distribution.— General.

M. zonalis Fosl.

This minute species was dredged in Clew Bay (3-5 fathoms) in February,
May, and August, 1911, and is evidently frequent. It occurs on glass,
porcelain, and shells. Jf. zonalis belongs to the subgenus Pliostroma, the
species of which are characteristic by being polystromatic.

Distribution.—England, Scotland, Ireland, N. France (Brest), Mediterranean
(Banyuls).

R.1.A, PROC., VOL. XXXT. ‘at 15

15 146 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lithophyllum (Dermatolithon) pustulatum Fos].

Common on Clare Island, especially on Gigartina and Phyllophora rubens
in rock-pools, and near low-water mark. It was also found on Cladophora
rupestris,

Var. Corallinae Foslie (Melobesia Corallinae Crouan, Batt. Cat., p. 96)—
Common on Corallina officinalis in rock-pools on exposed shores.

Var. Laminariae Foslie (AZ. Laminariae Crouan, Batt. Cat., p. 97).—Not
uncommon on stipes of Laminaria Clouston. »

Distribution.—British Isles (common), Faerdes, Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
W. Baltic, Denmark, N. and W. France, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Morocco,
Canaries, Greenland, Atlantic coast of N. America. (Mass., Florida, Bermuda,
W. Indies), Pacific (California).

L. (Dermatolithon) hapalidioides Fos].

Dredged in Clew Bay on ‘several occasions, and probably not uncommon,
though often overlooked. The sub-littoral form is smooth, and very different
in appearance from the variety confinis.

-Var. confinis Foslie.—On Patella shells near low-water mark, not
uncommon,

“La structure est la méme dans le type et la variété, et c’est pourquoi
Foslie (1909, p. 128) a réuni les deux espéces LZ. (D.) hapalidioides et
D. confinis. Comme il le fait remarquer,le Z. confinis correspondrait a la
forme sguamulosa du L. Lenormandi; on peut supposer que la var. type vit a
une certaine profondeur sur les coquilles et au contraire que la var. confinis vit
dans la limite des marées. La différence d’aspect résulterait d’une différence
dans les conditions de vie.” (M. Lemoine.)

Distribution—British Isles, FaerGes, 8. Norway, N. and W. France,
N. Spain, Algeria, 8. France (last three localities var. conjinis only).

L. incrustans Philippi.

L. incrustans is the common incrusting alga of pools and rocks on exposed
shores ; and, with the exception of Jathothamuium Lenormandi, which forms a
belt above it, it is the only species normally occuring in the littoral region
(see p. 41). In the shallow waters of Clew Bay, a very smooth form in
addition to the ordinary is frequently found.

Var. subdichotomum Heydr.—To this curious variety must the L. dentatum
of the west of Ireland be referred. ‘The record is due to Foslie, who dredged
specimens in Roundstone Bay in 1899. He first regarded them as forms cf
L. fasciculatum, but later referred them to L. dentatum. The latter is a
native of the Adriatic; but though recorded from Naples and Tangier, its

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 147

position in Ireland was very isolated, as it is entirely absent from the French
coasts.

Specimens dredged by me in Clew Bay agreed well with Foslie’s material
in the Dublin Museum, and Dr. Lemoine, to whom a fragment was sent, at
first passed it as that species. She, however, subsequently wrcete that it bore
a striking resemblance to certain curious forms of Z. inerustans, which had
been described from Guéthary (Basses Pyrénées) by Heydrich, and further
examination showed that the structure agreed with L. incrustans rather than
with Z. dentatum. As it was advisable to have the point finally settled,
further material was sent, including a specimen gathered by Foslie at
Roundstone. Madame Lemoine kindly examined the samples anatomically,
and reported as follows :—

“Je crois que tous ces échantillons représentent des formes de L. incrustans,
mais ce sont des formes anormales et curieuses. Ce sont des échantillons
agés qui se sont séparés de leur substratum, et qui ont pris ce développement
bizarre. Je me suis rendu compte aussi que l’algue était agée, parce que,
dans certains échantillons, en particulier dans celui de Clew Bay, le tissu se
désagrege apres décalcification, et il est impossible d’obtenir des coupes dans la
partie centrale.

“Je ne suis pas arrivée a observer l’hypothalle, il aurait fallu abimer les
échantillons; les lamelles libres ne sont constituées que par le périthalle.
J’ai étudié les deux échantillons de Roundstone dans lesquels les dimensions
des cellules sont comparables a celles des cellules de L. incrustans.

“Tes échantillons de Roundstone appartiennent a une forme décrite par
Heydrich f. subdichotoma [’99, p. 225]. Ils seraient plus jeunes que celui de
Clew Bay, qui, usé et roulé par les vagues, est tout a fait caractéristique de
la f. subdichotoma.”’

A comparison of Heydrich’s figures in the paper referred to (Berichte d. d.
bot. Ges. xvii, p. 221) shows that the Ivish specimens agree in form with the
Mediterranean. The plant israre, but one or more inolls were collected on
each occasion that the Clew Bay or Roundstone “ coral-banks ” were dredged.

Distribution.—L. incrustans :—British Isles (abundant), Faerdes, N. and W.
France, N. Spain, 8. France, Italy, Dalmatia, Algeria, Morocco (Tangier and
Atlantic Coast), Canaries, S. Africa, Sandwich Islands.

Var. subdichotomum.—Ireland (Clew Bay, Roundstone Bay), France
(Guéthary, Banyuls).

L. lichenoides Philippi.

Lemoine (11, p. 128) states that the anatomical structure of this species
is clearly that of Lithophyllum, and she therefore restores it to that genus.
T2

15 148 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In England it is only known from the south coast ; but it has been found in
all the provinces of Ireland except Ulster, and is very common in the Clare
Island district. It is usually attached to Corallina officinalis, and occurs in
pools and in the low-littoral region.

Var. agariciformis Foslie.—Batters, following Foslie, regards JL agarici-
Jormis Harv. as a variety of this species; and Madame Lemoine, to whom I
sent for anatomical examination a fragment of a Roundstone specimen
(probably collected by McCalla), writes that there is no doubt whatever that
Foslie was correct. The variety is evidently exceedingly rare, as no trace of
such a form was found by me on any of the Lithothamnium banks of Clew
Bay or Roundstone.

Distribution.—A southern species. 8. and W. Ireland, 8. England, N. and W.
France, N. Spain, Mediterranean, Morocco.

Var. agariciformis. Roundstone Bay.

L. fasciculatum Fosl.

This species is known only from the west of Ireland, and is thus one of
the most interesting algae of the Ivish flora. It is known locally as “ Wild
Coral,” and is plentiful in Clew Bay, occurring in patches mixed with
Lithothamnium caleareum. It is also common at Roundstone (see p. 70).

Foslie distinguished several forms of the present species (’09). The
plant was accidentally omitted (or rather unintentionally united with another
species) in Batters’ Catalogue, as explained by me last year (Journ. Bot.,
p. 115).

Distribution—Clew Bay ! Roundstone! Fahy Bay! Schull and Ballina-

courty (teste Johnson).

Lithothamnium calecareum Aresch.

The dominant species of the fruticulose Lithothamnium association of
Clew Bay and. Roundstone (see p. 69). It occurs in great diversity of
form, but it seems clear that varieties compressa McCalla, squamulosa Fosl.,
crassa Lem., subvalida Fosl., and subsimplex Batters, as described and figured
by Lemoine (10), are the most common in the district. Reference should be
made to that paper for details as to biology and ecology. Mannin Bay,
where Z. caleavewm occurs abundantly, is worthy of further investigation,
and should be compared with Roscoff and Conearneau, which have been
investigated by French botanists.

Distribution.—British Isles, N. and W. France, Norway, Denmark,
Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Mediterranean (Naples, Adriatic).

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 149

Lithothamnium norvegicum Kjellm.

L. norvegicum is an addition to the published list of our flora. It has been,
however, sent out recently by Holmes in his “ Aleae Britannicae Rariores ”
(No. 264); he obtained specimens from Arran (Scotland). The species
resembles in forma small, much-branched specimen of ZL. calcarewm ; but the
branches are more slender and the whole plant more compact. The structure
also is distinct (see Lemoine, ’11, p. 108). It has doubtless been mistaken
for LZ. calcarewm in the past, and is probably not uncommon on our shores.
In Clew Bay it occurred sparsely scattered amongst other species.

Distribution.—Clew Bay, Roundstone, W. Scotland (Arran) ; Norway,
Denmark, America (N. Atlantic coast).

L. laevigatum Fosl.
(Phymatolithon laevigatum Fosl., Batt. Cat., p. 98).

A sub-littoral species, but found occasionally in caves. It was dredged off
The Bills in about 15 fathoms, and was found on limpets in a cave on Clare
Island.

Distribution—England (Berwick), Ireland (Gola Island, Larne), Faeroes,
S. Norway, Denmark, Atlantic coast of N. America (Rhode Island, Maine,
Newfoundland).

L. polymorphum Aresch.
(Phymatolithon polymorphum Fosl., Batt. Cat., p. 98).

Common on exposed coasts in our area, and forming a band below
L. incrustans, as explained on p.41. For taxonomy see Lemoine (11), p. 63.

Distribution.—British Isles (common), Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Faerdes,
Iceland, Heligoland, N., W. and 8. France, Tangier, Mediterranean, Adriatic.

L. compactum Kjellm.

(L. circumscriptum Stromftelt ; Clathromorphum circumscriptum Fosl., Batt. Cat.,
p- 97).

Foshe at first regarded Z. compactum and L. civcumscriptum as distinct, but
subsequently referred them to the same species. Kjellman’s name antedates
Stromfelt’s by three years, and must be adopted (see Lemoine, ’11, p. 98). The
plant was dredged twice, in 5 fathoms between the outer islands of Clew Bay,
and in 7 fathoms off Mulranny. It is listed by Johnson and Hensman (99),
but no locality is given, and it has not been found in England or Scotland.

Distribution.—Ireland (Mayo), Faerées, Iceland, Norway, Spitzbergen,
Nova Zembla, Greenland, Atlantic coast of N. America (Maine, Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia), and Pacific Coast (Alaska).

15 150 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

L. Lenormandi Fos.

Common in our atea, forming an irregular band on damp and shady
rocks above L. incrusfans (see p. 41). It is also very common on stones in
pools.

Var. sublaevis Foslie—A sub-littoral form. Not uncommon in Clew Bay
in 5-3 fathoms, on shells, especially Pecien.

Var. squamulosa Foslie.—Freguent on the sides of dark caves.

Distribution —British Isles (common), Iceland, Faerdes, Norway, Sweden,
Baltic Sea, Denmark, Heligoland, N., W., S. France, Mediterranean, Adriatic,
Morocco, Canary Islands, N. America (Atlantic Coast).

L. Sonderi Hauck. ;

Beautiful specimens belonging to form sublaevigata Foslie were dredged
from the “Helga” in Killary Bay. They formed a complete crust on the
shells of mussels which occurred abundantly in muddy places. Superficially -
LI. Sonderi strongly resembles L. Lenormandi: but the structure is quite
distinct, the filaments in the former separating easily from each other, whilst
in the latter the tissue is very compact (Foslie, 05, p. 24, Lemoine, °11,
pp. 84 and 97). Z. Sonderi has not been recorded from England, but specimens
have been dredged by me at Plymouth in 1905 (¢este Foslie).

Distribution.—British Isles, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Heligoland,
France.

Epilithon membranaceum Heydr.

(LZ. membranaceum Fosl, and L. corticiforme Fosl., Batt. in Cat., p. 97).

It is satisfactory to find that authorities agree in regarding the two species
above cited as synonymous—a view held by several British algologists, though
Batters in 1902 kept them distinct. Dr. Lemoine did not deal with the plant
in her treatise on the Melobesieae (711), but, in response to a special inquiry,
she wrote the following note :—“J’ai étudié avec soin dans les Herbiers les
E. corticiforme and E, membranaceum, je crois, comme d’ailleurs c’était opinion
de Foslie (1909, p. 75), qu’ils doivent étre réunis. Il est probable qu’on a
désigné sous le nom de corticiforme les thalles portant des conceptacles a
sporanges, et sous le nom de membranaccum ceux portant les conceptacles a
crystocarpes. L’aspect des deux sortes de conceptacles est trés different :
les coneeptacles 4 sporanges murs forment des sortes de petits cratéres qui
laissent voir en leur centre le substratum: ces cratéres, trés nets sur
léchantillon de Clew Bay fixé sur Rhodymenia, sont souvent confiuents et
leur contour est ovale. Au contraire les conceptacles A cystocarpes sont
d’abord hemisphériques ;: plus tard le toit tombe et il peut rester un petit trou

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 151

a sa place, mais le trou est circulaire. Si on conservait lindépendance des
deux espéces, il faudrait admettre que dans chacune on ne connait qu'une
seule sorte de conceptacles. Dans ’Herbier Bornet ces deux espéces sont
séparées; j'ai cherché en vain des conceptacles & cystocarpes pour le
LE. corticiforme. ailleurs d’aprés les descriptions de Rosanoff et de de Toni
il est impossible de les distinguer. Hauck les a réunis.”’

Tt is clear that the present species cannot be retained in Lithothamnium ;
and Dr. Lemoine believes that Heydrich, who first clearly pointed out its
peculiarities, was justified in forming a special genus for its reception, and that
it is advisable to adopt his name. The nomenclature is, however, somewhat
complicated by the question of the validity of Kiitzing’s genus Hapalidium.
EL. membranacewm is common in the Survey area, being found most often on
Rhodymenia palmata and Furcellaria fastigiata. In autumn it is not infrequent
on Cladophora rupestris in shallow pools near high-water line, to which it
gives a very curious appearance. It is also found occasionally on other algae
and on shells (Trochus).

Distribution.— British Isles (frequent), Norway, Sweden, N. and W. France,
N. Spain, Mediterranean, Crimea, Morocco (Atlantic coast), Ceylon, California.

Corallina squamata Ellis.

This species is probably much more common in the warmer parts of the
British Isles than is generally supposed. On the exposed coasts of Clare
Island it is, as explained on p. 40, probably more abundant than C. officinalis.
In the south of England also, I have noted it very frequently in similar
localities.

5. ECONOMIC SPECIES.
Kelp.

Kelp-burning forms an important feature in the yearly routine of the
islanders, as it does also on the exposed coasts of the mainland. During the
last weeks of June and in the beginning of July dense clouds of heavy oily
smoke may be seen along the coast-line, and the preparation for this general
burning provides employment for many months. In a leaflet issued by
the Congested Districts Board! practical advice is given, including notes
as to the relative value of the different seaweeds, and instructions as to the
best methods of burning. Each species is figured, and also certain weeds
which should be avoided.

_ 1 The Kelp Industry. Hints for Kelp-burners with regard to Seaweed.’’ Congested Districts
Board Leaflet. 1898. _

15 162 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The “rods ”’ (stipes) of the various Laminariae employed are collected as
they are cast ashore in aulumn, winter, and spring, and placed on the
stone walls till burning time. In February and March the weed is also
cut by hand during the lowest tides. From April Ist until June the “ tops ”
or “leaves” (laminae) are collected in addition to the rods; and these are
mixed with the latter when burning. It is during April and May that
L. Cloustoni sheds its fronds, hence the term “ May Weed.” The name “ Red
Wrack” is given on account of its red-brown colour after exposure to weather.

Of the weeds employed, the bulk of the rods consist of Z. Cloustoni,
together with a slightly smaller amount of L. digitata. L. saccharina and
Sacchorhiza bulbosa are also used and are equally valuable; but they are not
washed ashore in anything like the same quantity. A storm or ground
swell provides the islanders with several days’ work, the “rods” being
picked out for kelp, and the tops used (except in April and May, when part
is set aside for burning) on the fields as manure. The foliage of LZ. saccharina
bleaches at once with rain, and is then of no value for kelp; JL. digitata
bleaches less readily ; and LZ. Cloustoni, as noted above, turns reddish-brown,
Alaria esculenta and Halidrys siliquosa are recommended in the Leaflet, and
are used in small quantities with the “tops.” Ascophyllum and Fucus spp.
yield but a very small amount of iodine, and are usually rejected. One of
the most important papers on the commercial value of algae is that by
Stanford (’84), which, though somewhat out of date, has not been superseded.

Manure.

Seaweed is extensively employed as manure all round the coast. In many
spots the drift-weed washed ashore is sufficient for requirements; but in
others the weed is cut by hand from the rocks, whilst in a few localities it is
actually cultivated.

A good dressing of seaweed is always applied to potato beds previous to
planting ; in some cases so soon before that the sets are practically placed
over a layer of fresh weed. It is usually put on stubble after cutting oats,
and applied again to the land in spring. A dressing is also spread on meadow
land ; and in May the reddish fronds of the “ May Weed ” (= Z. Clouston), and
the streaks of white due to patches of bleached Z. digitata and L. saecharina,
give striking colour-effects on the green fields.

The species employed vary according to the nature of the shore. On
exposed rocky coasts Laminaria is washed up ; and where obtainable in plenty
as in Clare Island, other weeds are despised. Laminaria is industriously
collected during winter and spring, and carted or carried by panniered ponies

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 153

to the fields; on the mainland it is at times carted seven or eight miles inland.
In other localities, such as Old Head and Bartraw, the farmers are content
with dvift-weed of a miscellaneous description. The drift is more valuable at
some seasons than others. At times it is composed almost entirely of semi-
decayed red weeds cast up from the shallow water, and at others there isa
certain amount of Laminaria, and occasionally Fucus.

Black Wrack (Fucus vesiculosus and Ascophyllum nodosum) is systemati-
cally collected during February and March, where Laminaria is scarce. In
the rocky parts of Clew Bay, and in many localities on the open coast, it
grows freely on the rocks, though for a really iarge amount a flat shore is
essential. This is supplied in abundance in the inner part of the bay, and in
Achill Sound. Where rocks are present Fucus grows naturally, but where,
as is usually the case, the shore is composed of sand, the farmers set to work
to obtain a growth of Wrack by artificial means. Stones about a foot square
are disposed in rows a yard apart, with paths left between for carting.
Sporelings speedily appear on the stones, and during the course of a year
develop into good-sized plants. The following season the Wrack is cut. This
operation, which takes place in February and March, was observed by the
Survey party of Easter, 1910. The weed on cutting is built up in stacks
about six feet high, and after being tightened up with ropes is towed ashore
on the flood-tide, and bleached at high-water level. Here it is unpacked and
carted to the fields.

The botanical features of the Fucus-farms are dealt with on p. 53. Owing
to the symmetrical arrangement of the stones, the artificial plots are at once
distinguishable from natural vegetation ; but when the weed is in its second
season and the plants inclined to overlap, the distinction might not strike the
eye of a casual observer. Plate V, fig. 2, gives a view of the plots at
Darby’s Point; similar farms oceur in other parts of Achill Sound, and in
Clew Bay they were noted at Murrisk.

The “ coral-sand”’ described on p. 71 should be referred to here, as it is
used for manuring in Connemara. Johnson and Hensman (’99) give the
analysis of a Bantry Bay sample, which shows that the sand consists of
about 80 per cent. of carbonate of lime. ‘Jo this fact its efficacy as a
fertilizer is attributed, and it is doubtless specially useful on the peaty
shores of W. Ireland.

Recent Literature.

The Composition of Seaweed and its use as Manure. Journ. Bd. Agr.
London, xvii, pp. 458-467 (September, 1910), p. 832 (January, 1911). Also
abridged as Leafiet No. 254.

R.1,A. PROC,, VOL. XXXI, U 15

15 154 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Seaweed as Manure. Journ. Dept. Agr. and Tech. Inst. for Ireland, xii,
pp- 84-87. (October, 1911.) Also as Leaflet No. 99.

Sewage Commission Reports. The manurial value of Ulva and the
significance of its nitrogen-content are dealt with in the reports referred to
on p. 108.

Food-stuffs.

Three algae are collected for edible purposes in the Survey-area; but they
are taken as relishes rather than as articles of food. During times of
searcity, however, Dillisk and Sloke form a useful addition to the daily menu.
In Clare Island the only alga which is regularly sold as a commercial article
is Carrageen Moss.

Dillisk and Crannogh.—The Irish Dillisk or Scotch Dulse is the common
Rhodymenia palmata, the fronds of which are chewed in a fresh state or after
having been dried. Crannogh is the small form of the same species found as a __
dense short growth on rocks in exposed places (p. 32). The flavour is peculiar
somewhat pungent, buf not unpleasant. On Clare Island, Dillisk and Crannogh
are esteemed more highly than Sloke, probably owing to their being less
abundant. On Achill Island, on the other hand, Crannogh is said to be the
most plentiful. ;

Sloke (Slouk, Sloukaen, or Sloukaum).—Sloke, the Laver of the English, is
the short crumpled form of Porphyra umbilicalis, which grows abundantly on
exposed rocks (p. 28). The large flat form is not usually employed, except at
Mulranny, where it is said to be collected and sold to tourists. Sloke is
gathered in spring, and either stewed at once, or boiled into a jelly, and set
aside for future use. When required, this jelly or “laver bread ” is re-cooked,
and then fried with butter. Used on Clare Island and on many parts of the
mainland.

Carrageen or Iceland Moss.—The true Carrageen is Chondrus crispus, but
certain forms of the allied plant Gigartina mamillosa are oiten included with
it. Both are common on rocky shores ; but they do not oceur in such masses
as either Dillisk or Sloke. It is still exported from several districts in Ireland,
and is sold in at least two localities in our area. On Clare Island it is
collected and sold to Dublin, and from thence to Liverpool, where it is
said to be chiefly used for fattening calves. On the small island of Inish-
biggle, four miles north of Achill Bridge, Mr. J. Tydd Frere has successfully
encouraged the collecting of the weed by the peasants. The “Moss” is
mainly bought by a Dublin agent, but smaller quantities are also sold to
private persons in England and the colonies. As observed at Inishbiggle
the weed is left to bleach on the grass, after which it is dried and stowed
away in sacks. For culinary purposes it is boiled down to a jelly, and then

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 155

added to milk, or used as a substitute for isinglass. Carrageen is still employed
in some quarters as an antidote for lung-troubles.

The following notes, though referring to a county outside our area, are of
interest. They were supplied by Mr. Thomas Crehan, of Miltown Malbay,
Co. Clare (sometime the home of W. H. Harvey), who, as agent for a firm of
English ship-merchants, has dealt for many years in the sale of seaweeds :—

Crannogh.—Collected at Miltown Malbay all the year round, and sold to
Blackburn at 1s. per stone.

Carrageen.—Sold to London, Scotland, Germany, Russia, and America,
fetching £8 10s. a ton, or 1$ a lb. in America. The narrow form is
used for edible purposes, and the wide form chiefly for dressing
linen, manilla ropes, and other articles.

Sloukaen.—Sold to England for making “aver bread” at 2s. a stone.

4, Tur FLoRA OF THE BILLS.

Though not so interesting as the terrestrial flora, the marine vegetation of
these rocky islets is worthy of.a special note. Nine miles from the main-
land, and surrounded on all sides by deep water, they are subjected to the
severest exposure.

Two algal communities were conspicuous:—the Prasiola association,
covering the bird-cliffs and ascending.on the shady side to 50 feet or more
above sea-level, and the Laminaria band, which encircles the islets at low-
water mark. The littoral region is for the most part compressed into its
minimum horizontal range, being in many places nearly vertical. Several
of the more accessible spots were examined. Alaria is more abundant than
L. digitata; and Gigartina forms on almost vertical surfaces a band above.
On the eastern side patches of the Porphyra and of the Callithammnion
arbuscula communities were noted on the less precipitous rocks ; but except

for these, other associations appeared to be absent. The full list of species
noted is appended :—

Plectonema tenebrans (in Balanus). Alaria esculenta.

Prasiola stipitata. Laminaria digitata.

P. crispa var. marina. Porphyra umbilicalis.
Enteromorpha compressa. Gigartina mamillosa.

E. micrococea. Chylocladia clavellosa.
Chaetomorpha aerea. Polysiphonia macrocarpa.
Rhizoclonium riparium. Callithamnion arbuscula.
Cladophora prolifera. Ceramium acanthonotum.
C. rupestris. C. atlanticum.
Scytosiphon lomentarius. Lithophyllum incrustans.

U2

15 156 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

IV—THE CHARACTER OF THE FLORA.

1. NorEsS ON THE NOVELTIES AND ADDITIONS.

As already mentioned, the systematic list contains the names of 437
species and 36 varieties. The revised census, as recorded by Mr. Adams’
private annotated copy, gives the total number of species for Ireland as 464 ;
so that making allowances for 12-15 species which are now regarded as
synonyms or varieties, the Survey list is within fifteen species of that for the
whole of Iveland.! As a local list, it must therefore be regarded as very
complete, though amongst microscopic and sub-littoral species additions
doubtless could be made by careful and continuous searching.

The list of additions to Ireland, which consists of ninety-two species and
eleven varieties, is given below. It will be noted that it includes eighteen
species and four varieties (marked +) new to the British Isles, of which the
following five are new to science :—Calothrix endophytica, Codiwn mucronatum
var. atlanticwm, var. nov., Ascocyclus Saccharinae, Fucus vesiculosus vay.
muscoides var. nov., Plilothannion lucifuguin.

Aphanocapsa pallida. P. Battersii.
Dermocarpa violacea. P, norvegicum.
Pleurocapsa amethystina. Microcoleus chthonoplastes.
Spirulina subsalsa var.* oceania. M. tenerrimus,
Oscillaria margaritifera. Calothrix consociata.
O, Corallinae. +C. endophytica sp. nov.
O. laete-virens. C. parasitica.
O. sancta, C. aeruginea.
Phormidium fragile. Brachytrichia Balani. ‘i
+P. persicinum. Microchaete grisea.
+P. subuliferum. Codiolum gregarium.
Lyngbya Meneghiniana. C. Petrocelidis.
TL. confervoides. Protoderma marinum.
L. semiplena. Ulvella fucicola.
L. lutea. Monostroma orbiculatum.
+Symploca dubia. Capsosiphon aureolus.
Plectonema Nostocormn. Enteromorpha prolifera.

‘Some further species would haye had to be added if Batters’ Catalogue had been exactly
followed; butin the systematic section several reductions have been made.
« In this list signifies that the variety only is new to Ireland.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae.

E. minima.
Ulothrix consociata.
TU. pseudoflacca.
+U. subflaccida.
Phoeophila dendroides.
+Rhizoclonium Kerneri/. endozoica.
Cladophora Neesiorum.
Ostreobium Queketti.
Vaucheria coronata.
+Codium mucronatum var. atlanti-
eum var. nor.
tStictyosiphon adriaticus.
Phyllitis zosterifolia.
Streblonema sphaericum.
Ectocarpus clandestinus.
E. microspongium.
E. Battersii.
i. Holmesii.
E. Mitchellae.
Myriotrichia densa.
M. repens.
+Dichosporangium Chordariae.
Myriactis stellata.
M. Haydeni.
Leptonema fasciculatum.
Sphacelaria plumula.
Myrionema Corunnae.
M. papillosum.
M. aecidioides.
M. saxicola.
M. reptans.
Hecatonema reptans.
H. speciosum.
Microspongium globosum.
Chilionema ocellatum.
Ascocyclus foecundus.
tA. Saccharinae sp. nov.
Lithoderma fatiscens ?

15 157

+Petroderma maculans.
Mesogtoia lanosa.
+ Acrothrix gracilis.
Fucus vesic. var. tmuscoides
var, nov.
Erythrotrichia investiens.
E. Welwitschii.
Porphyra coccinea.
Colaconema Bonnemaisonii.
Chantr. virgat. car, *luxurians.
var. ttetrica.
+C. Thuretii.
Harveyella mirabilis.
Gelidium aculeatum.
Callymenia Larterae.
Gracilaria conferv. var. *procer-
rima.
Nitophyllum Bonnemaisoni var.
*crassinervum.
Rhodymenia palm. va. *sarniensis.
Bonnemaisonia hamifera.
Dasya corymbifera.
Spermothamnion Turneri var, tsub-
verticillatum.

tPtilothamnion lucifugum sp. nov.

Bornetia secunditiora.
Seirospora hormocarpa.

+Ceramium Boergesenii.
tC. atlanticum.

Petrocelis Hennedyi.

Porphyrodiscus simulans.

Rhododermis polystromatica.

Lithophyllum crustans var. fsub-
dichotomum.

Lithothamnium norvegicum

L. Lenormandi var. *sublaevis.

LL. 3 var, *squamulosa.

*In this list signifies that the variety only is new to Ireland.

15 158 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(a) Additions to the British Isles ——With regard to these, the following
nine are inconspicuous species which are probably to be found in England
and Scotland if carefully searched for :—

Phormidium persicinum. Ulothrix pseudoflacca.
P. subuliferum. Dichosporangium Chordariae.
Lyngbya confervoides. Petroderma maculans.
Symploca dubia. Chantransia Thuretii.

Ulothrix subflaccida.

Of the remainder :—

Calothriz endophytica sp. noy., is couspicuous on salt-marshes, and should
be searched for in Britain.

Rhizoclonium Kerneri forma endozoica forms green masses in the sponge
Halichondria, and probably oecurs in England.

Codium mucronatum var. atlanticum.—This species is new to Europe. It
does not oceur in the south of England, but is recorded in the present report
from south-west Scotland, Isle of Man, and the Orkney Islands, in addition to
the north, west, and south-west of Ireland.

Stictyosiphon adriaticus.—Rare, and only obtained by dredging. It should
be found in quiet bays on the south coast of England.

Acrothriz gracilis. — Probably very rare. Perhaps overlooked as
Mesogloia Griffithsiana.

Fucus vesiculosus var. muscoides, var. nov.—This variety has never been
noted in England. It is probably confined to peaty shores.

Spermothamnion Turneri var. subverticillatum.—I have not observed var.
subcerticillatum in England; but it doubtless occurs in quiet bays on the south
coast, since it is known from France. In Clew Bay it is frequent throughout
spring and summer.

Ptilothamnion lucifugum.—Caves are frequently explored by algologists ;
but this beautiful microscopic species has hitherto escaped detection. It
is allied to Ptilothamnion micropterum, which is only known from the
Canary Islands and Guéthary (Basses Pyrénées). Probably a southern
species.

Ceramium Boergesenii.—Doubtless common in England, but passed over
as C. decurrens.

C. atlanticum.—This pretty and fairly well-marked species probably
occurs in England and Scotland. A few specimens only were found on
Clare Island.

Lithophyllum inerustans, var. subdichotomum.—Identified correctly for the
first time by Dr. Lemoine, in the present report. Only known in the

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 159

British Isles from Clew Bay and Roundstone. It is doubtless dependent
upon a very special type of ground. i

(6) Additions to Ireland.—On examining the additions to the Irish flora
we find that a large proportion are minute or critical species which require
careful search and microscopic examination. In earlier days the west coast
list was well up to date, but in recent years, when algology in our islands
has been at a low ebb, the Irish seaweeds have been neglected, and the
numerous microscopic species discovered in other countries have not been
searched for in Ireland. Johnson added many to the Phoeophyceae some
twelve to fifteen years ago; and Adams more recently has recorded additions
to various groups. Batters’ Lambay list (07) furnished twenty species new
to the Irish flora.

In the present account the Myrionemaceae are specially well represented,
owing doubtless to a knowledge of their appearance in the field, gained
during four to five years monographic work on the group. With the
exception of the exceedingly rare Ascocyclus hispanicus, all the British species
were found during the Survey. Several require particularly close observation,
and have only been recorded once or twice previously for cur islands.

Amongst the more interesting plants new to Ireland, we may mention,
in addition to those already alluded to :—

Cladophora prolifera—A very distinct species collected on The Bills.
In the British Isles, known previously from Weymouth only.

Monostroma orbiewlatwm.—A salt-marsh species found in beautiful condition
on Annagh Island.

Capsosiphon aureolus.—Found at the mouths of fresh-water streams.
Hitherto known only from Scotland, but probably overlooked.

Vaucheria coronata.—Forming zones and broad associations, of a deep
green velvet appearance. Hxceedingly abundant in Clew Bay.

Eetocarpus clandestinus.—Probably rather rare. Fine material gathered
on Clare Island in October, 1910.

E. Holmesti.mUnder the bridge at Achill Sound and in caves. Found on
several occasions with both kinds of fruit and in beautiful condition.

EH. mierospongiwm.—Very inconspicuous, forming minute cushions on
crusts of Ralfsia.

Mesogloia lanosa.—Dredged in Clew Bay in 1909. A most distinct species,
but rare and little known.

Porphyra coceinea.—Probably short-lived. Known from four localities
only in the British Isles.

Gelidium aculeatum.—Formerly regarded as a form of G, cornewm.

15 160 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Bonnemaisonia hamifera.— Usually considered to be an alien species from
Japan (see p. 136).

Dasya corymbyfera.—A_ sub-lttoral species. Known in England from
Dorset and the Channel Islands only.

Bornetia secundiflora—One of the most interesting additions. Head-
quarters in the Mediterranean (see p. 141).

Seirospora hormocarpa.—Rare, but easily mistaken for other species;
hence perhaps overlooked.

Lithothamnium norvegicum.—Probably not uncommon in Ireland, but
regarded in the past as a variety of LL. calearewm.

2, THE CHARACTER OF THE FLORA.

The flora of Clare Island and Clew Bay resembles that of the south-
west of England, and is thus of a distinctly southern type. A number
of species occur which have not been found in Scotland, the east and south-
east of England, or Wales, though it must be remembered that much of the
shore of our east coast is unsuitable for a littoral flora, and that Wales has
been very little explored. Many species in the list are known only from the
south and west coasts of Ireland, but here again further exploration would
probably show a wider range.

Notes as to Absentees.

Before attempting to analyse the flora, a few remarks may be made on the
larger algae which were to be expected, but which were not met with during
the Survey. Of species known to occur in several parts of Ireland, the follow-
ing may haye been overlooked, since they are rare or only occur sparsely :—

Asperococcus compressus. Helminthocladia purpurea.
Arthrocladia villosa. Gigartina acicularis.
Achinetospora pusilla. Daysa ocellata.

Porphyra miniata. Pleonosporium Borreri.

Bryopsis hypnoides is a more noticeable absentee, as when present it
is usually plentiful. The same may be said of Mitophyllum Gmelini and
NV. Hilliae, both of which are known from counties Cork, Kerry, and Clare,
and also from Belfast Lough. Clew Bay would appear very suitable for their
growth, and as their season is a fairly long one, we must conclude that if
present they are very rare. In Plymouth Sound they are found in
abundance. Nacearia Wiggi also was not seen in any of the dredgings.

Clare Island Survey—Murine Alque. 15 161

At the same time it should be remembered that several large and conspicuous
species were found only once.

Of southern algae, Calhthamnion telricum may he safely stated to
be absent. This coarse, shaggy species is known from Munster and
Leinster, and from the southern counties of England.’ Its habitat—steep
sides of rocks—was carefully searched on each visit, but without success.
There appears to be no record north of Bantry. Halopithys pinastroides
is certainly absent,’ and probably Pterosiphonia complanata. With regard to
northern species, Odonthalia dentatu and Rhodomela lycopodioides* are wanting.
They are found in Ulster, but do not extend far down the west coast.
Monostroma fuscum was searched for in vain, probably for the same reason ;
it is abundant in Belfast Lough, and many parts of Clew Bay offer similar
ground.

Of very rare species, Stenogramme interrupta, a singular plant found in
many parts of the world, and which occurs in the south of England, and at

-Cork and Portaferry (Co. Down), was not found in any of the Clew Bay
dredgings. By some it is regarded as an alien on our shores. A special search
was made amongst the Fuci, but nothing approaching the curious Fucus
anceps Harv. and Ward, of Kilkee was seen. Spyridia filamentosa should also
be mentioned. This is locally abundant on the south coast of England, and
in Wales reaches as far north as Holyhead; yet in Iveland it is unknown:
A single specimen was found amongst dried material brought home from Achill
in July, 1909; but as the plant was never observed during the Survey, there
can be little doubt that it was an English specimen which was taken over to
Achill with the drying paper.

Analysis of the Flora.

An attempt was made, but without much success, to classify the Clare
Island flora after the method adopted by Bérgesen and Jénsson (05). These
authors recognize five groups, arctic, sub-arctic, boreal-arctic, cold-boreal,
warm-boreal, and have with much care classified the arctic and northernmost
Atlantic floras according to this scheme. But the Clare Island investigations
will probably tend to modify the views held in some cases ; and in assigning
plants to groups such as these, the personal factor cannot be eliminated. A
great many Irish species do not fall into any of the five divisions, owing to the
fact that the flora contains elements which belong to more southern regions.
These species it is by no means easy to classify, chiefly on account of the

1 The Cromer record in Batters (02), is probably incorrect.

2 The Irish records of this plant require confirmation.

* Adams gives 2 Munster record for 2. Zycopodioides ; but the case should be re-investiguted.
R.I,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. Xx 15

15 162 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

scarcity of records. The fact that the Survey has added about 250 species to
Connaught, and over 100 species and varieties to Ireland, shows how little we
really know of the distribution of algae. The south-east of Ireland needs
special attention ; also south-west Wales, north Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles.
Bérgesen has pointed out how badly the Shetland algae are in need of
re-investigation (’05, p. 787 ; see also 03); and the same applies with equal
force to north-west Scotland. For Donegal and the coast-line generally
between Achill and Portrush there is hardly a record; and yet it is along this
coast that the southern species disappear and the northern forms, such as
Odonthalia dentata, Porphyra miniata, and Monostroma fuscum, begin to show.
With regard to France and Spain, although we have good French handbooks,
additions to the flora may still be made ; and were it not for Sauvageau’s two
valuable lists (97), which are admittedly preliminary, we should have
practically no reliable data for the north of Spain.

For the above reasons I have not attempted to classify the whole flora
into definite phytogeographic groups. We may, however, recognize certain.
well-marked elements, and by means of these attempt to analyse it.

(a) Southern Hlement.—Of the species which have a markedly southern
distribution, the following are among the most noticeable :—

Cladophora prolifera. Bostrychia scorpioides.
Codium adhaerens. Chondria tenuissima.
Mesogloia lanosa. Polysiphonia subulifera.

M. Griffithsiana. P. furcellata.
Petrospongium Berkeleyi. Dasya corymbosa.

Cutleria multifida. Spondylothamnion multifidum.
Bifurcaria tuberculata. Halurus equisetifolius.
Cystoseira ericoides. Monospora pedicellata.

C. granulata. Bornetia secundiflora.
Taonia atomaria. Callithamnion granulatum.
Dictyopteris inembranacea. C. tripinnatum.
Nemalion elminthoides. Compsothamnion thuyoides.
Callymenia reniformis. Schizymenia Dubyi.
Bonnemaisonia hamifera. Corallina squamata.

We may mention also eight species which were not found during the
Survey, but are known to occur in 8.W. Ireland :—

Asperococcus compressus. Nitophyllum Gmelini.
Helminthocladia purpurea. Pterosiphonia complanata.
Gigartina acicularis. Dasya ocellata.

Nitophyllum Hilliae. Callithamnion tetricum.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 163

Nearly all the above species are confined in England to the southern
counties. Several have been found only in south Devon and south Cornwall ;
others reach as far as the Isle of Wight; whilst a small number extend
through the Straits of Dover as far north as Norfolk. All are known to occur
in Normandy or Brittany, and with few exceptions they have been recorded
by Sauvageau from the Bay of Biscay and north Spain. Though their head-
quarters are in a southerly direction, a few extend up the Irish Channel to
Anglesea and the Isle of Man; and several have been noted in the Clyde area
and in the Orkney Islands. The Clyde has been thoroughly worked (see
Batters, 91); hence numerous outliers have been detected. he Orkney
records are distinctly interesting, and tend to.show that some of the southern
forms in the west Ivish flora extend northwards by way of the Hebrides. For
this the Gulf Stream drift is doubtless responsible.

The plants listed above grow luxuriantly in Iveland, and are evidently at
home in their surroundings. The much-indented coast supplies great variety of
conditions ; and the lack of intense insolation in summer permits the presence
of a better littoral and shallow sub-littoral vegetation than in the south of
England. Several of the species are only found sparingly, as in other parts of
our islands ; but others occur in great profusion—e.g., Petruspongiwm Berkeleyt,
Dasya arbuscula, Polysiphonia subulifera (local), and Corallina squamata ;
whilst Codiwm adhaerens, Cutleria multifida, Bifurcaria (at Roundstone),
Cystoseira fibrosa, Halurus, Monospora pedicellata are very frequent. The
abundance of Dasya arbuscula at low-water mark on Clare Island is oy
remarkable (see Phye. Brit., tab. 274).

(b) Northern elenvent.— With regard to northern forms we find that there
occur in our area a large number of the species which Borgesen and Jonsson
place in their sub-arctic and boreal-arctic groups. Many of these have, how-
ever, a very wide distribution, being abundant in all parts of the British Isles
and extending to France and even Spain. Of the most noticeable boreal
species (selecting from well-known plants only) we may pick out seven for
notice. The first four are annuals,’ and occur chiefly in spring ; the last two
are found all the year round, and are important constituents of the flora.

Stictyosiphon tortilis——Very common in Clew Bay during spring, also in
Scotland. It occurs in Northumberland, Cheshire, and Carnarvon. Batters
gives a Cornwall record; but if it occurs on the south English coast, it must
be extremely rare.

Desmotrichum wndulatum.—Common in Clew. Bay. Not known from
England, but recorded from several localities inScotland. It is rather small,

1 The distribution of many of the smaller amis inconspicuous species is so imperfectly known that
they are best omitted.

X 2

15 164 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

so may have been overlooked; but most of the southern records of this plant
prove to be errors for Punctaria tenuissima. It is also known from the
FaerGes, Kiel, and W. Sweden.

Phyllophora Brodiaei. —See note on p. 134. The plant is known from Nova
Zemblya, Spitzbergen, E. Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Baltic,
Scotland, N. England, and N. Ireland, and may therefore claim to be a dis-
tinetly boreal species. In Clew Bay it is scarce, but several colonies were
noted at Mulranny.

Lithothamnium norvegicum.—Scattered amongst L. caleareum in Clew Bay
and at Rouwndstone. Known from Scotland, Norway, Denmark, and the N,
Atlantic coast of N. America. It has not been observed in the Lithothamnium
banks of the English or French coasts.

Inthothamnium compactum.—Madame Lemoine remarks that this is a
distinctly boreal species. It is known from Nova Zemblya, Spitzbergen,
Iceland, Norway, Greenland, and the N. Pacific coast of N. America.

Callithamnion arbuscula.—The presence of this boreal species on the
Irish west coast gives the appearance of a distinct overlapping in the flora.
In the colder waters of the North Sea it is not known south of Yorkshire ;! and
on the west coast of Great Britain it descends to Ayrshire and the Isle of
Man. On Clare Island it is abundant, and forms a conspicuous belt, just as
it does in Scotland, Norway, and the Faerdes. It is recorded by Adams for
Munster and Leinster, and probably extends right round the Ivish coast.

Ptilota plumosa.— Another anomaly on the west coast. Listed by Borgesen
as a sub-aretic species and general in Iceland, Nova Zemblya, and Spitz-
bergen, P. plumosa descends as far as Yorkshire on our east coast, and North
Wales and the Isle of Man on the west. In Clare Island it is plentiful on
the stipes of Laminaria Cloustoni, and is washed ashore in company with
such southern plants as Taonia and Cullymenia reniformis. Adams lists it
from Munster and the south of Ireland; but as the older writers often con-
fused the plant with Plumaria elegans, it would be advisable to confirm its
presence in the southern provinces. In the London herbaria, there are no
specimens south of Renvyle (Co. Galway).

(c) Other interesting species—The most noteworthy alga in the list
is undoubtedly Codium mucronatum vay. atlanticum. This had either to be
regarded as a new and endemic species, or to be linked with the Australasian
C. mucronatum. The agreement in microscopic structure with the latter was
found to be so close, that it was impossible to do otherwise than regard it as a
form of that species. Its position on the west coasts of the British Isles is, how-
ever, remarkably isolated, as it is not known elsewhere in Europe, nor indeed

‘ Batters gives an Isle of Wight record; but this is almost certainly an error for C. granulatum, a
compact form of which is not uncommon in that locality.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 165

in the North Atlantic. It is almost impossible to believe that C. mucronatum
can have been introduced, as at least one herbarium specimen shows that it
has existed in S.W. Ireland for 100 years. At the same time, the pre-
ference of the plant for well-lighted pools, and the fact that it apparently
disappears in autumn, might be taken as an indication that it is a native of
a warmer region. That it was introduced from the British Isles to Australia
and New Zealand is out of the question. For the present the plant must
remain a remarkable case amongst algae of discontinuous distribution. Its
precise range in the British Isles should be ascertained. When this is known
we will be in a better position to pronounce as to the status of the plant, and
to discover if it is spreading on our shores. From 8. Devon and S. Cornwall
it is (or was, a few years since) certainly absent, but the same cannot
be said of Wales, as that coast has not been carefully worked. It is abundant
in the Isle of Man; but no records are known from the east and south of
Treland.

The best-known case of an alien alga in the British Isles is that of
Colpomenia sinuosa, which has been kept under observation in France and
England (Sauvageau, 07, Cotton, ’08, °11). It isa conspicuous plant, and was
first observed both in France and England (Scilly Isles) in 1905. By 1909 it
had spread as far as Hampshire, and it occurs now in great profusion in
many parts of Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset. Colpomenia is specially adapted
for floating; hence rapid colonization is comparatively easy. It affords an
example of a Mediterranean species adapting itself to the conditions of a colder
sea, and becoming naturalized at once. Codiwm mucronatum, on the other
hand, does not readily float, and is probably much less hardy.

Bonnemaisonia hamifera provides another problem. It is known in Europe
from several places in the English Channel, and has always been regarded as
of Japanese origin. By means of its hooked branches it clings tenaciously to
floating weed, and is thus no doubt capable of being transported for a
considerable distance. Its occurrence on Clare Island was most unexpected,
and raises a doubt as to whether the plant after all is not indigenous to our
islands (see p. 136). On the other hand, there is the noteworthy fact that
it was not noted by McCalla nor by any other west-coast collector, and that
until 1895 it was unknown in Europe. If an introduction, it can hardly
have come direct to the west of Ireland; but as nothing is known as to its
presence or absence in the southern provinces, it is useless speculating as to
the method of transport or port of entry.

Questions such as those raised above make us feel our lack of knowledge,
and emphasize the need of further study of our own flora. The vitality and
floating power of detached seaweed are likewise in need of investigation. A

15 166 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

mere list of species found floating, either of their own accord, or entangled
with débris, would be of interest, and could be easily compiled by those who
spend much time in dredging, tow-netting, etc. The algal growths on the
bottoms of both large and small vessels present, moreover, an almost unworked
field.

3. COMPARISON WITH OTHER AREAS.

East Treland—A comparison of the floristic features of the east and west
of Ireland does not reveal so great a contrast as was expected. No special
account ofthe east-coast flora has been published, nor have I personally examined
any part of the shore, except the extreme north. Adams (’08, annotated copy)
lists most of the Clare Island austral species for Leinster, and a considerable
number for Ulster also. There are, however, ten well-known and conspicuous
algae which have not yet been recorded for the east coast, but most of these
would probably be found in Leinster if carefully searched for. $.E, Leinster is
similar, as to its flora, to Munster; and Ulster has a surprising number of
southern species, Belfast and Larne Loughs being at one time famous for
Nitophylla and other seaweeds which occur chiefly in the southern counties.
At the same time, it would be advisable to confirm such records as Bifucaria,
Callithamnion tetricum, and Schizymenia Dubyt. The real difference between
the east and west coast lies doubtless in the proportion of southern vegetation
present; plants which are common or frequent in Mayo and Galway being
probably rare or very rare in Co. Dublin. The luxuriant growth displayed by
such species as Lomentaria clavellosa and Dasya arbuscula is also a characteristic
feature of the west-coast vegetation.

England and Scotland—With regard to England, as already shown, the
Clare Island flora resembles that of Devon and Cornwall, but in England the
boreal element (represented by Callithanunion arbuscula, and Ptilota plumosa)
is wanting, as are also several other northern species. Codiwm mucronatum is
likewise entirely absent. Such plants as Acrothrix and Stctyosiphon adriaticus,
known at present in the British Isles only from Iveland, will probably be found
in England when our south-coast bays have been more thoroughly explored
by dredging. On the other hand, a few well-known and conspicuous species,
more or less frequent in Devon and Cornwall, have not been found in Ireland.
I'he most noteworthy amongst these are Punctaria crispata, Gracilaria
compressa, Grateloupia filicina, G. dichotoma, and Spyridia filamentosa, the last-
named being locally abundant in Great Britain, and extending from Sussex to
Anglesea. There are also other species, but these are of very rare occurrence.
The east coast of England is comparatively poor; more than two-thirds of the
species listed on p. 162 are entirely absent ; the remainder have been reported

Olare Island Survey—Mavrine Algae. 15 167

to occur more or less frequently as far north as Norfolk. When Yorkshire is
reached, the four boreal species, Odonthalia, Rhodomela lycopodioides, Ptilota
plumosa, and Callithamnion arbuscula, become noticeable and are abundant from
this county northwards. The east of Scotland possesses a similar type of
flora, and additional northern forms appear (e.g. Stictyosiphon, Euthora). The
Orkney Islands, on the other hand, show a southern element, which is
doubtless present also in the Hebrides. Details as to the flora of the Hebrides
and the connexion with S.E. Scotland, N.W. and N.E. Ireland:would be of
great interest.

Faerdes.—The British and Faeroese floras have already been elaborately
compared by Bérgesen (05, pp. 784-788) ; and the Clare Island investigations
do not materially modify his statements. Borgesen naturally was most
concerned with the flora of Scotland and the Shetlands; and in conclusion he
states that “the Faerdese algal flora must be regarded as a rather poor
selection of the algae of Scotland and the adjacent islands, as almost all the
Faerdese algae are found on the coasts of Scotland; whereas Scotland, on the
other hand, has a very great number of species which are wanting at the
Faerdes. The greatest resemblance is between the Faerdese flora and that of
the Shetland Islands; the Faerdes have a few, perhaps no more than six,
specially northern species, which will probably not be found in the Shetland
Islands.” The six species referred to are Alaria Pylaii, Rhodophyllis
dichotoma, Halosaccion vramentacewm, Ptilota pectinata, Rhodochorton
pemeiliforme, and Lithothamniwm laeve. Of these the Rhodochorton has
since been recorded as British (Batters, Journ. Bot., 06, p. 3); and a
somewhat doubtful record of Z. /aeve exists for Ireland. The first four,
however, could not easily be overlooked; and it is very unlikely that they
extend as far south as the British Isles. With regard to Ireland, other
species might be added to Borgesen’s list, as several which he assumes may be
found in the north of Scotland will hardly descend to Ulster; and Fucus
inflatus, Huthora cristata, and Antithammion floccosum, known on the east of
Scotland or Shetland, have never been found in Ireland. The curious over-
lapping of north and south in the algal flora of the west of Ireland consists,
as one would expect, in a continuous southern extension in the range of
certain boreal species rather than in the presence of isolated patches.

France and Spain.—The flora of France and the Bay of Biscay is of special
interest, and may be outlined here. The species found in Normandy and
Brittany are practically the same as those of Devon and Cornwall, though
doubtless in Brittany the southern element is present in greater quantity.
South of the Loire the flora undergoes a change; and in the Biarritz and
Guéthary neighbourhood it possesses a decidedly southern facies, Fucus and

15 168 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Ascophyllum are practically absent from Biarritz, and such plants as
Spathoglossum Sokerti and Liagora viseida ave of frequent occurrence.
On the north coast of Spain these southern species cease to flourish;
and a vegetation of the Brittany type re-appears. At Cape Ortegal
the flora changes again; and, by the advent of such algae as Phyllaria
purpurascens and Laminaria pallida, it yveceives a stamp which is
characteristic of Cadiz and Morocco (see Sauvageau, 97). There appears
to be no element in the Irish flora which is specially characteristic of
the Spanish peninsula. Many species are common to both countries; but
these for the most part extend right up the coast of France, and are also
to be met with on both sides of the English Channel. The Biarritz neigh-
bourhood is peculiar in possessing a flora of particularly austral type.

Neither is there any evidence of a S.W. France or Mediterranean
element, such as is represented amongst flowering-plants by Dabeocia and
Erica mediterranea. The two Mediterranean algae for which the west of
Treland was specially noted were both wrongly named; and a third less
familiar species, with the same geographical distribution, has had to be struck
off the list. The record of Codium elongatum (a native of the South of France
and North Africa) was an error for C. mucronatum; Lithophyllum dentatum (a
species not known outside the Mediterranean) must be replaced by
L. inerustans var. subdichotomum (teste Lemoine, p. 146); and Peyssonnelia rubra,
though still a puzzle, was certainly an erroneous determination. The last-
named has been recorded from many warm-temperate and tropical regions,
often incorrectly. It was originally described from the Ionian Islands, and
in the British Isles was supposed to occur at Roundstone and Plymouth.
The species of the genus are singularly difficult to differentiate; but whatever
the Ivish plant may be, it is clear from an examination of the type specimens
that it is not P. rubra. On the other hand, Bornetia secundifiora, which is
abundant in the Mediterranean, and found sparingly in Brittany, Devon, and
Cornwall, and more frequently in west France, may be added as a rare
plant to the west-coast list. ‘The majority of the southern species listed for
Clare Island appear to have their headquarters in S.W. England, W. France,
and N. Spain, rather than in southern Europe.

4. ORIGIN OF THE Fora.

The origin of the algal flora at present found in the Survey area is a
subject as to which we have very little to guide us. The source of the Clare
Island flora as distinct from the mainland presents, of course, no difficulty,
whatever view be taken as to the date and manner of the formation of the
island, But any theory as to the origin of the marine flora of the west of

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 169

Jreland must be highly speculative, since our knowledge of the rapidity with
which algae extend their range is very meagre, and fossil evidence (with
regard to our area) is absolutely wanting. For this reason the most important
data are those furnished by the study of the general distribution of the species,
and by a recognition, if possible, of the presence of any definite phyto-
geographic groups. Borgesen (’05, p. 805) has summarized the views
propounded by Kjellmann and Reinke as to the origin of the North Atlantic
algal flora, which, in a word, is said to consist of a mixture of old atlantic and
arctic elements. The question of the survival of plant-life in Ireland during
the Ice Age, as to which there is so much difference of opinion, I leave to
others, and will confine my remarks to phytogeographic observations, and to
features in the Clare Island flora which appear to be of interest. Such may
be of service to those engaged in the study of the antecedents of the present
Irish fauna and flora.

Although the flora contains a decidedly larger proportion of southern
forms than corresponding areas in England and Wales, there appears to be no
element, such as is found amongst Phanerogams, which is strikingly austral.
The southern species extend, probably without exception, along the south
Irish coast, and are found in Devon, Cornwall, and Brittany ; many also
occur in the Bay of Biscay and on the north coast of Spain. Their range
being continuous is, therefore, not remarkable. No notably Spanish or
Mediterranean species are found. A boreal element of a special character is,
on the other hand, recognizable, the abundance of Callithamnion arbuscula and
Ptilota plumosa being very striking in an area where the general facies is of
a much more southern type. Neither of these species occurs in the south of
England, nor have they been recorded south of Yorkshire and Anglesea.
Their position on the Irish west coast is, however, not isolated, but is merely
a continuous southern extension of their range. But, as a result, there is in
the marine flora, as in the terrestrial, a distinct mingling of north and south.
Other boreal algae might be mentioned; but these are not so abundant, nor
has their distribution been so carefully ascertained.

The presence on the west coast of Iveland of a boreal element which is
absent from the south of England, is a familiar problem to the Irish botanist.
In the case of the algae cited above, the question of a land-connexion between
England and Ireland need not be discussed, since the plants already oecur in
the northern part of Great Britain. It would appear, therefore, that the
climatic or other conditions of the southern counties are unfavourable for the
growth of these species. With regard to climatic factors, it is well known
that extremes are more important than the mean; and from this we might
conclude that, in the equable climate of Ireland, the maximum temperature

R.I.A, PROO., VOL. XXXI. Y 15

15 170 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

which the plants can endure is not reached during summer, but that in the
south of England this point is exceeded. The meteorological office reports
show, however, that though the atmospheric temperature in S.W. England
exceeds in summer that of S.W. Ireland, the sea-temperature is practically
the same! The temperature factor then may explain the absence of the
littoral C. arbuscula, but hardly that of the sub-littoral Ptilota. The physical
nature of the coast has also to be considered. Both the algae mentioned
require rocky ground. Ptilota grows on the stipes of Laminaria Cloustoni (a
stout species demanding a very firm bottom): and (. arbuscula is found only
on exposed rocks in the littoral region: from shores of sand, shingle, or soft
rock they would therefore be absent. On the east of England, stretches of
hard rock in the four counties immediately south of Yorkshire are very scarce;
and it is most probable that both plants would extend much further south
were such rocks available. For Wales and S.W. England, however, this
difficulty does not exist.

Another theory that presents itself is the possibility that, owing to more
recent geographical changes in the English coast-line, C. arbuscula and
P. plumosa ave still advancing in the Irish and North Seas, and that they have
not yet reached their southern limit. The conditions (e.g., currents, nature of
coast, ete.) may have been less favourable to their progress than in Ireland.
This, however, is improbable, as the dispersal of marine algae by spores
appears to be an easy and comparatively rapid process. Ptilota, moreover, is
readily transported, being found washed ashore in abundance, and often in a
bleached state. Such specimens (which are possibly of distant origin)
frequently possess cystocarps containing presumably healthy spores. Currents
do not appear to offer any resistance to the southern advance of algae in the
Irish Channel.

From these considerations it is probable that the geographical theory does
not meet the case, and that ecological factors ave more likely to explain it. If
this be so, the scarcity of hard rocks may have limited the range of these
boreal species in the North Sea; and a high summer temperature may have
prevented Callithamnion arbuscula from settling down on our south-west coast.
Ptilota remains a puzzle. Numerous points present themselves which would
be worthy of inquiry; but with its precise distribution in Wales and Iveland
uncertain, these must be left for future consideration.

The only geographic types recognized worthy of discussion here are the

! The ayerage sea-temperatures for the past five years for Seafield (Co. Clare) and Plymouth
during the summer months are almost identical. But during 1911 the Plymouth average from
July 15 to September 9 was distinctly higher. The more eastern counties (Kent, Sussex) possess a
much higher sea-temperature in summer than Deyon and Cornwall.

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algac. 15 171

austral and southern elements dealt with above; but a further word may
be said as to the comparison between the east and west coasts of Ireland.
As far as can be seen from records, and from a study of herbarium material,
the east-coast flora is characterized not so much by a poverty of species
as by a smaller proportion of the austral element, and by a lack of the
special luxurianee characteristic of the west. It appears useless at present
to attempt to pronounce an opinion as to the origin of the species on
either coast. The fact that Colpomenia sinuosa can suddenly appear in
Brittany and Cornwall, and in the course of a few years be completely
naturalized over a very large area on both sides of the English Channel,
proves how quickly changes may take place, and how easily we may err in
discussing the age and history of a flora.

There remain two isolated species to be noted. Bonnemaisonia hamifera,
a fairly conspicuous and unmistakable alga, is elsewhere in Europe known
only from a few stations on either side of the English Channel. It occurs
in the North Pacific (Japan and California), and has usually been regarded as
an alien in this country. The plant is dealt with on p, 136; but nothing can be
stated as to origin in Clare Island, owing to our complete ignorance of its
range in Ireland. Codium mucronatum var. atlanticum is even more note-
worthy. So closely allied to the New Zealand form of the species as to be
almost inseparable from it, and yet unknown in the northern hemisphere
except in the British Isles, its distribution is certainly remarkable. As far as
is known, it does not occur in England, but has existed in Scotland for at
least seventy years, and in Ireland for upwards of a hundred. Its precise
range has not yet been ascertained. Until each species of our flora is
recognized, and until its range is accurately determined, plenty of work
remains for the systematic algologist. Common species need not be despised.
On Clare Island some of the most abundant and conspicuous algae have
proved the most interesting ; and yet, owing to lack of data concerning their
distribution, we are hampered in drawing theoretical conclusions.

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Prrersen, H. H. (11). Ceramium Studies, i and ii. Bot. Tidsskr., Bind 31,
p- 97.
Rarrray, J. ('86). The distribution of the Marine Algae of the Firth of Forth.
Trans. Edinb. Bot. Soc., xvi, p. 420.
Rerke, J. (’89). Algenfiora der westlichen Ostsee deutschen Antheils. VI. Bericht
der Kommission zur Untersuchung der deutschen Meere. Kiel.
(92). Atlas deutscher Meeresalgen. Berlin.
(‘92b). Giiste der Ostseeflora. Berichte d. deutsch. bot. Gesellsch., x, p. 4.
Rosenvinee, L. Kolderup (’94). Les Algues Marines du Groenland. Ann. Sci.
Nat., Bot., (7), xix, p. 58.
(98). Deuxiéme Mémoire sur les Algues Marines du Groenland. (Med-
delelser om Gronland, xx).

Clare Island Survey—Marine Algae. 15 175

Rosenvince, L. Kolderup (’99). Sur la végétation d’Algues marines sur les cotes
du Groenland. (Idem, p. 339.)
(09). The Marine Algae of Denmark. Part 1. D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk.
Selfk. Skrifter, R. 7. t. vii.
Sauvaceau, C. (97), Note préliminaire sur les Algues marines du Golfe de
Gascogne. Journ. de Bot., xi, p. 166.
(97). Sur quelques Myrionémacées. Ann. des Sci. Nat., Bot., (8), v, p. 161.
(706). A propos du Colpomenia sinuosa signalé dans les huitriéres . . . de
Vannes. Bull. Sci. d’Arcachon, ix, p. 35.
(08). Sur deux Fucus récoltés 4 Arcachon. Soe. Sci. d’Arcachon, Travaux
des Lab., Année xi, p. 65.
Scuiuer, J. (09). Ueber Algentransport und Migrationsformationen im Meere.
Internat. Rey. der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, Band ii,
p. 62.
Sewarp, A. C. (94). Algae as rock-building organisms. Science Progress:
ser. i, vol. ii, p. 10.
Simmons, H. G. (’97). Zur Kenntnis der Meeresalgen-Flora der Faeréer. Hedwigia,
XXxvi, p. 247.
Sxinner, 8. A. (03). Observations on the Tide-pool Vegetation of Port Renfrew.
Minnesota Bot. Studies, (8), ii, p. 145.
SxorrsBerG, C. (’06). Observations on the Vegetation of the AntarcticSea. Bot.
Stud. tillagnade F. R. Kjellman, p. 245. Upsala.
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p. 717. Reprinted in Journ. Pharm. Soc., (8), xiv.
Svepeuius, N. (01). Studier 6fver Ostersjons Hafsalgflora. Akademisk. Afhand-
ling. Upsala.
(06). Uber die Algenvegetation eines ceylonischen Korallenriffes. Bot. Stud.
tillagnade F’. R. Kjellman, p. 184. Upsala.
Tanstey, A. G.(’11). Types of British Vegetation. Cambridge.
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Zool. Botan. Ges. in Wien, iii, Heft 3.
Toster, F. (’06). Zur Biologie der Epiphyten im Meere. Berichte d. deutsch.
bot. Ges., xxiv, p. 552.
Weser Van Bossz, A., and M. Fost (04). The Corallinaceae of the Siboga-
Expedition, Monograph Ixi. Leyden.
Weiss, F. BE. (’00). Algae of Valencia Harbour. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. (3), v,
p. 799.
Witte, N. (10). Algologische Notizen, xvi-xxi. Nyt. Mag. f. Naturvidensk.,
B. 48.

15 176 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Prats I.

Porphyra umbilicalis association on south shore of Clare Island in July
(1910). The Porphyra belt at this spot takes the place of Fucus spiralis, and
occurs between the bands of Pelvetia and F. vesiculosus, var. evesiculosus. It is
thus somewhat higher than usual. The shore is exposed and rather steep.

Puate II.

Boulder-beach between Portlea and the lighthouse, showing broken char-
acter of zones and associations. The Pelvetia belt is practically absent, and
the zones of Fucus spiralis and F. vesiculosus which follow are interrupted and
discontinuous. In the foreground Himanthalia with the usual undergrowth
of Lawrencia pinnatifida is seen, and also the beginning of the F. serratus
vegetation. Gigartina joins the Laurencia band in the lower levels, and
Rhodymenia palmata hangs from the shady sides of boulders.

Prare III.

Shallow rock-pool on south shore, half-tide level. Showing more or less
continuous covering of Lithophyllum inerustans with characteristic lip-lke
protuberances (centre). Several tufts of Polysiphonia fruticulosa occur, and
in the upper left-hand corner Corallina officinalis and the more southern
C'. squamata axe seen together. To the extreme right is Polysiphonia Brodiaet
(upper corner). In pools of this kind small plants of Codiwm mucronatum
var. atlanticum ave frequent.

Pate IV.

“Coral beaches” in Mannin Bay, Co. Galway. The white sand of the
beach is composed of finely broken fronds of Lithothamnium caleareum, which
are washed ashore from the Lithothamnium association in the Bay. In some
beaches a few rocks are present, but these are largely devoid of algae (fig. 2).
The weed washed ashore in foreground is Zostera. Photographed at low-
water by Dr. G. H. Pethybridge, October, 1911.

PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—Lithothamnium sand from Mannin Bay. Medium-grained sand
frem the middle part of the beach (nat. size). At high-water mark the sand is
very coarse, and contains shells and Lithothamniwm knolls; at low-water it is
extremely fine, and its origin is hardly discernible without a microscope.

Clare Island Survey— Marine Algae. 15 177

Fie. 2.—“ Fucus farm” in Achill Sound. Photograph of Blind Sound
(near Darby’s Point) at low-water, showing stones with growth of Fucus. The
stones are set out (often in regular rows) by the cottagers, and become rapidly
colonized by Fucus vesiculosus, which, at the end of the second season, is cut
for use as manure.

Puate VI.

Fucus vesiculosus var. muscoides var. nov.

Fic. 1.—Dried specimens of individual plants (slightly less than natural
size). The specimens in the two upper rows are from the dense mossy growth
seen in fig. 2; those from the lower are from the margins of such growth,
where increased space and moisture allow of better development. In the
lowermost specimen to the right two male receptacles are recognisable.

Fic 2.—Small piece cut out from var. muscoides sward in Achill Sound.
The sward forms a narrow irregular zone in several parts of the Sound. It is
more or less mixed with Statice maritima, Glyceria maritima, Salicornia,
spp., ete. and in the month of May is particularly attractive, owimg to the
bright pink flowers of the first-named. Photo by Mr. G. Massee of tuft
brought back to Kew (slightly reduced).

Puate VII.

Codiun mucronatum var. atlanticum var. nov., with a fragment of
C. tomentosum (nat. size). The drawings are made from dried specimens;
but the thick branches and robust habit of C. macronatum are noticeable. In
the living state the plants can readily be distinguished by this character; but
in dried specimens it is necessary to examine the utricles.

Piate VIII.
Utricles of Codium mucronatum and C. tomentosum.

1-2. C. tomentosum. Showing short utricles with the cell-wall thickened at
the apex. (Clare Island, Oct., 1910.)

3. C. mucronatum var. atlanticum yar. nov. Showing utricles double the
length of those of C. tomentosum, and considerably wider; apex even
or mucronate ; not thickened as in C. tomentosum. (Giant's Causeway,
May, 1910.)

4, C. mucronatum var. atlanticum var. noy. Note drumstick utricle
specially frequent in old plants. (Clare Island, April, 1909.)

5. CL mucronatum var, atlanticum var. nov., with gametangia (¢ ). (Roonah
Quay, June, 1910.)

R.1.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. Z 15

15 178 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

6. ©. mucronatum var. Novae Zelandiae. Note similarity of utricles to those
of the Irish plant. (New Zealand, Herb. Kew.) ;

7. ©. mucronatum var. tasmanicum. Apex of utricle very pointed.
(Tasmania, Herb. Kew.)

8. C. mucronatum var. californicum. Mucro long, blunt; often apparently
articulate. (California, Herb. Kew.)

Puate IX.
Ptilothamnion lucifugum sp. nov.

1. Decumbent and upright fronds, showing irregularly produced branches
and pinnae. (xc. 15.)

Part of a branch showing pinnae and forked pinnulae. The pinnae are
occasionally opposite; but usually the opposite pinna remains
practically undeveloped. (x 80.)

3. End of pinna. (x 140.)

4+, Pinnulae with antheridia. (x 140.)

5-6. Part of decumbent branch showing rhizoidal pinnae, which occasionally

terminate in a more or less discoid expansion. (x 140.)

bo

PLATE X,
1-2. Calothrix endophytica sp. nov.

1, Portion of Enteromorpha frond showing Calothrix filaments within the
cavity. (x 400.) 2. Cluster of short filaments, with the basal
heterocysts (normal). (x 500.) 5. Longer filaments, with basal and
intercalary heterocysts. (x 500.)

4-9. Ascocyclus Saccharinae sp. nov.

4. JDiscoid thallus, easily separable into filaments. 5. Assimilating
filaments and young ascocysts. 6. Assimilating filaments and
young sporangia. 7. Sporangia and haiis, with basal sheath.
8. Sporangia, and two empty ascocysts. 9. Two ascocysts with
contracted contents. (x 400.)

10. Nitophyllum uncinatum J. Ag., showing irregular fronds and acuminate
branches. (Dried specimen, nat. size.)

11. WV. laceratum var. uncinatum Grey. Quite distinct from the last, being
merely a variety with uncinate branches of the common W. luceratum
(nat. size).

PLATE XI.

Map of the Clare Island District.

Proc. R.I.AcaD., VOL. XX XI. PART 15, Prats L.

The Porphyra association of exposed shores, Clare Island. R. Welch, phofo.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—COTTON: MARINE ALGAE.

big

Proc. R.I.AcAD., VoL. XXXI. PART 15, PLATE II,

Boulder Beach at Portlea, showing discontinuous zonation. R. Welch, phovo.

CLARE IsLtanD SuURVEY.—Corron: MARINE ALGAE.

‘AVOTY AFNINVIN ? NOLLOO—'ATAMNS ANVIST AXVID

-ogoyg ‘YD]PA\ “AL ssunjsnagun ung Ky goyzr 7 JO BULIAAOD YATA TOod-31901 MOT[LYS

Li pee

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re

Proc. R.L.AcCAb., VoL. XXXII. PART 15, PLATE IV.

J

FiG. 2. G. H. Pethybridge, Ahofo
‘Coral Beaches’? in Mannin Bay. Sand composed of broken fronds of Lithothamnium calcareum.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—COTYON: MARINE ALGAE.

aici 2G
rt * 475
wiz

33

Proc. R.I.ACAD., VoL. XXXI. PART 15, PLATE V.

SS
Cis

5
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“sees

ee

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ee

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G. H. Pethybridge, Ahoto.

Fic. 1.—Lithothamnium sand from beach in Mannin Bay.

T. J. Westropp, photo.

Fic. 2.—Fucus farms in Achill Sound.

CLARE IRELAND SURVEY.—COo?TTON: MARINE ALGAE.

Proc. R.I.ACAD., VoL. XXXI. PAR? 15, PLate VI.

:
vy *

res
ye P|

—=

TG.) 2: G. Massee, psofo.

Fucus vesiculosus var. muscotdes var. nov.

yard formed by the same, with scattered plants of
Statice maritima.

Fig. 1.—Individual plants. Fig. 2.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—CO?TTON: MARINE ALGAE.

‘UVOTY ANIYVIN ?NOLLOQ—'AHAUNS ANVIST AYVIO
“(QYStt 07 JuOUISL.Yy) “YDS zwzs0z001102 “7D

*(Queyd aToyM\) “AOU “AVA 272917UD]ID “AVA ULMJDUOAINUL Unipod

TIA aivig ‘$1 1avg IXXX “IO, “aAvoy Ty “90%

Proc. R.I.AcaAp., VOL. XX XI. PART 15, Prater VIII.

fs
ZS,

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Codium tomentosum.

9 2
3-5 C. mucronatum vay. atlanticum,
6

00 nH 5, Novae Zelandiae.
, tasmanicum.
5, tasmanicr

es
/
8 ” », Californicum.

CLARE ISLAND SuRVEY.—Corron: MARINE ALGAR,

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PART.15, PLATE 1X.

PROC. R.LACAD. Vou. XXXII.

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Ptilothamnion lucifugum, sp. nor.

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY,— COTTON: MARINE ALGARB.

IPA W105), IPL AMIN, OX.

ROC. R.IACAD. Vou. XXX1. ©

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Del. A.D.C.

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itt,

4-9 Ascocyelus Saccharinae, sp. nor.

J. Ag.

Calothrix endophytica sp. nor.

10. Nitophyllum uncinatum ,

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Clare Island Survey.

16
FRESH-WATER ALGAE,

WITH A SUPPLEMENT OF MARINE DIATOMS.

By WILLIAM WEST, F.LS.

Puates I.-II.

Read Aprit 22. Published Jury 6, 1912.

I MADE two special visits to the district dealt with by this Survey at Whitsun-
tide, 1910, and Whitsuntide, 1911, and collected a great deal of material. The
hundreds of gatherings were made from as varied habitats as possible, and
have since been worked out microscopically. Collecting was carried on over
the whole of the district, from Achill Island round by Curraun and Westport
to Louisburgh and Mweelrea; inland as far as Castlebar; and on Clare Island
itself. I have also utilized much other material that I had collected from
the district on several previous visits; and I have to thank the following
gentlemen for the opportunity of examining material collected by them :—
Messrs. Lancelot Bayly, A. D. Cotton, J. W. H. Johnson, R. Ll. Praeger,
L. B.‘Smyth, and G, H. Wailes. Mr. Wailes collected the material from
Inishturk, Inishbofin, and Caher Island; these collections were all from
additional localities of much interest, and consequently have greatly enriched
this paper. The list of halophilous Diatoms has been very considerably
enhanced by means of the excellent material collected by Messrs. Smyth and
Cotton; my own collections of marine material were limited and were not
made for the purpose of this Survey, as I was then unaware that I was to
be asked to examine and enumerate the marine Diatoms as well as the
fresh-water ones.

Previous work in the district of this Survey has not been very considerable.
Archer’s records are the earliest, but those from Mayo are few when com-
pared with his numerous observations from such counties as Dublin and
Wicklow. With regard to Diatoms, O’Meara did excellent work at the
greater part of Ireland; but Iam not aware of any detailed work by anyone at
the district under consideration. In a Paper’ I published twenty years ago,

1W. West: A Contribution to the Fresh-water Algae of W. Ireland. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot.,
xxix, 1892.

R.-I,A, PROC., VOL. XXXI, A 16

16 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

a number of records of Algae in general from near Westport were enumerated.
In 1906 I published a Paper’ in conjunction with my son, Prof. G. S. West,
in which some records were given for the plankton occurring in Lough Keel
and Lough Acorrymore, Achill Island. A fair number of other records of
Desmids have been published in “ British Desmidiaceae * for near Westport,
Castlebar, and Achill Island. From Clare Island itself and the Louisburgh
district I do not know of any previous records.

The district is very rich in Algae; 887 species, 254 varieties, and 46
forms have been collected,’ and the investigation has resulted in extending
the known distribution of a large number of species, in adding 157 species
to the number of those already known for Ireland, in adding 19 species to
those already known for the British Isles, as well as adding to science 6 new

species, 27 varieties, and 7 forms. The new species are as follows :—
Hormospora ellipsoidea Synechococcus minutus
Ankistrodesmus Selenastrum Microcystis minutissima
Reinschiella curvata Lyngbya cliarense

As an example of a remarkable extension of range, one genus with its
single species was known previously only from one locality in Colorado. As
was anticipated for this class of plants, the species occurring on the island
are very much the same as those occurring in similar localities on the
adjacent mainland, the conditions being similar. The Algae are, as usual,
much scarcer on the Carboniferous limestone of the mainland than on other
rocks, from the natural comparative scarcity of wet places there, as well as
from the caleiphobic character of many species.

A few associations, out of many lists that were made, are enumerated;
these may be of some interest in these days of ecology-worship. It will be
noticed that the lists of species enumerated vary very considerably though
obtained from similar pools with similar surrounding influences.

In all the bogs of this district, the gigantic thiobacterium H7//housia
mirabilis was abundant. Another smaller species of this genus was also
frequent and is being investigated by the authors of the larger species; the
smaller species has been found in England also.

Although the list which follows is a fairly long one, with many localities,

1W. und G. S. West: A comparative study of the Plankton of some Irish Lakes. ‘Trane.
Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxxiii, Sect. B, Part 11, 1906.

* W. and G. S. West: British Desmidiaceae, vols. i, ii, iii, and iv. Ray Society, 1904, 1905,
1908, 1911. :

Made up as follows:—Fresh-water Algae, 769 species, 230 varieties, 40 forms; Marine
Diatoms, 118 species, 24 varieties, 6 forms,

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 3

the microscopical examination of the material having occupied considerably
more than a thousand hours, the district cannot be said to be exhausted by
any means.

When measurements are given, they apply only to the specimens actually
measured: hundreds of specimens of many species were observed, but
comparatively few were measured.

At first I made lists from the different divisions of Clare Island; but as I
found they were increasing in similarity as work proceeded, I thought it best
to merge them into one.

Many other Algae were collected, which, on account of their barren con-
dition, or by reason of the few specimens seen, could not be determined with
certainty, such as species of Oedogonium, Zygnema, Spirogyra, Mougeotia, Ke.

It is possible that a few brackish-water forms, and even a few marine
ones, may occur in the list of fresh-water Diatoms, this being due to the fact
that some of the fresh-water lakes and pools are close to the sea and often
frequented by gulls, and sprinkled with storm-spray from the sea during
gales ; I have noticed this commingling from the Outer Hebrides and similar
places. As far as I know, I have not repeated a name in the list of marine
Diatoms which had already occurred in the list of those from fresh water.

To show how marine and fresh-water species get mixed in such places
as tidal rivers, I give a list of ten species out of many others from the mouth
of the Bunowen River, Louisburgh, at about the limit of high tide; the first
five are fresh-water forms, the others marine ones :—Ceratoneis Arcus, Melosira
varians, Survrella ovalis, Gomphonema constrictum, Synedra Acus, Hantzschia
virgata, Rhabdonema adriaticum, Amphora salina, Navicula palpebralis, and
NV. digitoradiata.

As other reports of the series (see Report 10, Phanerogamia) have dealt or
will deal with questions of soil, &c., it is only necessary for me to say that the
prevalent soil where most of the collections were made is peaty, that the rain-
fall is heavy—about 60 inches—and that the climate is mild even in
winter.

I must here express my great indebtedness to Mr. J. Adams, .., for the
trouble he has taken in kindly adding up the number of species, &e., and
analyzing the new records for tabulation.

Species now for the first time recorded for Ireland are distinguished by
an asterisk ; those new to the British Isles by two asterisks; while species,
varieties, and forms new to science are printed in capital letters.

A2

16 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

CONTRACTIONS USED FOR LOCALITIES.

Ac = Lough Acorrymore, Achill IT = Lake on Inishturk.

Island. K = Keel Lough, Achill Island.
AS = Near Achill Sound. L = Near Louisburgh.
B = Church Lake, Inishbofin. LG = Lough Gall, Achill Island.
C = Clare Island. M = Near Mulranny.
CP = Croaghpatrick. Mw = Mweelaun.
Cr = Near Castlebar. RL = Roonah Lough.
CI = Caher Island. S = Slievemore, Achill Island.
Cn = Croaghaun, Achill Island. SL = Sraheens Lough, Achill Island.
D = Near Dugort, Achill Island. VL = Valley Lough, Achill Island.
DL = Doo Lough. W = Near Westport.

T = Inishbofin.
’ LIST OF SPECIES.
Class RHODOPHYCEAE.
Order NEMALIONACEAE.

Fam. Helminthocladieae.
Batrachospermum vagum Ag.—C, AS, I, D, Cn.

Fam. Lemaneaceae.
Sacheria mamillosa Sirod.—C.

Class CHARACEAE.

The following localities are taken mostly from papers on the botany of
the district between Mulranny and Castlebar by Rev. E. G. Marshall, and of
Clare Island, Achill, and Inishturk, by R. Ll. Praeger?; the balance are from
Ms. notes by the latter. All Mr. Praeger’s specimens were verified by
H. and J. Groves. I did not collect Characeae during my two visits.

Chara fragilis Desv.—Newport ; Castlebar; Clare I.; Achill I.; Inishturk.
var. barbata Gant.—Clare I.
var. delicatula Braun.—Clare I.

©, aspera Willd—Newport; Castlebar; Achill. ~
var. subinermis Kuetz.—Achill.

1 Journ. Bot., xxxviii, [84. 1900.

“Trish Nat., xii, 277, 1903; xiii, 265, 1904; xvi, 113, 1907.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 5

C. polyacantha Braun.—Castlebay.

C. vulgaris L.—Mulranny ; Achill.

Nitella translucens Ag.—Newport; Clare I.

N. opaca Ag.— Newport; Castlebar ; Achill; Clare I.

Class CHLOROPHYCEAE.
Order OEDOGONIALES.
Fam. Oedogoniaceae.

*Bulbochaete Brebissonii Kiitz.—I.
gigantea Pringsh.— W.
insignis Pringsh.—LG.
mirabilis Wittr.—C.
Oedogonium Braunii Kiitz.—C.
crispum (Hass.) Wittr.—C, vegetative cells 10-15 broad, 4 to 6 times
longer, oogonia (average) 404 wide, 36u high.
cryptoporum Wittr.—C, veg. cells 44 x 7=7:5u, oogonia 27 broad
21: long.
var. vulgare Wittr.—C.
*siganteum Kiitz.—L.
Itzigsohnii De Bary, var. minus West.—D. lat. cell 5:8-7y, lat.
oogonia 25 — 26u.
macrandrum Wittr.—VL.
platygynum Wittr.—C.
**pusillum Kirchn.—C, vegetative cells 3°3 x 12m (average), oogonia 12,
broad, 144 long.
**propinquum Wittr.—VL.
punctato-striatum De Bary.—LG.
Rothii (Le Cl.) Pringsh—_VL, D.
undulatum (Bréb.).—A, Br, C, I.
*urbicum Wittr.—B.
Several other sterile species from many localities.

Order CHAETOPHORALES.
Fam. Herposteiraceae.
Herposteiron confervicola Niig.—C, K.

Fam. Ulotrichaceae.
*Ulothrix aequalis ICitz.—L; W, up to 18-20 broad, 26-30u long; C, B.
var, catenaeformis (Kiitz.) Rabenh.—1T,

16 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Vlothrix moniliformis Kiitz.—l.
subtilis Kiitz.—S, cell 8p lat., 5u long.; C.
var. variabilis (Kiitz.) Kirchn.—L, CO, Ac, I, CI, B, W, CP.
var. tenerrima (Kiitz.) Kirchn.—W, Mw.
tenuis Kiitz.—C; D, 15-17 broad, 4u long, from several places.
zonata (Web. et Mohr) Kiitz.—C, L, VL, Cl, Ac.

Hormospora ELLIPSOIDEA sp. nov.—H. lobulis subangustis, solitariis, et
subflexuosis ; cellulis approximatis sed demum subdistantibus,
diametro circiter 14—plo longioribus, polis rotundatis, 10°5-11-6u long,
75-83 lat., tubul. 15°5-16-5y lat. D.

*Binuclearia tatrana Wittr.—O, in many places, usually from 7-9 broad; 8;
CP, up to 11u broad ; Cn. ;

Fam. Chaetophoraceae.
Chaetophora pisiformis (Roth) Ag.—C.
elegans (Roth) Ag.—C.
Myxonema amoenum (Kiitz.) Hazen.—D.
protensum (Dillw.) Hazen.—SL.
nanum (Dillw.)—C.
fastigiatum (Kiitz.) Hazen.—C, SL, LG, Ac.
tenue (Ag.) Hazen.—S, CP.
Fam. Microthamniaceae.
Microthamnion Kuetzingianum Nag.—C; D, 3-3-5 broad, 14-17 long.
Fam. Trentepohliaceae.
Trentepohlia Iolithus Wallr.—Cliffs of Croaghmore.
aurea (L.) Mart.—W, OC, D, Cliffs of Croaghmore.
lichenicola (Ag.).—L, up to 10-12 broad, zoosporangia 16-20p.

Order ULVALES.
Fam. Ulvaceae.
Enteromorpha intestinalis (L.) Link.—C, frequent in quite fresh water.

Order SCHIZOGONIALES.
Fam. Prasiolaceae.
Prasiola parietina (Vauch.) Wille.—L, W, C.

Order MICROSPORALES.
Fam. Microsporaceae.
Microspora abbreviata (Rabenh.) Lagerh.—C, cells 11-12 broad, 13 times
longer than broad, average size; Cn, breadth 10-11u.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 7

Microspora amoena (Kiitz.) Lagerh.— L;_ C, 20-25 broad; M, I.
var. erassior Hansg.—W, lat. 23-254; D.
var. irregularius W. & G. S. West.— Ac, K: C, in several places,
21-24n broad.
floccosa (Vauch.). Thur.—W, C, D, Cr, Ac.
*fugacissima (Roth) Rabenh.—W, D, L, C.
pachyderma (Wille) Lagerh.—C, in several places, average 13°34 broad.
**stagnorum (ICiitz.) Lagerh.— W, 85-10, lat.

Order CLADOPHORALES.
Fam. Cladophoraceae.
Cladophora crispata (Roth) Kiitz—L, W, C, DL.
flavescens Ag.—W, L, C, Cr.
glomerata (L.) Kiitz—Cliffs of Croaghmore, width 53-82y, of branches
towards the tips 24u.
*Chaetomorpha sutoria (Berk.) Rabenh.—C.
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum Kiitz—C; W, 13-15:54 in diameter, 56 64u
long.
Order SIPHONEAE.
Fam. Vaucheriaceae.
Vaucheria spp.— Several, in different localities, but sterile. One from Clare
Island averaged Glu in thickness, another from Westport was from
100-110 in diameter.

Order CONJUGATAE.
Fam. Zygnemaceae.
Sub-fam. Mesocarpeae.
Mougeotia viridis (Kiitz.)—C, 8 broad, 10 to 15 times as long, zygospore
30u across the angles, 26u across the middle.
gracillima (Hass.) Wittr.—C, lat. cell. 5°5-6u, up to 156 long:
examples from other pools, 5-55 x 55-854: D, 6 broad. spores
20u across middle, 24u across the angles.
elegantula Wittr.—D, 40-48 long, 3°5-4y broad.
parvula (Hass.) Wittr.—D, 8u broad, zygospores 19n, spherical.
spp., several others from many different localities. sterile.
Sub-fam. Zygnemeae.
*Zygnema anomalum (Hass.) Cooke.—C, I, Cl, Cr.
eruciatum Ag.—Cr.
ericetorum (Kiitz.) Hansg.—L, C, D,

16 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Zygnema pectinatum Ag.—C, vegetative cells 35 broad, 92y long.
leiospermum De Bary.—C, breadth 18-19u, 2-3 times longer, zygosp.
25 x 30 (-33)u; S. W. of Dugort, 16-204 broad, 32-48 (rarely
52)u long, zygospores mostly spherical (sometimes ellipsoid),
24-27, mixed among sterile Spirogyra. (Plate I, fig. 3; Plate IT,
fig. 23.)
*Vaucherii Ag.— AS.
var. subtile Rabenh.—D, cell. 13--15,p lat., 3-4-plo longioribus,
The zygospores were as broad as the cells and sometimes
a little broader, distending them laterally, usually 13 times
as long as broad.
*parvulum (Kiitz.) Cooke.—C.
Spirogyra condensata (Vauch.) Kiutz.—C, lat. fil. 35-40u, lat. zygosp.
31-374; W, lat. fil. 51°35-33:5u, 48-644 long, zygosp. 31-32
x 42-464; 8S, a form with sub-spherical zygospores, lat. fil.
34-41'5u, zygosp. 36-39 lat.
*flavescens (Hass.) Rabenh.—C, VL.
*insignis (Hass.) Kititz.—C, lat. cell. 24-32, 3-6-plo
zygosp. 31-32 x 86-90p.
longata (Vauch.) Kiitz—L; W, lat. cell. 23-27, circa 5-plo longioribus,
zygosp. 28-32u, lat. usque 56u long.
porticalis (Vauch.) Cleve.—O, lat. cell. 36-434; W, lat. cell. 42-525,
2-3-plo longioribus, zygosp. 38-42 x 52-59y.
*quadrata (Hass.) Petit.—C, lat. fil. 19-22, saepe 12—16-plo longioribus,
zygosp. 53-35 x 60-85; L, lat. cell. usque 51u; CP, D.
*Weberi Kiitz.—VL.

tenuissima Hass.—D; ©, sterile cells 85-11 broad, 10 to 13 times as
long.

longioribus,

nitida (Dillw.) Link.—D, cells average 108m long x 72u broad.

varians (Hass.) Kiitz.—D, cells usually 13 to 2 times longer than broad,
28-524 wide, inflated on conjugating side, zygospores broadly
elliptic to roundish, 28-31 broad.

Fam. Desmidiaceae.
“Gonatozygon Brebissonii De Bary.—W ; L, forma 83 x 8:5-.
var. laeve W.. & G. S. West.—C, 128-9 x 8:5-9u, faintly
punctate under high power.

var. minutum W. & G.S. West.— M, 65 x 5:84; Cr, 95 x 5-6.

Kinahani (Arch.) Rabenh.—S, 343 x 14y; D, 250-256 « 152:
Slievemore, a small form, 152 x 10.

monotaenium De Bary.—W, Ac; C, small forms, 132 x 8:5.

; near

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 9

Spirotaenia minuta Thur.—SW of D, 24 x 6:5y..
obscura Ralfs.—D, 55 = 164u.
bispiralis West.—W.
condensata Bréb.—C, 165 x 254; D, 212 x 20n, a long narrow form,
smaller forms down to 122 x 19 with six turns of the spiral.
Mesotaenium chlamydosporum De Bary.—W ; D, 29-7 x 11: in another place
23 x11, 24 x 11°5y, 25 x 12p.
f. minor, W. & G. 8. West.—W; D, 20 x 9u.
De Greyi Turn.—I., 67-103 x 23-244; D; C, a short form intermediate
between type and var. breve, 70 x 21p.
var. tenuis W. & G. S. West. —D, an elongated form, 105 = 15.
endlicherianum Nag.—sS, 25 x 754; OC, 29:7 x 9:2u, another gathering
25°3 x T7773; D, 25 x 83m; Cr, 33 x 10p.
var. grande Nordst.—M, 538-54 x 13:3.
macrococcum (Kiitz.) Roy. & Biss.—L, 37 x 15w; C,37:15 x 54u; VL; CP,
35-85°5 x 14-14:5y.
var. micrococcum (Kiitz.) W. & G. S. West.—S, 19 x 8:3u; C.
Cylindrocystis Brebissonii Menegh.—C, AS, 8S; SL, 58 x 18u; CP, L, B, W, M;
D, up to 61 x 18-5.
var. minor W. & G. S. West.—M; D, 25 x 11-6y, short forms,
in another locality 41 x 12°54, some thick forms 29 x l4u.
crassa De Bary.—IT, SL, L, C, CP; D, 47 x 23:4u, in one place thick
specimens 47°5-48°3 x 25 (—28)u, also narrower forms 36°5 x 19:2y.
diplospora Jiund.—C, 68 x 29u, also from another place small forms
50 x 21n; SL, CL; CP, average size of some 65 x 287, others
64 x 24u; D, 59 x 24u, also 66 x 26y.
Netrium Digitus (Hhrenb.) Itzig. & Rothe.—C, up to 360 x 98u; D, M; IT, up
to 90u lat.; LG, I, SI., B, W, CP.
interruptum (Bréb.) Lutkem.—W, C.
var. sectum W. & G.S. West.—W.
Naegelii (Bréb.) W. & G. S. West.—I..
oblongum (De Bary) Lutk.—C.
var. ANGUSTATUM var. nov.—Vavr. cellulis distincte angustiori-
bus quam in forma, typica, 125 x 234. C,in sphagnum pool.
var. BREVIUS, var. nov.— Var. cellulis diametro 33-plo longiori-
bus. OC, 86 x 25, also 86 x 25 in another locality.
var. cylindricum W. & G. 8. West.—D, 89-108 x 225 23y, a
large form ; near L. Keel, Achill, 63-70 x 18°84; C, 79 x 18.
Penium cruciferum (De Bary) Wittr—M, 15x 8-4w: in a different gathering
in the same district wp to 27 x 12°54; W, 17x 98.
R,I,A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, B 16

16 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Penium curtum Bréb., f. intermedia Wille.—C, 39°5-40-5 x 15-4-16°5p.
cucurbitinum Biss.—M, L; D, 60 x 26-6y.
f. minor W. & G.S. West.—C, SL, M, D.

Cylindrus (Ehrenb.) Bréb.—C, 44 x 11-115”, common among
Utricularia minor; D; W, 35 x11, the forms seemed to have
smaller granules than usual, the newly formed cell-walls were
colourless, another gathermg measured 29-42 x 10°6-12pn.

didymocarpum Lund.—C, 38-39 x 13-135, also 35 x 14°3y.

exiguum West.—Cr, 17 x 6.

f, major W. & G.S. West.—S, 44-44°5 x 10°5-10°8u.
inconspicuum West.—C.

Jenneri Ralfs.—D.

margaritaceum Ralfs.—C.

mooreanum Arch.—W.

minutum (Ralfs) Cleve-—W ; S, 133 13°34; D, 152x 14y, 152 x 13:24,
119x l4u.

var. tumidum Wille.—D, 100 x l6n.

Navicula Bréb.—M, W; C, 48x14u,a rather long form occurred in
one place, 74x 15n; L, 461254; D, 49x 12°6y.

phymatospermum Nordst.—D, 33x liu; M, 30x142u; CP; C,
35°5 X 17-dp.

polymorphum Perty.—S, 55x 24:2u; D, 50x 24y, 60x 25p.

spinospermum Josh—C, 31x14y, 284x12-5u; S, 34x1du, also
26-7 x 13-44; D, 27-32 x 13-14u.

spirostriolatum Bark—W, LG; D, in several places, a short form
117 X 25°3n, others averaging 140 x 25.

truncatum Bréb.—W ; S W of D, 39x12°5n.

Roya Pseudoclosterium (Ruy.) W.& G. S. West.—D, 86-118 x 2°5-3y.
Closterium abruptum West.—C, M; L,155x 15-8y; Cr, 158 x 1dy, a little more
curved than type. Some forms from Clare Island were a little
longer than the type with narrower apices, average size 184x 15.
acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenb.—L, 320-323 x 33-34, 21° of are; S.W. of
D, 507 x 44, 24° of arc, also 490 x 48°8yu, 27° of are.

aciculare T. West, var. subpronum W. & G. S. West.—W, 498 x 6.

acutum Bréb.—W ; C, trom several places.
var, linea (Perty) W. & G.S. West.—W; D, average size 134 x 3-7.

angustatum Kiitz—W, 386 x 20n.
var. ASPERUM, var. nov.— Var. costis omnibus granulatis, granulis
subdistantibus, apicibus cellularum laevissime subrecurvatis.
W,, 457 xX 22u. (PL LI, fig. 5.)

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 161

Closterium Archerianum Cleve.—L, I, W; C, a form 285 x 21, not more than
110° of are.
attenuatum Ehrenb.—W, 597x40u; M.
calosporum Wittr.—C, CI; L, 148 11:6, 114° of are.
Cornu Ehrenb.—C, LG, W; L, 148x 6°3n.
var. ARCUM var. nov.—Var. cellulis curvatioribus usque 85° arci,
subparallelibus solum circa medium, 158 x 8:5. LG.
costatum Corda.—C, average size 355 x 52y, 80° of arc: in one place the
examples were rather narrow, 340 x 40n; IT, CI, W.
Cynthia De Not.—W, 156 x 16 average, 124° of arc; M.
Dianae Ehrenb.—C ; M, 250 x 26°5y, 128° of are; IT, L, LG. AS; CT,
285 x 29:1n; D, VL, Cr; I,some minor forms also from this locality,
163 x 14°5p.
var, arcuatum (Bréb.) Rabenh.—C, between apices 128 x 16°dy,
others 162-166 x 18, 155° of arc, a form approaching
type, but shorter: another gathering, 201-224x 19-21;
CI, 168 x 21:6, 184° of are; W, 137 x 183nu; L,
120 x 16:6, 150° of are.
didymotocum Corda—C; M, 4225x475, 425x48y, 428x46z,
345 x 425, 375x45p, breadth near apices 16-20, breadth at
20 from apex 25-28», 80-37° of arc; W.

*eboracense Turn., var. ACHILLENSE nov. var.—Var. cellulis semper
majoribus quam in forma typica, margine ventrali leviter sed
distincte tumido ad partem mediam. D; 8, 262x6l, (the last
measurement was the most constant, 27069», 257 x 61p,,
255 x 57-5p, 290 x 63p, 287 x 64). (PI. 1, fig. 13, Pl. 2. tig. 16 (poles).)

Ehrenbergii Menegh.—D, 353x56y; C, 348x73n; from a_ pool
on Croaghmore a large number of examples were measured: they
varied as follows :—353-748y long by 56-1064 wide; S, IT,
I, AS, W; L, short forms, 254 x 66p.

gracile Bréb.—-L, W; C, average size 172 x 6:6n.
var. tenue (Lemm.) W. & G. S. West.—W; M, 74x3°3;
8. W.of D, 82x 4uy.
incurvum Bréb.—C€I, 5210p, 185° of arc; L, 49x9°7u, 61x 9'6u,
50 Xx 10p.
intermedium Ralfs.—C, 260 x 22°5u, 224 22u, 294X215y, 33-36°
of arc: from another place, 250-260 x 17°5—- 20p, don On ares
M, L, W; D, 224x164; Cn, some peculiar small forms, 188-228 x
19-19°5y.
var. hibernicum West.— W.
B2

16 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Closterium Jenneri Ralfs.—C, M, VL, CI, W; Cr, 84x 11-1 2p.
yar. HIBERNICUM, var. nov.— Var. cellulis longioribus
angustioribusque quam in forma typica, et minus curvatis.
Long. inter apices 116y, lat. 11,, lat. prope apices, 4-5p,
120° of are. W.
juncidum Ralfs.—W, 110x9u, 206 10u, and 165x 8 from different
gatherings; D, 268 x 8.
var. elongatum Roy & Biss.—A little shorter than kh. & B.’s
variety, 342 X 12u.
var. brevior Roy.—194 x 14u.
Kuetzingii Bréb.—L, abundant in several places, 347 x 17u; SL, abundant
in the plankton, average size 417 x 17.
Leibleinii Iiitz—C, W; L, 157 x 23, 135° of are; D. Jn one pool in
Clare Island among Utricularia minor and Batrachospermum vagum,
a small very arcuate form occurred without ventral inflation,
101X175, 170° of arc.
var, OCCIDENTALE var. nov.— Var. cum parte mediana marginis
interioris subrecta, id est, cellula sine inflatione centvrali,
146-158 x 20°6-21°7u. L; DL, 153-158 x 25, 175° of are ;
W, 172 22y, 140° of arc, a form with middle of inner
margin distinctly, though very slightly, concave; W,
157 X 18°3u, 158° of are; D.
*Libellula Focke.——W.
var. interruptum W. & G. S. West.—M.
lineatum Ehrenb.—C, a small form, 356 x 18°74, 40° of are: from another
place, large forms, 573x30y, 34° of are; M,45-47° of arc; W, a small
form 334 x 16u, 40° of are.
Forma brevior, striis delicatissimis. A shorter form with
pale yellowish-brown cell-wall. I; M, 435 x 32u, 45-47° of are.
Lunula (Miull.) Nitzsch.—C, B, L, I, W; D, 657x116°€u; SL, 557x85y.
(Pl. 2, fig. 15 (form of poles)).
moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenb—W ; L, 269x435, 84° of arc; C, large much
curved forms, 378-390x63-66y, 140° of arc.
parvulum Nag.—, in one locality small forms 90 x 12, 132° of are: im
another place, 132 x Llu, 120° of arc; M, IT; L, 125 x 13:-6n; W,D; L
_ various forms, some 141-145 12-5, 122° of arc, near apices 4-5; K.
var, angustum W. & G.S. West.—C, 91-101 x 7-8, 125° of
are; I, 120° of arc; C.
praelongum Bréb. f. brevior West.—C, 360 x 164: from another
locality 220 x 134: none of the examples had as long a recurved
apex as 1s usually figured.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 15

Closterium pronum Bréb.—W; OC, 348-580 x 10°d-I1p.
f. BREVIUS f. nova.—Cellulis semper distinete brevioribus,
222-250 x 84-9n. C.

pritchardianum Arch.—D, 462 x 30u, 358 = 50:5, 545 = 30; C, large
forms, 495 x 5lu.

Pseudodianae Roy.—M ; C, 203 x 14m; CI, 193 x 12°54; W, 164 x 12y,
98° of arc: also asmaller form 155 x 11y, 84° of are. A small form
was seen from Clare Island, 130 x 9°60.

Ralfsii Bréb.—L, 882-584 = 38-39; C, 251 x 42u, a short form.

var. hybridum Rabenh.—W, 516-384, average breadth 32
Cr, 390 x 28.
rostratum Ehrenb.—L, AS, M, D; C, 330 x 25, 343 « 26-5.
var. brevirostratum West.—M, L; C, 248 x ae average.

setaceum Ehrenb.—I, C1; B, 11-12u praad Cr, 320 x 85.

striolatum Ehrenb.—W, 253 x 40u, 35° of arc; o very variable, short
forms 228 x 38p.

subulatum (Kiitz.) Bréb.—C, 215 x 10p.

*tumidum Johnson.—C, 106 x 176», a form with the ventral margin
almost straight in the middle part.

Toxon West.—C ; W, 206 x 10p.

var. VALIDUM var. nov.—Var. cellulis duplo crassioribus quam
in forma typica, 250-260 « 17°5-20n. C. (Pl. 1, fig. 6.)
turgidum Ehrenb.—C, W.
Ulna Focke.—D, 410 x 15y, breadth near apices 11; C, various lengths,
225, 275, 285, 3800, 310, 432:5, by 15-165» in breadth; CP,
295 x 22).
Venus Kiitz—C, B; W, 5566p, 165° of arc; M, 80x 98p, 138°
of are.
Docidium baculum Bréb.—C, W.
Pleurotaenium coronatum (Bréb.) Rabenh.—IT; OC, up to 464u long and
58u wide.
var, fluctuatum West.—SL, 575 x 54u, apex 50y.

Ehrenbergii (Bréb.) De Bary.—M, average size 448 x 24u at middle; VL,
IT, L, W, CI; C, 319 27-5 (just above the base of semicell)
Cr, 393 x 40, specimens up to 455» long.

var, granulatum Ralfs.—Cr, 240 x 17p.
Trabecula (Ehrenb.) Nag.—W.
f, clavata (Kiitz.) W.& G. 8. West.—W; C, 353 x 33°5pz.
var, rectissimum W. & a 5. West.—C, in Creggan Lough, a
form with practically parallel sides, 418 x 20y.

16 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Pleurotaenium truncatum (Bréb.) Niig.—L; Cr, 412x42u; W; C,425 x 56pz.
var. Farquharsonii (Roy and Biss.) W. & G. S. West.—L,
252 Xx 37-5p.
Tetmemorus Brebissonii (Menegh.) Ralfs.—S, 145x32u; M, I C; D,
151x332; CP; W, 100x26y. (Plate I, fig. 8.)
yar. minor De Bary.—C; D, 70x 20p, 62x 16p, 67 x 18p.
granulatus (Bréb.) Ralfs—C ; D, 160 x 302; IT, SL, L, CI, W, B, CP.
laevis (Kiitz.) Ralfs—AS, CP; D, 72x 18y: C, 82x21p, 75x 207p;
CI, W, VL: S,80x19,. This was with zygospore 8S. of Dugort. ends
retuse, sides almost straight (slightly convex), greatest length and
breadth 71x47p. (PI. 1, fig. 10.)
minutus De Bary.—W, LG: L, average size 57 x 17d; D, 58x 19p,
also 62-65 x 18-3» from another gathering.
Euastrum ampullaceum Ralfs.—C.
affine Ralis.—W.
ansatum Ralfs.—C, M, IT, L, W, VL,Cr; D,76x39n, 78 x 35pz.
bidentatum Nag.—IT, L: D, 52°5-58 x 55-36, frequent; W, frequent:
B, VL, 8; C, common in many places, 5036p, also 55x 37*dp:
CP; M, 46 x 34n; Cr.
binale (Turp.) Ehrenb.—C, 18-20x14-l6p, also 14:3x11]1p; W, Cr,
CoP):
f. secta ‘l'urn.—D, a small form, 16x 11p.
f. Gutwinski Schmidle.—C, 23-4x 17 (average size); W, CP,
Cn; D, 26°6-29 x 20-21 p.
var. subelobatum West.—C.
var. retusum West.—C.
f. hians West.—IT, B, I, LG, M.
f. minor West.—C, 10-12» long, 9-lly wide; D, 11-11:5p
broad, 11-12, long.
crassicolle Lund.—C.
crassum (Bréb.) Kiitz.—M, LG, W; D, 165 x 78-81p.
crispulum (Nordst.) W. & G.S. West.—C.
cuneatum Jenner.—D, 138 x 65y, isthmus 18,, a large form.
denticulatum (Kirchn.) Gay.—C, 24 x 18-64; M,IT, L, W,S, Cn.
Didelta (Turp.) Ralis—C, W; CP, 154 x 86p.
dubium Nag.—C, up to 36 = 216y; L.
elegans (Bréb.) Kiitz—C, 27-5 x 184; IT, SL, LG,I, B, W, D, VL; Cr,
30 x 192; M, 29 x 17-5p.
erosum Lund.—C.
gemmatum Bréb—W.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 15

Euastrum insulare Wittr.—W, 17:5 « 1154; M, LG; SW of D, 29 = 19y, in
one place a short wide form occurred 16 = 14y.
var. PARVUM, var. nov.—Var. cellulis similibus ad formam
typicam sed parvioribus et relative brevioribus, lobulis lateralibus
minus retusis, 12°5 x 10u. D; Cr, 14-17 « 12-13p.
montanum W. & G. 8. West.—C; LG, in this locality the examples had
more pyramidal semicells than in the type, causing the apices to he
relatively narrower; D, 27-5 x 20-5y, width of apex 12°5,.
oblongum (Grev.) Ralfs.—C, IT, W; M, 174 x 894; Cr, 166 x 83u; D.
(Plate I, fig. 1.)
var. cephalophorum West.—Cr, 158 x= 93x.
pectinatum Bréb.—C, W, M, VL, IT, LG, D.
var. inevolutum W. & G. S. West.—C.
pulchellum Bréb.—C, 38 x 33-364; M, 87 x 28u.
var. retusum W. & G. 8. West.—C.
rostratum Ralfs.—C; L, 52 x 30u; W.
sublobatum Bréb.—IT.
Turnerii West.—SL; Cr, 386-37°5 x 28°3p.
*validum W. & G. S. West.—M, 26°6 x 23:
ventricosum lLund.—M, W.
verrucosum Ehrenb.—W, D.
var. reductum Nordst.—IKX; LG.
Micrasterias apiculata (Ehrenb.) Menegh., var. fimbriata (Ralfs) Nordst.—
C, W.
Crux-melitensis Ralfs.—W ; Cr, 106 x 93», width of polar lobe 24:5.
denticulata Bréb—C, 224x194, 222x192, 2201962; W ; CP,
the following are measurements of some of the specimens in p:—
232 x 224, 238 x 212, 220 189, 224 x 224 (an example as broad as
long), 220 x 200, 216 x 182, 240 x 196, 228 x 208, 208x186. (PI. 1,
fig. 14, various forms of polar lobes; Plate II, figs. 17, 18).
var. angulosa (Hantzsch) W. & G.S. West.—C, 275 x 215p.
Jenneri Ralfs—W; D, 171 x 1235p.
var. simplex West.—D, 170 x 117».
oscitans Ralfs, var. mucronata (Dixon) Wille. —W; D, 171 x 128y, rare.
pinnatifida (Kiitz.) Ralfs.—W.
papillifera Bréb.—SL, W.
rotata (Grev.) Ralfs.— W.
Sol (Ehrenb.) Kiitz. (WZ. radiosa Ralfs).— W.
thomasiana Arch.—AS; D, 226-230 x 175-160.
truncata (Corda) Bréb—C, 106x 1034, 1141064; M, I, W; CP,
1382 x 110/and 145x121; D.

16 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib.—VL.
var. planctonicum W. & G. S. West—Plankton of LG.
f. minor W. & G. S. West.— W.

amoenum Bréb.—W; From several places in C, from 50x27 up to
59x 31p3; D,43°5 x 26p, 48 x 31p, 46°6 x 30p, 52°6 x 28y.

anceps Lund. var. crispulum Nordst.—L, 18°3 x 11-6p.

var. TATRICOIDES var. nov.—Var. cellulis relative latioribus,
cum isthmo ancipitis sed forma tatrici, cytiodermate glabra.
C, 33 x 21p.

angulosum Bréb. var. concinnum (Rabenh.) W. & G. S. West.—W.,
CP, D, L; C, 12x103, in several places. Im one of the
collections from Clare J. a large form was seen 21 x 18:2.

*binum Nordst.—W.

bioculatum Bréb.—W.

f. depressa Schaarschm.—S.W. of D, a small form 10,» long,
11p wide.

bipapillatum W. & G.S. West—W.

bipunctatum Borg.—W.

Blyttii Wille—SI., W; C, 16 x 14p.

Boeckii Wille.—L, D, VL, M, SL; C, 38x 34p.

Botrytis (Bory) Menegh.—C, J., CI; W, 55 x 504; DL, SL, LG, VL, Cr;
CP, rather large and wide examples, 80 x 68x.

var. mediolaeve West.—C, 65-67 x 51-53u, also in another
locality 59x49; W.

Brebissonii Menegh.—C, 106 x 76u; M; W, 100 x 68n.

Broomei Thw.—W.

caelatum Ralfs.—C, 48 x 44u; W.

var. spectabile (De Not.) Nordst.—D, 46 x 40-5n.
circulare Reinsch.—W.

f. minor W. & G. S. West.—W.
conspersum Ralfs.—W.

var. latum (Bréb.) W. & G. S. West.—Cr, 80 x 71.

contractum Kirchn.—M, a form between the type and var. el/upsoidewm
(Elfv.) W. & G. S. West.

corriense Bissett.—Cr, 39 x 29u.

crenatum Ralfs.—L; D, 21:5 x 19u.

Cucumis Corda W; M, rather broad forms, 65 x 434; I, B, L; CO, from
one locality on dripping rocks among Vaucheria a broad form
occurred 62 x 45u: from L. Creggan 65 x 37-5y, isthmus 20:8u; D,
a small form 52°6 x 28:3u.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 17

Cosmarium Cucurbita Bréb.—A,8; D, 43x21; M,IT,C,LG; SL, 46x 21°7Tn;
CP, Cn; L, 46 x 22u.
Debaryi Arch.—W.
depressum (Nag.) Lund. (C. Scenedesmus Delp.).—C, IT, VL, SL, W.
var. reniforme W. & G. S. West.—W.
var. MINOR var. nov.— Var. cellulis minoribus, long. 25y,lat. 26,
also 24:1 x 25p. Cr; C,a wider form 23°3u long, 31u wide.
*decedens (Reinsch.) Racib—SL.
- difficile Lutk— VL; M, 31x 195; W.
var. sublaeve Lutk.—C, 35x 20°8n; W, L; M, 32x 20u.
elegantissimum Lund. var. minor West.—D.
exiguum Arch.—C, 26-265 x 12u; W, 27-28 x 15-16u.
var. subrectangulum W. & G. S. West.—Cr, 11°77 x 9u, a small
form.
formosulum Hoffm.—I., plankton of Lough Roonah near L; CI, D, VL;
C, 47 x 40-48u, also from another place 43-44 x 37-40u; some
examples were near the variety Nathorstii ; W,up to 52°5 x 48u; K,
furcatospermum W. & G.S. West.—C, 21 x 19, forma cum sinu angustiori.
galeritum Nordst—M, W; OC, 52°5 x 40x.
globosum Buln.—W.
granatum Bréb.—L, W, VL; C, 29x 18-20; Cr, 33 x 21-22u.
var. subgranatum Nordst.—L, W.
humile (Gay) Nordst.—W, 14x12; D, Cn, VL, Cr.
var. substriatum (Nordst.) Schmidle.—C, 175x15u; L, K, SL,
I, Wr, Ce IL, WHY, 1).
var. glabrum Gutw.—W.
var. striatum (Boldt.) Schmidle.—W.
holmiense Lund., var. integrum Lund.—D.
Hammeri Reinsch.—M, W, C.
var. homalodermum (Nordst.) W. & G. S. West.—W.
isthmium West.—W.
impressulum Elf.—C, VL, L; W, 28x 20p, also 241754; DL, D; CP.
PAI aye ills) B (Ore, Zl se ilsyre
latum Bréb.—Cr, 63°5 x 7dp.
laeve Rabenh.—C, M, L, VL, D.
var. octangulare (Wille) W. & G. S. West.—L, CI, Cr, W;
C, 22:5 x 16:6-174; IK.
yar. septentrionale Wille.—C, L, D.
var. cymatium W. & G. S. West.—G
margaritiferum (Turp.) Menegh.—C, 43-5 x 38; M, SL, W, CP.

R,I.A, PROC., VOL. XXXI. C 16

16 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cosmarium Meneghinii Bréb.—C,15°5-16 x 13-15'4n; CI, W; D, 16x 12-6;
VL; DL, 16°6 x 13°3p.
var, nanum Wille.—C, 16°6 x 13°5y, a small form.
moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs.—C, SL, W.
f. panduriformis Heimerl.—D, W.
monomazum Lund. var. polymazum Nordst.—Cr.
nitidulum De Not.—8.W. of D, a small form, 27 x 21:6n.
notabile Bréb.—L.
f. minor Wille.—W.
nymannianum Grun.—C, among Sphagnum cuspidatum, 46°6 x 37-5y,
also among Hypnum, 44-47°3 x 35-38°5p.
obliquum Nordst.—W ; D, 15x 11-6p.
ochthodes Nordst.—C, 70x55, also in another place 84x 62-64,, also
91x 63, 68°5 x 52°5u, 72°5 x 56; D.
ornatum Ralfs.—C, L, W.
pachydermum Lund.—C, 81 x 66; B.
perforatum Lund.—W.
perpusillum West.—Cl.
Phaseolus Bréb.—W.
var. elevatum Nord.—Cn, at above 2100 feet, average size
27 x 26p.
plicatum Reinsch.—D, 48°5 x 266.
var. hibernicum West.—SL.
portianum Arch.—W, CP.
var. nephroideum Wittr.—W.
praemorsum Bréb.—W.
pseudoconnatum Nordst.—W.
pseudoexiguum Racib.—C, 25-26 x 12-13,, also 23 x 10-4y from another
place among UV¢ricularia minor; D, 24x 11, 25°5 x 11p, 25 x12u.
pseudopyramidatum Lund.—M, W.
pseudonitidulum Nordst.—SL, C.
var. validum W. & G. S. West.—D, a small form, 51 x 42;
C, 52°5 x 40p.
punctulatum Bréb.—I., M, IT, I, Cl, W, VL.
var. subpunctulatum (Nordst.) W.& G.S. West.—DL, L, M; C,
form a W. & G. S. West frequent, 28-31 x 26-80u; W,
D; Cr, 28°3 x 26p.
pygmaeum Arch.—C, IT, L, SL, DL, D, W.
pyramidatum Bréb—M, SL, I; ©, a small form, 57 x 424; W, LG; D,
small forms 68°5 x 45y average; Cr.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 19

Cosmarium quadratum Ralfs.—W, D; Cr, 57°5 x 33°5y, also 60 x 3l1p.
quadrifarium Lund.— W, 51-55 x 48-50.
quadrum Lund.—Cr, 72 x 70p, 66 x 66, 63 x 68 (broad)y, 78 x 60p.
*Quassilus Lund.— W.
quinarium Lund.—Cr, 37°5 x 31p.
Ralfsii Bréb.— W, SL.
var. ROTUNDATUM var. nov.—Var. lateribus semicellularum
rotundatis, angulis basalibus interdum levissime productis,
sinu subclauso, 110x100, isthmus 24y. W. (PI. II, fig. 19.)
var. montanum Racib.—D, 126 x 98:5, a form with the sinus
open to its apex. D. (PI. II, fig. 20.)
rectangulare Grun.—C, common among Utricularia minor, 31-36°5 x
26-304; IT, LG, I, CP, D.
radiosum Wolle.—W.
Regnellii Wille.—C, 464 long, 13°44 wide: from another place
17x14°5p, 18x 14-7, 155x132; L, CI, B, DL, D.
Regnesi Reinsch.—I, W; C, 8x 8u; D, 82x 8-2u.
var. tritum West.—-W.
reniforme (Ralfs) Arch—C, 48x 44, isthmus 13°54; L, LG, W; Cr,
50x48; M; K, 52:°5x47-5p.
*sexangulare Lund. f. minima Nordst.—C, CI, IT.
speciosum Lund.—C.
var. biforme Nordst.—D.
sphagnicolum W. & G. S. West.—C, 9 long, 11» wide; DL, Cr;
D, 10 long, 12°54 wide.
sphalerostichum Nordst.—C, M, W, D, B, W, SL.
subcostatum Nordst.— C, 25 x 23, the smaller forms approaching f. mznor,
f. minor W. & G. S. West.—K, 24 x 22-4u.
subcrenatum Hantsch.—C, from several places, the small forms 26 x 22y,
the largest examples measured 33:5 x 304; D, 25°d x 22.
var. divaricatum Wille.—W.
*subcucumis Schmidle.—CI; B, 70 x 45y.
subspeciosum Nordst.— W.
subundulatum Wille.—W.
subtumidum Nordst.—C, L, LG, W, D.
var. MINOR var. nov.—Var. cellulis minoribus quam in forma
typica, 26x 20p. C.
subprotumidum Nordst.—C.
var. Gregorii (Roy and Bissett) W. & G. S. West.—Plankton
of RL; 1, Cl, W, SL; plankton of LG, 31 x 29p.
C2

16 20 Procentames of the Rayall Trish Acwdemay-

qnitomenmm \Wes—sl. f

tairicmm Eaeiin—Cm, very tare. £9 «x Zin, wai af apes 19...

(Kitz) Memes —_O, 90 x 63x; D, W. SL: W, up to
1066 72u; M: Wa em of thts cxemvred near Wesipant wath the
upper twetimdis of the seme almost samiemealar: Cr, a Short
fond farm, SD « SB Su.

Thwattes Balis—Cr @l Ashu.

trumeateliom (Perty)) Eshexk —W-_

fda Tad —C_ 32-3 « 232: W.

Tepes Bree —Piekiom of L. Roomh peer LL; W, small pool & te
Wh 2 sums, 72S * 3G.

“unbiltesiom Liitk —L, 20« 166.

miei Caonisa—i¥; W, 57 x Sex

Var. nam Witirm—C, 2 x I9.: W-
vette (Conia) Jochea—C, 325 x 273, vey mare, wee Ciimlrna

mma
vemmsimm (Hreh)) Arch —C W, Cm.
Xentiiiom ~4anitilegscam (Bech) Kitz —C, AS : W. Ti» log, 5]y toad
Withont spmes, 88 with sumes: Cr
wax. @epamgersim: W._ & G S_ West—_Plamkiom of Si.
armatim (Breh.) Baber —C. Mi: SL, 2 forme from ths Ioealtiy with
threstobed processes approsdhed war. jiaewm Nomis.
anions Barer —C_ W.
Sets Arch —C_ 26-29 « 23-3526, common amon Oipriculierin mer
» if
variehie (Nardst.) W.& GS. Wes—C, very frequent: I, SL, W, CP;
D, 24 long « 23, broad without spmmes, spimes 2-Fx.
manna «= Are —C. 27 «x Shy witht smmes; D, 235 x 21-7
Srtirudesmus converges Eirenh—C, IT. SL; W, 45 log, 484, broad
Wihhomt spimes, G50 hroad with Spies; Cr; WM, Sl lone, 68x tarond
With SEs, Su without spimes,
bites Besh. var. usin West—D_
cimeams W.& GS Wesi—W, D: C, kegth 11-G., breadth with

>

spies IPB,

Clare Island Surrey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 21

Arthredesmus Incas (Breb.) Hass—C, TT, MW, Viz

var. indentatas W. & G. S. Wet—_C, W.

processes ; D.

alternans Breéb.— W. M. VL: Cr, 215, long, 256 wide

apiculatum Bréb—L, C; Cr, 19 x 202.

Aretiseon Lond —W-.

arcustam Nordsi—_W.

asperum Breb—C.

Avieuls. Breb—C, the cell walls were delicately and resu
36-372 longs, 263-274 wide withoui processes, 3
Processes; W-

var. subareasiem (Wolle) Wex—C, L, LG, VL, W, D-

hienianem Rabenh —W-

var. elipticem Wille — W.

—ae ‘ eg en 5
brevispieem Bréb.—W : SL, 466 x 40%, a mither long form.

Brebissonii Arch —t. Wii
*eosmarioides Nordsti—C_D. New to Ireland, very rare m Great Bram.

eontroversum Bréb—C.

erenulatem (Nazg.) Delp —C.

euspidatum Bréb—L, VL, W; C, 26-312 long x 23-29 2 wide; D.
var. Maximem Wesi—Plankion of LG, and of SL; K.

earyatam Wesi—C.

eyrtceerem Breb—iT, W.

dejectam Bréb—_C, K. L, SL, W, D, LG.

dentieulatam (Nac.) Arch —Plankion of LG.

Diebiei Ralis— W-
& punctata West —W-.

16 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Staurastrum dilatatum Ehrenb.—C, average size 20:8» long, 21:5y broad; D,
W, DL, LG; Cr, 23» long, 24» broad.
*disputatum W. & G. S. West.—W.
*erasum Bréb.—Plankton of LG, SL, and of RL.
furcatum Bréb.—W.
var. reductum W. & G. S. West.—C.
furcigerum Bréb.—L, W.
gracile Ralfs.—C, L, Ac, K, W, CP, Cr.
var. nanum Wille.—W.
var. cyathiforme W. & G. S. West.—Plankton of LG, breadth with
processes 69, length 40; C; SL, up to 88» wide.
hexacerum (Ehrenb.) Wittr.—C, L, DL, D, Cr, W.
hirsutum (Ehrenb.) Bréb.—SL, M, L; D, 31:6 x 25-26; C, average size
44x 44u; CP, 46 long.
inconspicuum Nordst.—C.
inflexum Bréb.—C, small forms 25:5» long; IT, L, VL, Cr; LG, 29-30.
broad with processes, 21 long, a small form.
jaculiferum West.—K, D.
f. biradiata West.— Plankton of LG and of SL.
laeve Ralfs var. Clevei Wittr.—D.
longispinum Bailey.—SL, length 98, breadth with spines 117».
Manfeldtii Delp.—Ac.
margaritaceum (Ehrenb.) Menegh.—C, 26-27 x 19-20»,mostly tetraradiate;
LG, both tri- and tetra-radiate; W, SL, M, CP; D, 31x 21-:5-25pn.
Meriani Reinsch.—C, 34x 25», a short form with dilated apices.
monticulosum Bréb.—C.
muticum Bréb.—C, W, D; Cr. 41:5 x 33°5z.

f. minor Rabenh.—C, 1dp long, 15°84 broad; among Utricularia
minor : in another locality among submerged Hypnum, the
average size was 16» long and 15:dp broad; D, very small
forms in several places, not more than 14°3x12°5y, in
another gathering 18 x 16x.

muricatum Bréb.—IT, C; W, 50x37 without spines.
O’Mearii Arch.—D, C.
orbiculare (Ehrenb.) Ralfs, var. hibernicum (West) W.& G.S. West —W.

var. Ralfsii W. & G. S. West.—IT, L; W, up to 42x 33,;
C, 33x 29, another gathering average size 29°5 long, 26°5
broad ; D, 30°8 x 27‘5y, and 31x 27; Cr, 38x 3l1z.

var. depressum Roy & Bissett.—IT, SL, W; D, 28 x 26-6z.

var. extensum Nordst.—D, 56°6 x 28u; Cr, 37°5 x 29p.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 23

Staurastrum oxyacanthum Arch.—C.
paradoxum Meyen.—C, K, Ac, D, Cr, Cn.
var. longipes Nordst.—DL, 20y long, 44 wide (with processes),
isthmus 6°7u; VL, D.
pelagicum W. & G. S. West.—Plankton of LG, and of VL.
pilosum (Nag.) Arch.—AS, C, L, W; D, 34x 33,.
pileolatum Bréb.—S.W. of D, rare, 41-43 x 20-21y, also 39 x 23, other
specimens from another gathering, 40m long x 23:34 broad across
apex, 18°3u across base, 12°5u at isthmus.
polymorphum Bréb.—C, L, W; D, 23:4» broad, 5-rayed.
var. PUSILLUM var. nov.—Var. multe parvior, processubus
gracilioribus et subinflexis, forma corporis ut in forma
typica. C, 18-18'd long.
polytrichum Perty.—C, M; S8.W. of D, not more than 47, wide, spines
6-7 long.
punctulatum Bréb.—C; L, average dimensions 33-34, long x 32 wide;
IT, LG; W, 39 x 35h; M, D, C, P.
var. coronatum (Schmidle) W. & G. 8. West.—D.
var. pygmaeum (Bréb.) W. & G. S. West.—C, 38 x 35y;
L, 36 x 29u, breadth of isthmus 13°3y, 31:6 x 30°84; W ;
D, 31°5 x 284; M, 39 x 32:5p.
pungens Bréb.—C, rare, south side in small pond.
Reinschii Roy.—D, 21°6 x 22; C, 21 x 234; W, SL.
scabrum Bréb.—AS, M, CI; C, 33-35 broad, 36-37 long, isthmus
13°5p broad.
Sebaldi Reinsch.—L, SL, Cr.
sexcostatum Bréb.—C, 42 long, 40 wide with processes ; SL.
spongiosum Bréb.—S.W. of D, rare.
striolatum (Nag.) Arch.—D, L, W, C.
teliferum Ralfs.—C ; W, 36x 31°5n; LG.
tetracerum Ralfs.—C, M, VL, DL, W; Cr; LG, 21, broad with processes ;
D, Cn.
f. trigona W. & G. S. West.—D, W.
tumidum Bréb.—W, M.
vestitum Ralfs.—W.
Spondylosium pulchellum Arch.—C, in many places; LG, CP; D, frequent,
average size 17 x 13 6p.
Sphaerozosma aubertianum West.—Ac.
excavatum Ralfs.—W.
secedens De Bary.—D, 9°6 long, 11, wide.

16 24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Desmidium Swartzii Ag.—C, 41-43u broad, 20°5-21u long; W; Cr, 38°3u

broad, 14°5 long.
cylindricum Grev.—C, M; D, average of many specimens 12 long, 49
wide.

Gymnozyga moniliformis EKhrenb.—C, W; Sh, 24x 20:8,, another gathering
36-40 x 20-23°3u; D, 25-31 x 16°5-20-21p.

Hyalotheca dissiliens (Sm.) Bréb.—C, AS, I, VL, W, B, Cr; D, diameter of
zyospores 26; C, cells 16:3 long, 29” broad, 654 with hyaline
sheath; CP; M, 26-28. broad.

f. punctata Jacobsen.—C ; CP, 24-25:2 broad.
undulata Nordst.—L. Creggan, C.

Order PROTOCOCCOIDEAE.
Fam. Chaetopeltideae.
Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn.—C, cells 13°3-15, broad ;
I, cells 9-10 broad; W.
var. depressum W. & G. S. West.—C, 10-12 broad.
Fam. Volvocaceae.
Sub-fam. Volvoceae.
Volvox aureus Khrenb.—C, frequent, average diameter of cells 350y.
Eudorina elegans Ehrenb.—C, SL, I, Cl; D, a number of examples were
measured from here, the colonies reached up to 220y, and as the
cells began dividing to form new colonies they varied from 26 to 32
in diameter as incipient colonies.
Gonium pectorale Miiller.—C, W.
Pandorina morum (Miller) Bory.—C, SL, LG, I, CI, W, D; Cr, cells 8-10n
broad, coenobia 30-45» broad; M, cells 10-12, broad.
Sub-fam. Chlamydomonadeae.
*Carteria multifilis (Fresen.) Dill—L, up to 16, broad.
Chlamydomonas Pulvisculus (Miull.) Hhrenb.—C, W.
*Kleinii Schmidle.—D.
Sphaerella lacustris (Girod.) Wittr.—C, L, W.
Fam. Endosphaeraceae.
*Phyllobium sphagnicola G. 8. West.—D, on Sphagnum cuspidatum.
*Chlorochytrium Knyanum Szymanski.—C.
Fam. Characieae.
Characium debaryanum (Reinsch.) De Toni.— Ac, K.
*Pringsheimii A. Br.—L; C, epiphytic on Oedogonium,
subulatum A, Br.—VL.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 20

Fam. Pleurococcaceae.

Pleurococeus angulosus Menegh.—W.
vulgaris Menegh.—C, L; W, and on mainland everywhere.
Trochiscia reticularis (Reinsch.) Hansg.—C.
Fam. Hydrodyctyaceae.
Sub-fam. Pediastreae.
Pediastrum boryanum (Turp.) Menegh.—O, L, K, RL, I, LG, CI, VL, W.,
DL, L, SL. .
var. PRODUCTUM var. nov.—Var. processibus cellularum
externarum perlongis, multe longioribus quam latitudo
cellulae et non capitatis. C.
duplex Meyen.—VL, W:; D, average breadth of colonies of 16 cells
56pu, of 8 cells 43z.
tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs.—C, L, LG, CI, W, DL, D, Cr. Colonies of four
were mostly seen. In one gathering from Clare Island, all seen
were in fours, the colonies were very small and measured usually
9-10 across, rarely 11; the notch was sublinear, and the two
outer sides of each cell were always retuse.
*elanduliferum Benn.—Plankton of RL, LG, VL, L.
*gracile A. Br—_VL, C.
Fam. Protococeaceae.
Sub-fam. Coelastreae.

Sorastrum spinulosum Nig.—C; plankton of LG.
Coelastrum sphaericum Nag.—C, very frequent: J, L, C1; W, diameters of
colonies 34-36,, of cells 8:5-94; VL.
cambricum Arch.—C.
~ microporum Nig.—C.
Sub-fam. Crucigenieae.
Crucigenia quadrata Morren.—C, VL.
Tetrapedia (Kirchn.) W. & G. S. West.—VL, C.
rectangularis (Niig.) Gay.—C, in several places, 4-45 x 5°d-6°5y.
*Tetrastrum staurogeniaeforme (Schréd.) Chodat.—VL, DL.
Sub-fam. Selenastreae.
Scenedesmus antennatus Bréb.— W.
acutiformis Schroder.—C, W, DL, D, VL; Cr, some of the forms from
here were rather broad, 14 x 5°5z. :
bijugatus (‘T'urp.) Kiitz—C, I, LG, W; Cr, cells 10-11 x £0-d,.
denticulatus Lagerh.—sS.W. of D
R,I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI, D 16

16 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Scenedesmus obliquus (Turp.) Kiitz.—CI, VL, W, Cn; C, in one place small
forms with cells 7:2 x 2°5p.

var. dimorphus (Turp.) Rabenh.—K, VL, DL, D; Cr, length of
cells 24-26, width of colony of 4 cells with processes
26-30, width of colony of 4 cells at middle 21h; W;
C, length of cells 20°8-21-5y, width of colony of 4 cells with
processes 23°34, width of colony of 4 cells at middle 15-5p.

quadricauda (Turp.) Bréb.—C, RL, I, LG, L, Cl, VL, DL, WD, Cr.

var. horridus Kirchn.—Mw, C.

Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br.—M, C.

Selenastrum gracile Reinsch.—D, Cr, W.

Ankistrodesmus faleatus (Corda) Ralfs.—C, L, DL, SL, Cl, W, B, Cr, K.

var. tumidus G. S. West.—C, in several places up to 6 broad ;
Cr, up to 7-5 broad.
var. acicularis (A. Br.) G. S. West.—C, 1, Sl, CL.
var. mirabilis (W. & G. S.- West) G. S. West.—W, 91 x 3p,
slightly curved, chloroplast interrupted ; C, 133 x 3°5y,
almost straight.
Pfitzeri (Schrod.) G. S. West.—C, Mw, CI.
*Braunii (Nag.) W. & G. 8. West.—Cr.
convolutus Corda var. minutum (Nag.).—Cr, C.
SELENASTRUM sp. noy.—Cellulae semilunatae, apicibus acutis, inter
apices 18-18-3y, lat. ad medium 75. Inter algis variis (Cosmariis,
&e.). Cr.

Closteriopsis longissima Lemm.—I, CI, LG, D.

Reinschiella CURVATA sp. noy —R. cellulis solitarius, libere natantibus, late
lunatis, margine interiori concavo, apicibus acutis, spina brevi extror-
sum curvata praeditis, long. sine spin., 38y, lat. 20u, long. spin. 5-6p.
Ca (VEL I, ste, 2)

Kirchneriella obesa (West) Schmidle.—K ; plankton of RL, VL, L, Cr.

Sub-fam. Oocystideae.
*Oocystis crassa Wittr.—B, Cr, SL, D.

gigas Arch.—I.

lacustris Chod.—Plankton of LG.

solitaria Wittr.—C, 19 x 10,, also in other places 34 x 20y, 33 x 21°5 ;
D, up to 335 x 215,; M, L B, M; CP, 35 x 20 (average): this
often occurred in fair abundance of constantly small dimensions
often 8-9 broad and 14-16, long; some examples from neighbouring
pools were larger, extra broad, 30-31 x 22-5p; Cr, 23-28 x 145-17p.

Clure Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 27

Oocystis elliptica West.—C, I.
Nephrocytium Naegelii Grun.—C ; plankton of LG. =
lunatum West.—C, L, Cr, W.
agardhianum Nag.—L, I.
*obesum West.—C, M, CI; Cr, size of cells in colonies of 25-27 x 15-16p,

colonies 60 x 48z.

Eremosphaera viridis De Bary.—C, up to 151y broad; M, average 139» broad ;
It, Wi, 1D:

*Palmellococcus miniatus (Kiitz.) Chodat.—C, mostly 3 broad.

*Chlorella vulgaris Beyer.—C, L, D, W.

Sub-fam. Tetraedrieae.
Tetraedron caudatum (Corda) Hansg.—L, VL, DL, W, C.
*limneticum Borge— VL, DL; plankton of LG.
regulare Kiitz.—C, W.
enorme (Ralfs) Hansg.—C, W; Cr, 35» wide.
Cerasterias longispina (Perty) W. & G.S. West.—D.
var. HEXACTINUM var. nov.—Vavr. processibus radiantibus sex
ex centro commune. D.

Sub-fam. Phythelieae.

Chodatella breviseta W. & G. S. West.—C, D.
*Lagerheimia genevensis Chodat.—D, from several localities; C, AS.
subglobosa Lemm.—D.

Sub-fam. Dictyosphaerieae.

Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood.—L, K; plankton of RL, abundant;
plankton of LG; W.
ehrenbergianum Nag.—L, LG, W.
*Tetracoccus botryoides West.—I; C, 4:5-5°5 in diameter, in another place
not more than 4p.

Botryococcus Braunii Kiitz.— C, L, SL, C, I, Cr. In some of the many places
in which it was seen, as in Clare Island, the peculiar state described
as Ineffigiata neglecta was the only state observed.

*protuberans W. & G. S. West.—C; Cr, cells 7-85 broad mostly.

Fam. Palmellaceae.
Sub-fam. Palmelleae.
Palmodactylon varium Nag.— C, width of cells 6°3-7:5p.
Palmella mucosa Kiitz.—M; W, 88-11, in diameter.
*miniata (Leibl.) Chod.—Mw.
D2

16 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

*Schizochlamys delicatula West.—C, most abundant in many places.
° gelatinosa A. Br.—OC, 10-11°7u broad, among Batrachospermum vagum ;
D, 10-11, broad.
Sphaerocystis Schroeteri Chod.—K, SL; plankton of LG; VL; D, cells 8u
broad.
Sub-fam. Tetrasporeae.

Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vauch.) Desvy.—C, in several places, cells 8-15 broad ;
CP.
Apiocystis brauniana Nag.—C, W; IL, on Cladophora crispata.

Sub-fam. Gloeocystideae.

Gloeocystis gigas (Kiitz.) Lagerh.—C, 17-20, in another place 11-15p,
another gathering averaged 224; L. M, SL, VL; W, 11°6-l5p
mostly ; D, 16-17; Cr, 10-11.

vesiculosa Nag.—, from 7°5 up to lla broad ; M, SUL, L, LG, CI, W, B, D.
rupestris Lyngb.—C.

*Asterococcus superbus (Cienk.) Scherffel (=Gl. infusionwm (Schrenk) W.&
G. S. West).—C, IT, I, L, Cl, M, D, SL.

*Dactylothece Braunii Lagerh.—LG.

*Palmodictyon viride Kiitz.—C.

*Coccomyxa subellipsoidea Acton.—C, forming jelly-like incrustations on
mosses.

Class HETEROKONTAE.
Order CONFERVALES.

Fam. Tribonemaceae.

Ophiocytium cochleare (Eich.) A. Br.—C, L, W, D.
bicuspidatum (Borge) Lemm. f. longispina Lemm.—C, in eer places,
26-29 x 5'5-6'54 without spines.
majus Nag.—C, IT, VL, CI, W.
parvulum (Perty) A. Br.—Cr, C.
Arbuscula (A. Br.) Rabenh.—CI, W.
*Bumilleria pumila W. & G.S. West.—C.
“Tribonema affine (Kiitz.) G. S. West.—O, I.
bombycinum (Ag.’ Derb. & Sol.—C, 12-133 broad; B, SL. L CI, W, CP.
f. minor (Wille) G. S. West.—W, ©.

Clare Island Survey— Fresh-water Algae. 16 29

Chlorobotrys regularis (West) Bohlin.—C, very common with Utricularia
minor; M,Cn,C, I), CP, 1T, I, CI, W, B, LG; DL,;SL, Cr. This was
so variable in size and abundant im one place in Clare Island,
growing with Batrachospermum vagum, that | measured a number of
examples ; they varied from 11°6 to 25°54 in diameter; it was on
account of the very large size of some of them that they were
measured.

Class BACILLARIEAE (= Diaromacuan).

(I have here adopted Van Heurck’s arrangement of the Diatoms
for convenience.)

Diy. I. RAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Cymbelleae.

Amphora ovalis Kiitz.—C, 52 x 33°54; IT, L, D; W, 50x 30,, valve-view.
var. affinis Kiitz.—D, 26°6-36 x 14:1-18p.
var. Pediculus (Kiitz.) V. H. (4. minutissina W. Sm.).—B, L.
: f. minor V. H—W, 31 x 17-6y, 29 x 15°5y.
Cocconema affine (Kiitz.) W. & G.S. West.—M, D,L; CP, average length 22n.
caespitosum (Kiitz.) G. S. West.—W, M,L, K.
var. lata V. H.—C,
var. Auerswaldii (Rabenh.) V. H.—C, W, CP.
Cistula EKhrenb.—C, IT, W, M.
cuspidatum (Kiitz.) G. S. West.—C, L, D; W, 74 x 24u; SL.
var. naviculiformis (Auersw.) W. West.—L; D, in several
places; W, average size 33 x 7-3y.
cymbiforme Ehrenb.—W, M; OC, 56x 10°34; Croaghmore cliffs; K.
var. parva (W.Sm.) W. West.—L, W, CP.
*delicatulum (IXiitz.) W. & G. S. West—C, SL; D, 30 x 5u, valve-view ;
LG, Cr; W, 36°5 x 48u.
Ehrenbergii (Kiitz.) G. 8. West.—C, large forms up to 125 x 30y,
136 x 32-5, valve-view; L, I, W.
gastroides (Kiitz.) W. & G. S. West—D; C, 115 long, also 98 x 22n,
valve-view; M, from 104 up to 180u long; W, 131 x 266y, in
another place 124 x 254; Croaghmore cliffs.
var. minor (V. H.) W. West.—C.
gracile (Rabenh.) G. S. West.—W, CP, Ac.
f. minor (V. H.) W. West.—M, L, SL, W, B.
helveticum (Kiitz.) W. & G. S. West.—C, 61 x 9n.

16 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

*Cocconema laevis (Nag.) W. West.—C, B; W, 24 x 5°6u.

lanceolatum Ehrenb.—C, 79 x 13°34; W.

*leptoceras (Kiitz.) W. West var. elongata (V. H.) W. West.—C.

*microcephala (Grun.) W. West.—C, D.

*obtusum (Greg.) W. & G. S. West.—M, C.

tumidum Bréb.—C.

turgidum (Greg.) W. West.—W.

ventricosum (Ag.) W. & G.S. West.—IT; C, up to 33 x 8:3p, valve-view ;
SL; near LG; CP, 28°3 x 7:5, valve-view; D, 20 x 7-54; Croaghmore
cliffs.

Tribe Naviculeae.

Mastogloia Smithii Thw.—C, 48°5 x 12y, in several places; W.
var. amphicephala Griin.—C, SL; near LG.
Stauroneis anceps Ehrenb.—C, 40 x 864; L; W, 49 x13°3y, a broad form ;
D, Croaghmore cliffs.
var. LATA, var. nov.—Var. cellulis diametro 3-plo longioribus,
60x20. A marked variety, as the type is 44 times as
long as broad. C.
var. linearis (Kiitz.) V.H—L; W, 46x12.
var. amphicephala (Kiitz.) V.H.—W, 45x 94; C, 51x10.
Phoenicenteron (Nitzsch.) Ehrenb.—C, up to 152 x 28:4; L.; W,121 x 28n,
in one locality all small forms 86-95x20u; M, 180-183ux
31-33.
f. PRODUCTA, f. nova.—F. cellulis minoribus et apicibus distincte
productis, 81 x 18:24 average size, some only 73x 15u. C,
gracilis Ehrenb.—W.
acuta W. Sm.—M, 1, C; D, small forms 80-90ux13-14y; W, average
size 110 = 17°5y.
Legumen Ehrenb.—W.
Navicula acuminata W.Sm.—W.
*affinis Ehrenb.—IT.
alpina (W. Sm.) Ralfs.—CP, SL.
ambigua Ehrenb.—W, 59 x 13.
amphirhyncus Ehrenb.—W.
amphisbaena Bory.—C, W; D, 55-62 x 21-23-4y.
*anglica Ralfs.—D, C, W.
*appendiculata Kiitz.—L; W, 41 x 6'6u; M.
“atomoides Grun.—B,

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 31

*Navicula atomus Nag.—D.
Bacillum Ehrenb.—L.
Brebissonii Kiitz—C, IT, I, B, L; W, 5211p, valve-view; M,
LG, SL; D, 45 x 10°5, valve-view ; Cn, Croaghmore cliffs.
var. subproducta V.A.—S.W. of D, 34x 11.
bicapitata Lagerstedt—C, L, SL; 8.W. of D, 56x12u, valve-view ;
W, 61 x 12u, valve-view.
eryptocephala Kiitz.—L, W, Cr; C, up to 43 x 10°54; D.
var. exilis V.H.—C.
cuspidata Kiitz—M, C, W.
crucicula (W. Sm.) V.H. var. protracta Grun.—D, 20 x 6u.
dicephala W. Sm.—C, M, W, L; D, 29°5 x 95p.
elliptica Kiitz.—C, 31 x 14:3u, valve-view; IT, L, I, AS, B; D, 24-25 x
14:2-ldu; W.
var. ovalis Hilse—CP ; W, 26°6 x lly, a rather narrow form ;
D, 21°6 x 11°6p.
var. oblongella Nag.—C, I, B, M, L; W, large forms averaging
29 x 11p.
var. minima V. H.—L; W, up to 18 x 9p.
exilis (Kiitz.) Grun.—C, 23°3 x 6u; M, IT, SL, L, B, CI, W, D, CP.
Gastrum (Ehrenb.) Donk. var. placentula (Ehrenb.) V. H.—C, D, L; in
all three localities it occurred in fresh water, but near the sea; in
the last locality it was among Spirogyra.
gibba (Ehrenb.) Kiitz.—C, 67 x 11 up to 86 x 144; M; W, 50°5 x 8u.
gibberula W. Sm.—W.
*sracillima Greg.— C, a variety with very faintly subundulate
margins.
*sregaria Donk.—O, a large form up to 46 x 12y.
gracilis Ktitz.— D ; C, 51 x 10 valve-view ; Croaghmore cliffs.
*hilseana Janisch.—CP, C.
Iridis Ehrenb.—C, IT.
var. Amphirhyncus (Ehrenb.) De Toni.—C, D, L.
var. producta (W. Sm.) V. H.—D, W, C, SL.
lanceolata Kiitz—C, L; D, 51 x 10u.
var. phyllepta (IXiitz.) V. H.—C; W, small forms 23 x 6u.
limosa Kititz.—M, L, D; C, 53 x 9u, a narrow form; W, 66 x 17du,
54 x 14:3u, 56 x 13:3.
var. gibberula (Kiitz.) V. H.—IT, L.
Legumen Ehrenb.—SL, Cr; ©, 76 x 15:°3u; W, 76°5 x 146.
var, decrescens Grun.—D, 70 x 13°4u, a narrow form,

16 32 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Navicula major Kiitz.—W, M, IT, D, CI, L, SL; ©, 171 x 26 (girdle-view).
In one gathering S. of Dugort, a small form occurred averaging
135 x 24, girdle-view.
mesolepta Ehrenb—C; M, 56 x llw; IT, L, W; D, 58°5 x 12-5p.
var. Termes (EKhrenb.) V. H.—C, 47 x 9u valve-view; Cr; D,
27 x 6, valve-view, up to 47 x 11:6u; L.
var. PROTENSA var. nov.—Var. cellulis multe angustioribus
quam in forma typica, lateribus regulariter triundulatis,
average size 63 x 8'8u. W.
**minima Grun.—B.
nobilis (EKhrenb.) Kiitz.—W, 330 x 534; C, L, CI, D; M, 278 x 49u
(valve-view), others 225 x 60m (girdle-view).
var. Dactylus (Ehrenb.) (V. H.)—C, 200 x 34, -valve-view ; M,
one form was relatively narrow, 260u long, 354 wide,
another 184 x 22°7y.
oblonga Kiitz.—L.
peregrina ICiitz.—C, L, SL, W, D, VI.
var. PRODUCTA var. nov.—Var. polis distincte productis, cellulis
latioribus quam in forma typica. Formae majores 118-119 x
37°54, formae minores 71 x 294. C. (PI. II, fig. 22.)
Pupula Kiitz.—D, 30 x 94, among Hippuris vulgaris.
pusilla W. Sm.—-D, in fresh water 200 yards from the sea; C, a narrow
form in fresh water 39°5 x 15-4uw; W, 29 x 13-3.
var. PUSILLISSIMA var .nov.—Vavr. cellulis multe parvioribus,
24x 12:64. D.
radiosa Kiitz.—C, 55 x 10u; K; L, a narrow form, average size 70 x 9°5-
10 ETE SIE Vili CICS RAN Vien Olesen S16 rz-me ID) ile Cra
var. acuta W. Sm.—OC, 92 x 12:5u, 83 x 9°3u, valve-view ;
L, D, W, Cr.
Rabenhorstii Ralfs..—W.
rhyncocephala Kiitz.—C, M, L; D, 51 x 10:84; SL; W, a narrow form
48 x 10u, as well as typical forms.
var. amphiceros V. H.—D, 44 x 13:3.
f. robusta Rabenh.—W.
“seminulum Grun.—C.
serians (Bréb.) Kiitz.—C, SL, L, CI, W, SL.
var. brachysira (Bréb.) V. H.—M.
var. thermalis Grun.—B.
sphaerophora Kiitz.—C, 60 x 20u.
*sublinearis Grun.—M, I.

Clare Island Survey—Presh-watler Algae. 16 33

Navicula stauroptera Grun.—L; Cr, 92 x 15, valve-view.
Tabellaria Ehrenb.—W, 115 x 15, another gathering 112 x 15:5,
103 x 15°34; C, 114 x 164; M, 120 x 194, also small narrow forms,
83 x 100; S, 108 x Ln; L.
var. acrosphenia Rabenh.—W.
*vulpina Kiitz—W, 84-90 x 12°5-14:3u; M, 88 x 143,
viridula Kiitz—C, L, Sl, Cr; W, 72°6 x 165-17; M, 70 x 16°5y.
f. minor V. H.—W, 44 x 10m; UC, 50 x 10, valve-view.
var. slesvicensis (Grun.) V. H.—D, 41x1lu, 51x 13W; W,
54 x 12-5.
var. avenacea (Bréb.) V. H.—I., 46 x 8:5, valve-view.
viridis KXiitz.—C, M, IT, 1, L, Cl, B; W, 91 x 15:3, girdle-view ; SL, CP:
D, 102 x 22u, valve-view; Cn; Croaghmore cliffs,
var. commutata Grun.—C.
var. ANGUSTATUM var. nov.—Var. cellula angusta, diametro
7-plo longiori, apicibus non attenuatis. D, 87 x 12dp.
Vanheurckia rhomboides (Ehrenb.) Bréb.— W ; M, up to 94 x 20u; L, D; ©,
84 x 16u.
var. saxonica (Rabenh.) W. & G. S. West.—C, 51-63 x
IBS Mns Ib, Ns, IML, @18, Sih, WS IDE, SI, WW, Je,
CI, D, Cn.
viridula Kiitz—O, L, Sb, Cr, W; CP, 108 x 21, also from another
place 75 x 13p.
vulgaris (Theo.) V. H.—C.
Amphipleura pellucida Kiitz.—L, W, SL.
*Gyrosigma acuminatum (Kiitz.) O.K—I., 12614, smaller forms 101x
13°54; W, 122 x13-du.
attenuatum (IXiitz.) Rabenh.—L; W, 227-235 x 27°5-29n; VI.
var. scalprum (Grun.) O.K.—C; W, 127 x 213y.
Spencerii (Quekett) O.1C—W, C.
var. nodifera (Grun.) O.K.—Croaghmore cliffs.
**eurvulum (Ehrenb.) Rabenh. f. longior (V.H.)—C, 155 x 145p.

Tribe Gomphonemeae.

Gomphonema acuminatum Ehrenb.—C, W, IT, L, IL, CI, D; Cn, 64-69 x
® 11:°5-14u, valve-view.
constrictum Ehrenb.—L, 37 5 x 11d, valve-view; W, D, VL; CP, 34-42),
long, 15-18 broad, breadth of stall 4y..
yar. capitatum (Elienb.) V.H.—L, D, CP.
a) 16

R,1.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI.

16 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Gomphonema gracile Ehrenb.—C.
yar. dichotomum (Kiitz.) V-H—B, W, D; Cr, 44x 65n,
valve-view ; Croaghmore clifis, K-
intricatum Kiitz.—C, 1, B, W, LG.
yar. Vibrio (Ehrenb.) V-H.—B, D, LG.
var. pumila Grun.—B.
*montanum Schumann var. subclavatum Grun.—C.
var. commutatum Grun.—C, tin long, 94 greatest breadth in
valye-view; W, 44x Stu, also in another place 44x 9-5y.
olivaceum (Lyngb.) Kiitz.—C, L, I, VL, D, CP.
parvulum Kiiz.—C, LG, M.
Rhoicosphaenia curvata (Kiitz.. Grun—L. on Cladophora crispata; C, on
C. jlavescens and Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum.

Tribe Achnantheae.

Achnanthidium flexellum Bréb.—W: C, 315x158u, valve-view, 35-38 x
14-6-16u.
Achnanthes exilis Kiitz.—C: W, 24u long, average size; S, IT, L, 1, B, D, LG;
CP, 16—20u long; Cr; K, 20u long.
linearis (W. Sm.) Grun. —C, L.
biasolettiana Grun.—C, IT, B, L, W. Cr.
*minutissima Kiitz —C, 22-24 x 45y, valve-view.
microcephala (Kitz.) Grun.—C, CP.

Tribe Cocconeideae.

Cocconeis Pediculus Ehrenb.—C, IT, D, W, L, on Cladophora crispata.
Placentula Ehrenb.—C, 18-36 x 12-45-23: L, I, D, W.
yar. lineata V. H._—C.

Division I. PSPEUDRAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Epithemieae.
Epithemia Argus (Ehrenb.) Kiitz—C, 4144 x 10u valve-view, girdle-view
18u; L, B.
var. amphicephala Grun.—C, 41-6 x 9-ip average; W.
turgida (Ehrenb.) Kiitz—C, average size 70-5-925y long, 16°5-l7u
broad, valve-view ; IT, L, W.
var. Westermanni Kiitz—L, W.
gibberula (Ehrenb.) Kitz. var. producta Grun.—Cr; D, 26-34y long; M,
length 37-5u; C, length 36-37, in another place 30u long; B, I, CL.

Clare Island Survey— Fresh-water Algae. 16 35

Epithemia zebra (Ehrenb.) Kiitz.—C, 49 x 10, valve-view; I, D, L, Croagh-
more cliffs.
var. proboscidea Grun.—C, 55 x 8°d5u valve-view ; D, Croaghmore
cliffs.
Hyndmanni W. Sm.—C, 166 x 30u; Croaghmore cliffs (a small form):
A very rare diatom.
Sorex Kiitz.—IT; LW, 40 long, 12y across, girdle-view.
Rhopalodia gibba (Kiitz.) Otto Miull—C, 128-143 long x 12°8-13y, girdle-
view; L, I, B, D; W, 118-140n long; VL.
var. ventricosa (Kitz.) Otto Mill.—C.
Eunotia Arcus Ehrenb.—M, W.
var. bidens V. H--W, M; OC, 316 x 4u, valve-view; Li; D,
32 x 5:2u, valve-view.
var. minor V. H.—C, CI, M, B, SL, CP; D, 26-27x 4;
Croaghmore cliffs.
var. uncinata V. H.—B, M.
var. hybrida Grun.—I.
var. tenella Grun.—C.
monodon Ehrenb.—CP.
diodon Ehrenb.—SL, C, PC.
*triodon Ehrenb.—M.
flexuosa Kiitz. var. bicapitata Grun.—W.
*exigua (Bréb.) Rabenh.—C, D, CP, L.
var. nymanniana Grun.— W.
Faba (Ehrenb.) Grun.—D; W, 19°3 x 5:6y.
gracilis (Ehrenb.) Rabenh.—C, M, L, I, SL; D, short forms 53 x 3-4u
also in another gathering 136 x 5u; W.
**impressa (Ehrenb.) var. angusta Grun.—D, 20-25 x 3-3°3u.
lunaris (Ehrenb.) Grun.—C, L; W, many were measured from 25 to 98
long from the same gathering, usually 3°2-4y wide; Ac, M, VL, AS;
J, Cl, D; B, SL, CP, Cn.
var. bilunaris (Khrenb.) Grun.—L, D; W, 28° x 55.
var. excisa Grun.— Variable in length, 14-31 x 5-6.
var, subarcuata (Nag.) Grun.—bD, L.
var. EMARGINATOVALIDA noy. var.—Vavr. cellulis emarginatis
ad latus ventrale, crassioribus brevioribusque quam in
formas ceteras. D, among Hippuris vulgaris. This variety
has twice the breadth of Van Heurck’s figure of 2. lunaris
var. excisa Grun. (=Synedra falcata Bréb.). His figure
measures 30 x 464; the Irish specimens are 24 x 7°2u.
(Plate I, fig. 21.)
H2

16 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Eunotia major (W. Sm.) Rabenh.—C, 1.; W, 122u long; D, 152y long.
var. bidens V. H.—SL.
**minor (Kiitz.) Rabenh—W, 31 x 6, valve-view.
pectinalis (Dillw.) Rabenh.—O, K, Ac, M, W; 8.W. of D, 95 x 31p,
girdle-view. ;
var. undulata Ralfs.—D, 60-65 x 5-6°3u.
var. Soleirolii Kiitz—W.
var. ventricosa Grun,—CP.
var. stricta Kabenh.—D, 40, long.
f. elongata V. H.—B, W.
f. curta V. H—D; W, 25 x 7 valve-view.
praerupta Ehrenb.—L; W, 35 x Tu; C, 55 x 9-5p.
var. bidens (Khrenb.) Grun.—C; D, 45 long.
var. inflata Grun.—L.
var. curta V. H.—L; W, 34 x 6:3.
robusta Ralfs var. tetraodon V. H.—M.
Ceratoneis Arcus (Hhrenb.) Kiitz.—C, L; CP, 40-45 x 5-64, a constantly
short form; W, 36°6 x 4y.
Tribe Synedreae.
Synedra Acus (Kiitz.) Grun—C, W; L, 132 x 66u, valve-view; I, B, D,
Croaghmore clifts, K.
var. delicatissima W. Sm.—W,; OC, 88u long; CP, 112 x 4p,
valve-view.
amphicephala Kiitz.—LG, L; W, 35 x 3:2y.
famelica Kiitz.—C, L, I, B, D, LG, CP.
pulchella Kiitz—C, W; L, 53:5 x 6, valve-view; CP, 114-132 long,
7-2u broad at middle, 49 at apices.
var. Smithii Ralfs—VL; D, 121 x 5p, valve-view.
f. major V. H.—C, 153-136 x 7-7'6n.
radians (Kiitz.) Grun.—VL, C, Cl, M, W, B; L, 61 x 1:6y, valve-view.
Ulna (Nitzsch.) Ehrenb—L, CU, K, 1, VL, Cl, D; W, average length
220u, up to 2604; CP, Croaghmore cliffs.
var. amphirhynchus (Ehrenb.) V.H—C; W, 164 5p, valve-
view.
var. splendens (Kiitz.) Grun.—W.
var. lanceolata (Kiitz.) V.H.—W.
var. danica (Kiitz.) V.H.—C, 244 x 5y, valve-view ; W,a broad
form 188 x 7°5-8, valve-view; L.
Vaucheriae Kiitz.—C, M.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 37

- Asterionella formosa Hass.—C, K, VL, W.
gracillima Heib.— Plankton of Roonah Lough near L.

Tribe Fragilarieae.

Fragilaria capucina Desm.—SI., L; D, 35-55 x 11:9-14'7y, girdle-view ; CP,
32-55 long; M, 35-61 long; Ac, W.
mutabilis (W. Sm.) Grun.—C, SL, W, L, IT, LG, VL, CI, B, D, CP.
virescens Ralfs.—C, L, I, W.
construens (Ehrenb.) Grun.—C.
*Harrisonii (W. Sm.) Grun.—D.

Tribe Meridioneae.
Meridion circulare (Grev.) Ag—C; CP, 26 x Il apex of valve-face ;
W, 30-38 long; D.
Tribe Diatomeae.

Diatoma vulgare Bory.—L, Cl, D.
anceps (Ehrenb.) Grun.—W.
elongatum Ag.—U, 46-51 5-5u, girdle-face; L, CI, W, LG, VL, CP;
D, 60 x 5'6u, girdle-face ; Croaghmore cliffs.
hiemale (Lyngb.) Heib.—S.
var. mesodon (Kiitz.) V.H.—S ; CP, some only 13 long; D.
var. tenue (Ag.) V.H.—O, L.
Denticula tenuis Kiitz—C, SL, LG, D.
var. inflata (W. Sm.) V.H.— C.
var. frigida Kititz.—C, in several places.

Tribe Tabellarieae.

Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) Kiitz—C, L; W, 22 x 6m (valve-view); Ac, K,
M, IT, SL, I, B, D, Cr, OP.
fenestrata (Lyngb.) Kiitz.—C, 57-5 x 45, valve-view, average size; L,

W, Ac, D, W, LG.

'l'ribe Surirelleae.

Cymatopleura Solea (Bréb.) W. Sm.—W, D.

Surirella apiculata W. Sm.—W.
biseriata Bréb.—C; W, up to 197 x 57-54; M; SL, 144 x 50p.
elegans Ehrenb.—C, 201 x 65.
linearis W. Sm.—W.

16 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Surirella ovalis Bréb. var. ovata (Kiitz.) V. H.—C, B; J., mouth of Bunowen
River in brackish water, forms near var. crwmena (Bréb.), 33-34 x
21-22n.

var. angusta (Kiitz.) V. H.—C.
var. minuta (Bréb.) V. H.—C, 22°5 x 13m.
var. pinnata (W. Sm.) V. H.—C, L, VL, M, IT, D, Sh.
var. panduriformis (W. Sm.) W. West.—SL.
var. SUBMAMILLATA var. nov.—Var. cellulis late ellipticis
apicibus productis in mamillis brevibus. W, 38°5 x 16-5,
also 30 x 154 and 29 x 12-dp.
spiralis Kiitz. —B, L, W.
robusta Hhrenb. (S. nobilis W.Sm.).—W, 246u long; SL; M, 310 x 72.
var. splendida (EKhrenb.) V.H.—W ; C, 205 x 76n.

Tribe Nitzschieae.

Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehrenb.) Grun.—C.
Nitzschia curvula (Ehrenb.) W. Sm.— W.
*communis (Rabenh.) Grun.— B.
**Clausii Hantzsch.—C, in a freshwater pool close to sea.
*dissipata Kiitz. var. acuta V.H.—C, LG.
apiculata (Greg.) Grun.—C, 30-32 x 4-5-5, in brackish water.
linearis (Ag.) W.Sm.—C, I, DL; W, 74 x 9u, girdle-tace.
var. tenuis Grun.— D.
sigmoidea (Mhr.) W. Sm.—D, 335 x 20'5p, girdle-view.
*obtusa W. Sm.—C1; OC, a form approaching var. scalpelliformis Grun.,
92°5 x 6°6u; L.
var. scalpelliformis Grun.— D.
var. brevissima Grun.—I, L.
**subtilis Grun.— D, 534 long; W, 74u long; SL, 60 x 4:5, valve-view.
var. paleacea Grun.—C, 33 long, 35 x 4°5 w from another
place; D, 46 x 2°8x.
parvula W. Sm.—W.
Palea (Kiitz.) W. Sm.—C, 576 x 5:*du average; VL, L; D, 40 x 4:3n,
valve-view; W.
var. debilis V. H.—C, L, W.
var. tenuirostris Grun.—C, 55 x 48u.
var. fonticola Grun.—C, 18 long; W, up to 28y long,
4u broad.

Care Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 39

Nitzschia Sigma W. Sm.—L, in several places, also in brackish water, mouth
of Bunowen River with Navicwla digitoradiata; B, W. (C,N, E,
also, In sea-water).

var. rigida (Ktitz.) Grun.—C, I M, Croaghmore cliffs.

Tryblionella Hantzsch. var. littoralis (Grun.) V.H.—C.
var. Victoriae Grun.—AS.

thermalis (Kiitz.) Grun.—L, D; C, 82°5 «x 116m.

*vermicularis (IXiitz.) Grun.—C, LL; M196 x 6u; IT, I, CL; W, 96 «4:8;

B; W, 166 long, girdle-face 104 broad.
*vitrea Norman.—W, 81 x 16-6 (girdle-view).
sinuata (W. Sm.) Grun.—L, C.

Division III]. CRYPTORAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Melosireae.

Melosira varians Ag.—C, mostly 12-12°5u broad in one locality, in another
30-31 broad; VL,D; W, 15-304 broad; CP; Cr, 21 broad
average size.

granulata (Hhrenb.) Ralfs.—D, among Hippuris vulgaris; C.

Cyclotella operculata Iiitz.—C, L, B.

meneghiniana Kiitz.—C, 13-13-5u broad; L, 15 broad.
kuetzingiana (‘hw.) Chauvin.—W, 16 broad.
comta (Ehrenb.) Kiitz.—W.

var. radiosa Grun.— W, 43-45 broad.

Class MYXOPHYCEAE (Cyanopnycrar)
Sub-Class I. Guaucocystipvar.

Glaucocystis nostochinearum Itzig.—L.

Sub-Class II. ARrcHIPLASTIDEAE.
Order I. COCCOGONEAE.
Fam. Chroococcaceae.

Chroococcus limneticus Lemm.—K, D, VL; DL, 8-10u broad.
*membraninus (Menegh.) Nag.—U, usually quadrigeminate and distinetly
angular. Agrees with Kiitzing’s original figure.
*macrococcus (Kiitz.) Rabenh.—M, cells 37-40u broad; C, I'l’; Cr, cells
29-32u broad; 1; CI, cells 30-32 broad ; W; D, cells 28-30u broad ;
S.W. of D, cells 34-42u broad, thickness of integuments outside
cells 124, .

16 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Chroococcus minutus (Kiitz.) Nig.—D, diameter of cells 5-6.
var. minimus (V. Keissler) Lemm.—C, L, Mw, M; VL, 2:2-2-5u
broad ; D, 2-2-2u broad.
minor (Kiitz.) Nag.—C, in several localities, 3-0-4:5u broad; M, 3°3-4u
broad.
pallidus Nag.—, L.
turgidus (Kutz.) Nag.—C, CP; LG, a large form, intensely aeruginose,
with cells up to 22°54 in diameter, sheaths up to 59 x 72u; W; Cr,
average size 18u broad; S.W. of D, 20--22 broad, with integument
34u.
Synechococcus aeruginosus Nag.—C, 17°5x1lu; IT, W; D, a peculiar
subrotund form 24 x 21.
f. ANGUSTIOR f. noy. —F. cellulis relative angustioribus, circiter
25 x 10u. C.
*crassus Arch—M; ©, 31-32 x 20u; W, 42 x 266 (imeipient division
showing); B, 35 x 17.
f. erassior Lagerh.—SL, in a small tarn, 38-4—-41-6y long,
29-383 broad, colour almost blue with hardly any trace of green.
MINUTUS sp. nov.—S. cellulis singulis, ellipticis, utroque polo rotundatis,
circiter 3°5u latis, 13-plo longioribus, contentu pallide aerugineo et
granuloso. Hab.—in paludibus divitibus cum desmidiis, diatomis,
et algis alis. M.
*Dactylococcopsis acicularis Lemm.—bB, not more than 1-6u broad.
*fascicularis Lemm.—ClI; C, a variety or form much less contorted.
rhaphidioides Hansg.—L, a small form 6x 1; C, 14-16 x 25-3.
Gloeocapsa Magma (Bréb.) Kiitz—CP.
*muralis Kiitz.— Cr, cells ellipsoid, 4x 64, masses brown.
*punctata Nag.—t, cells 0°8-1-6n.
*rupestris Kiitz.—L, 6-10 broad without integuments.
montana Kiitz.—C, 3°5-5u broad without nteguments.
Gloeothece confluens Nig.—C, 6-8 x 5-35-34; AS, average size 5 x25u; D,
mostly 5-5 x 1°8—2y.
linearis Nag.—C, SL.
forma ANGUSTA f. nova.—F. cellulis 1-1-4 lat. rectis subeurva-
tisque. LG.
rupestris (Iuyngb.) Born.—D.
*Aphanocapsa elachista W. & G. 8S. West—C, 14-1-5u lat.; LR, 1:4-1-6y;
DL, 1-5-2u, spherical.
Grevillei (Hass.) Rabenh—C; CR, 3°3-6y.
*testacea Nag.—B, 7:3-8u: C, 8-8°d.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 41

*Aphanocapsa rivularis (Carim.) Rabenh.—M.
virescens (Hass.) Rabenh.—SbL, 6°6—8 broad.
*Aphanothece conferta P. Richt.—C, colonies 55-70, 2—2°5 x 3-4y.
microscopica Nag.—SL; LG, 3-5-4 x 6-7u; VL, B; C, 33-4 x 75-8,
also in brackish water, 5-3 x 7-9. :
saxicola Nao.— DL, 2-5 x 1-2n; W, 11; 8, 2x Ip.
*stagnina (Spreng.) A. Br.—C, 3°3-3°5 x 5-6-7; associated and interlaced

with the floating gelatinous mass was Lyngbya Rivulariarwm
in plenty.
*Microcystis elabens (Bréb.) Kiitz.—C.

*firma (Bréb. & Lenor.) Schmidle.—LG, colonies distinct, 20-304 broad,
cells circiter lu broad; DI, 1-1-5 broad.

*Flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchn.—ClI, W.

incerta Lemm.—K ; 8. W. of D, 24 broad, sometimes slightly ovoid.

*ichthyoblabe Kiitz.— W, K.

marginata Menegh.—C.

MINUTISSIMA sp. nov.—M. cellulis oblongis et confertis, aerugineis, post
divisionem subrotundatis, 0°81 latitudine (interdum 1:2), 1:]-1-5p
longitudine (interdum 2); familis irregularibus in margine, circiter
40-140 (interdum majoribus), tegumento hyalino. Mab—in locis
paludosis libere natans. C, SL, VL.

stagnalis Lemm.—C, Mw; SL; 8. W. of D, 1:5-1:8y broad.

*Clathrocystis elongata W. & G. S. West.—DL.

Gomphosphaeria aponina IKiitz.—C, L, K.

lacustris Chod.—Plankton of LG, 32-404 broad usually, also among
_Bulbochaete attached to Lobelia Dortmanna.

Coelosphaerium kuetzingianum Nag.—C, M; plankton of RL and LG; SI;
L, in a small lake; W, Cr.

Merismopedium aerugineum Breb.—D.

elegans A. Br.—C, W ; SL, 6-6°6 x 7-8-3.

glaucum (Ehrenb.) Nag.—L, SL, OC, M, IT, CP, 1, SL. CI, W, VL, DIL,
Cr; D, cells 4-5 broad.

punctatum Meyen.—Cr, W.

tenuissimum Lemm.—W; C, 1:6—2u, in another gathering 07-08;
Cr, 0-9-1, in another gathering I-2u.

Eucapsis alpina Clements & Schrautz.—Small tarn on Shievemore. This plant
has been recorded only once before, from a pond on a mountain in
Colorado, and as no British publication contains it, [ give a descrip-

~ tion :—— Colonies 30-80 mic. in diameter, usually containing 32-128
cells, cubical, free-floating ; tegument colourless; cells 6—% mic. in

R.I,A, PROC., VOL. XXXI. EF 16

16 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. ~

diameter, spherical, more rarely elliptic, in cubical families; cell-
contents blue-green.” I perhaps ought also to add that I had
described this plant in my manuscript as a new species of Merismo-
pedium, necessitating an alteration in the definition of the genus:
this was some time before I came across a description of Eueapsis, so I
think it may be of interest to publish just what I had written before
I knew of Eucapsis:—* Jerismopedium cubicum sp. nov. Familiis ~
e cellulis 64 compositis, 4 longitudine, + latitudine, et + in altitudine,
in strato mucoso distincto et hyalino, cellulis confertis et angulato-
globosis, contentis aeruginosis, 5-6-64 lat. The specimens seen
consisted of four families, held together by their gelatinous invest-
ment and arranged in a square. The genus Merismopedium will
require amending to include this species which had certainly divided
in three directions of space as in the bacterial genus Sarcina.”

*Holopedium irregulare (Lagerh.) Hansg.—C, 22h.

Tetrapedia reinschiana Arch.—Cr, D, DL, L, VL, C.
Fain. Chamaesiphonaceae.

*Chamaesiphon incrustans Grun.—L, on Cladophora crispata: AS, C: VL: D,

on Copepods.
*eurvatus Nordst.— DL, 3-4u broad, 18—24n long.

Order HORMOGONEAE.
Sub-Order PSILONEMATEAE.

Fam. Oscillatoriaceae.
Sub-fam. Oscillatorieae.
Oscillatoria Agardhii Gom.—C, in many places, 3°6—4u broad. 2u long, also
435-5u broad, cells } to 2.as long as broad, all distinctly capitate ;
M, 6y broad, 3-4u long; S, 4-2u broad, 2 as long as broad.
amphibia Ag.—C, W; M, 2°5u broad, 3u long; CP, 2°5-38y broad, 4u long;
S; Ac, 2°6-3-1u broad, 3°6—4u long.
*angustissima W. & G. S. West.—C, 0-6-0-66u broad, in another place
0-Tu broad, 1-1u long.
formosa Bory.—CP, 5-55 broad, average length 3-4u.
limosa Ag.—M, lly broad; C, 16-17 broad, cells six times shorter than
broad; L, 14-15y broad, cells 5 times shorter than broad; I, 12
broad, cells 3 times shorter than broad; CI, cells 4 times shorter
than broad; M; W, 15°3-143y broad, 2°5-3n long; Cr; SL, a
well-marked form, 9°5-]1u broad, 6-Su long, apical cell subcapitate ;
W, 12u broad, 3-5y long. y

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 43

Oscillatoria nigra Vauch.—L; D, 8 broad.

nigro-viridis Thw.— W.

princeps Vauch.—C, 26:6-28'3 broad, cells 6 times shorter than broad ;
W; 25-254 broad; Cr, 27°5-304 broad; D, a smaller form, 20u
broad.

splendida Grev.— W.

subtilissima Kiitz.—C.

tenuis Ag.—C, 9°5 broad, 4:54 long; L; Mw, a form with cells as long
as broad; VL; M, 8:4 broad, 3» long.

Sub-fam. Spirulineae.
Spirulina subsalsa Oersted.— W ; C, thickness of coil tu, of trichome 1°3p, in
fresh water in both cases.
major Kiitz.—S.W. of D, breadth of spiral 4, breadth of tilaments 16y,
distance between turns 3-4.

Sub-fam. Lyngbyeae.
Phormidium inundatum Kiitz.— VL.
P. subfuscum Kiitz.—W.

tenue (Menegh.) Gom.—Ae, 1°3u broad, 24 long; C, mostly 1d broad,
but sometimes up to 2°54; Mw, LG, L, CL.

Lyngbya aestuarii (Mart.) Lieben.—C, filaments 264 broad, cells 6-7 long ;
VL, filaments 12°5-13°5 broad, cells 1-7 long.

aerugineo-coerulea (KKiitz.) Gom.—L, filaments 3-6-4. broad, cells 2-25

long; VL, filaments 5°5-5:'8u broad, cells 2°5-3:3u long; M.
*Diqueti Gom.—M, filaments 2°5-3u broad, cells 2°2-5 lone.

limnetica Lemm.—D.

martensiana Menegh.—C, filaments 11, broad, trichomes 6°54 broad; CP.
filaments 7°5-8-2 broad, cells 2°5-5y long, rosy-violet.

CLIARENSIS sp. nov.—l. filis singulis libere natantibus, rectis vel sub-
rectis, 11°5-12:0u lat., rigidis, vaginis hyalinis et crassis, 17jc crassi-
tudine, trichomatibus coeruleo-aerugineis, contentu granwlis sparsis,
6-67 lat. articulis valde inequalibus, ciametvo semper longioribus,
9-24u long. (Plate I, fig. 7.) C.

*putealis Mont.—D, a form not more than 8 broad with sheath, trichomes
Tu, cells mostly subquadrate.

*Rivulariarum Gom.—SL, 0:94 broad; L, C, VL; C, 0S broad; LG,
DL, Cr.

subtilis West.—M, 1:5-1-6u broad, 2°2-2:54 long: W; I, 16 broad,
2-2-1. long ; RL, le6 broad; L.

F2

16 44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Sub-fam. Schizotricheae.

*Inactis tinctoria (Ag.) Thur.—LG; M, trichomes 1—1°5y broad.
Dasygloea amorpha Berk.—SL, AS.

Fam. Nostocaceae.
Sub.-fam. Heterocystidae.

*Nostoc. minutum Desm.—W, C; L, trichomes 5-3°35y broad; LG, I, CI, B.
This was often noticed within the empty tests of Rhizopoda.
coeruleum Lyngb.—CP.
*Anabaena confervoides Reinsch.—C, a small form, 1+-1‘Su broad, heterocysts
25u broad, 4u long, subangular; D. trichomes 24 broad.
Flos-aquae (Lyngb.) Bréb.—L, RL, CI: Cr, trichomes 4-6p broad, hetero-
cysts 8-5 broad.
var. MINOR, var. nov.—Var. ut in forma typica sed latitudine
cellularum 25-3, heterocystis 5°5-4:dp. C.
Hassallii Wittr.—_W.
oscillarioides Reinsch.—VL, 3-32 broad, heterocysts 5+4-5:6y broad,
42-5-4y long.
variabilis Kiitz.—C, 2°5-3u broad: L, M, B.
“inaequalis (Kiitz.) Born. & Flah.—N. W. of D, trichomes 5y broad,
spores 125-154 long, 6-6°7u broad, heterocysts sub-spherical,
6 broad.

Fam. Seytonemaceae,

*Plectonema nostocorum Born.—L; AS, with Dasygloce amorpha, Stigonema
turfaceum and other algae.
*Scytonema amplum W. & G. S. West—forma HIBERNICA.f. nov.—F. filis 13-liy
lat., trichomatibus 3°2—3-5y lat., aerugineis, vaginis achrois. IT.
Tolypothrix distorta(Hofm.-B.) Kiitz—C, VL, C1; M,sheaths 15, trichomes 9p.
lanata (Desy.) Wartm.—M.
tenuis Kiitz.—C.
Fam. Stigonemaceae.

Hapalosiphon hibernicus W. & G. S. West.—C: W. 7-9u broad: M; LG,
associated with Bulbochaete insignis; S.W. of D, 8-9 broad in
several places.

Stigonema mammillosum (Lyngb.) Ag. —M.

minutum (Ag.) Hass—C, M, RL, D.
turfaceum ‘Berk.) Cooke.—I, AS, D.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 45

Sub-order TRICHOPHOREAE.
Fam. Rivulariaceae.

Calothrix fusca (Kiitz.) Born. et Flah.—L; SL, sheaths up to 13°5p broad,
trichomes 6-8°4 broad.
parietina (Nag.) Thur.—M.
Rivularia beccariana (De Not.) Born. et Flah.—C, abundant on stones in
tumbling rill on Croaghmore, many measured up to 3°5 millimetres,
1 mm. is the usual measurement. This was exceptionally fine in
one place where Z’richocolea tomentella occurred.
haematites (DC.) Ag —W.
nitida Ag.—On rocks near Roonah Point near L.
echinulata (Sm.) Born. et, Flah.—C; plankton of LG.
[Such plants as Rivularia atra, which always grow subject to salt-water
influence, I have purposely left to the marine algologist. ]

Class FLAGELLATA.

Dinobryon cylindricum Imhof. var. divergens Lemm.—C.
elongatum Imhof., var. undulatum Lemm.—CP, D.
protuberans I.emm.—(, I, CI.
sociale Ehrenb.—D, VL, M.
Sertularia Khrenb.—C.
var. thyrsoideum (Chod.) Lemm.—C, CP, 8. W. of D.
Euglena viridis Khrenb. —C, L, W, CP.
*Synura uvella Ehrenb.—S. W. of D.

Class PERIDINIEAE.

Glenodinium pulvisculus (Ehrenb.) Stein.—C, M, I, Cl, SL, Cr, D.
Ceratium hirundinella O. F. Miiller.—K, Ac, LG, VL.

cornutum (Ehrenb.) Clap. et Lachm.—Cr; SL, associated with abundance
ot Anuraea cochlearis and Notholea longispina.

Tripos (Ehrenb.).—DL. ‘These agreed with published figures of this
plant, the examples were scarce, and may have been brought to the
fresh-water lake (which is close to the sea) by the numerous gulls.

Peridinium tabulatum (Ehrenb.) Clap. et Lachm.—SL.

Willei Huitfeldt-Kaas.—C, As, D, SL.

16 46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,

ASSOCIATIONS OF ALGAE.

Associated with Oedogoniwm Braunvi as the dominant feature in one pool
in Clare Island were:—Pediastrum tetras in great abundance, Coelastrum
sphaericum frequent, Lyngbya Rivulartarum mostly clinging to and around
the Oedogonium, Anabaena inaequalis mostly agglutinated to the Oedogonium
by its sheath, and various forms of Scenedesmus quadricawmda with Tetrapedia
reimschiana. Mixed up with the rest, but in much smaller quantity, were :—
Scenedesmus obliquus, S. acutiformis v. brasiliensis, Pediastrum boryanum
v. productum, Tetraedron caudatum, Ankistrodesmus falcatus, Merismopaedia
tenuissime, Dactylococcopsis fascicularis v. subrecta, Staurastrum punctulatum
var. pygmaeum, Cosmarium laeve var. octangularis, C. humile, C. Meneghinii,
C. punctulatum var. subpunctulatum.

In a pool near the light-house on Clare Island the following were
in a mixed association with Sphagnwin cuspidatum and S. subseeundum :—
Eremosphacra viridis, Ulothrix variabilis, Chlorobotrys regularis, Ophiocytium
cochleare, Botryococcus Brawnii, Asterococcus superbus, Scenedesmus bijugatus,
Dimorphococeus lunatus, Schizochlamys delicatula, Microthamnion kuetzingianum,
Glenodinium einctum, Chroococeus minor, Nostoc microscopicum, Navicula viridis,
N. Tabellavia, Vanheurchia rhomboides vy. saxonica, Netrium Digitus, Closteriwin
Lunula, C. Cynthia, C. calosporum, C. turgidum, Euastrum bidentatum, E.
elegans, E. Didelta, EB. binale, Micrasterias apiculata, vy. fimbriata, M. angulosa,
M. rotata, Cosmarium angulosum vy. concinnum, C. Cucumis, C. Brebissonit, C.
difficile v. laeve, Xanthidium antilopaeum, Tetmemorus granulatus, T. Brebissonit,
Staurastrum margaritaceum, S. aciculiferum, S. polymorphum, S. hirsutum,
Desmidium cylindricum, Hyalotheca dissiliens, &c.

An association in a small pool on the top of Croaghmore, Clare Island, at
about 1,500 feet elevation, contained as the main feature Chroococcus turgidus ;
in much smaller quantity were C. macrococcus and C. pallidus; Tribonema
bombycina was also in quantity; the rest consisted of Vanhewrekia rhomboides
v. saxonica, V. vulgaris, Navicula viridis, Gloeocystis vesiculosa, G. rupestris,
Aphanocapsa testacea, Mesotaenium macrococcum vy. micrococcum, Huastrum
binale v. Gutwinskii, Cosmarium Cucurbita, C. sphagnicolum, Stawrastrum
margaritaceum, S. Avicula y. subarcuatum, &e.

Another association from a pond of fairly aerated water near the hotel,
Clare Island, was chiefly Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum and Cladophora
flavescens, amongst which were Ulothric variabilis, Myxonema nanum, Lyngbya
fivularvarum, Characium Pringsheimii epiphytic on a sterile Oedogonium,

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 47

Scenedesmus horridus, Cosmarium laeve, Merismopaedia glauca, Synedra
pulchella, Diatoma elongatum, Pragilaria mutabilis, Rhoicosphaenia curvata,
Navicula elliptica, N. eryptocephala, N. amphisbaena, &e.

In an association in a pool on Croaghmore, among a sinall quantity of a
barren (Edogonium and a Bulbochaete the dominant species was Closterium
moniliferum, and Netriwm Digitus was sub-dominant; the rest ave enumerated
in point of order as to their prevalence :—TZabellaria flocenlosa, Spondylosium
pulchellum, Cosmarium angulosum v. concinnum, Oocystis solitarvia, Cylindrocystis
Brebissonii, Chlorobotrys vegularis, Navieula Brebissonii, Hillhousia sp.,
Achnanthes exilis, Mastogloia Smithii, Huastrum pectinatum, BL. denticulatum,
Micrasterias denticulata, &e.

Associated in very varying proportions with Cladophora flavescens as the
dominant alga (considering bulk only) in one pool (quite a different locality
from the last one for the same alga) on Clare Island were :—WMougeotia sp.
(sterile), Cosmarium subtumidum v. minor, C. suberenatum, CO. laeve v. cymatium,
C. Botrytis v. mediolaeve, Cocconema gastroides, CO. Cistula, Cocconema leptoceras
v. elongata, Achnanthes exilis, Gomphonema olivaceum, G. parvulum Cocconeis
Placentula and its variety lineata (by far the most abundant diatom epiphytic
on the Cladophora), Denticula tenwis v. frigida, Epithemia turgida, Hunotia
major, Navicula limosa, N. eryptocephala, N. seminulum, N. lanceolata vy.
phyllepta, &e.

The following were associated with Utricularia minor in Lough Avullin
in Clare Island; the first four enumerated were dominant collectively ; if any
of the four showed prevalence, it was the first one:—Cosmarium vectangulare
(gotlandicum’, Chlorobotrys reqularis, Xanthidium Smithii, Staurastruin
aciculiferum, S. margaritaceum, S. punctulatum, S. muticwm f. minor,
Spondylosium pulchellum, Euastrum binale, Tetmemorus Brebissonti, Peniwin
Cylindrus, Hyalotheca dissiliens, Schizochlamys delicatula, Oocystis solitaria,
Crucigenia vrectangulare, Botryogoceus Braunw, Chroococcus maecrococeus,
Gloeocupsa montana (probably washed in from turfy bank), Vanhewrckia
rhomboides and its var. saxonica, Binuclearia tatrana, Mougeotia sp. (sterile),
Ocdogoniwm (2 sterile spp.).

An association (Clare Island) among a gathering of MJougeotia gracillima
with zygospores and another sterile species of JJougeotia, consisted of the
following, enumerated as nearly as possible in the order of their prevalence :—
Tetmemorus granulatus, Hyaletheca dissiliens, Pleurotaenium Trabecula vy.
clavatum, Closteriwm striolatum, Tabellaria jflocculosa, Euastrum bidentatum,
Staurastrum punctulatum, S. orbiewlare v. Kalfsii, S. Meriani, S. sexcostatum,
Euastrum pectinatun, Myxonema nanum, Cosmariwn tinetum, Surivella
pinnata, &e,

16 48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Another Sphagnum-pool, chiefly S. plwmosum, Clare Island, yielded a very
nixed association, no species showing dominance :—7Zetmemorus granulatus,
T. Brebissonti, T. laevis, Netrium Digitus, Staurastrum sexcostatum, Huastrum
dubium, E. denticulatum, HE. ansatum, EH. Didelta, E. bidentatum, EH. binale
{. minor, Micrasterias truncata (the last two rather more abundant),
M. denticulata, Cosmarium Regnellii (rather frequent), C. pygmaeum, Clostervwm
intermedium, (. Lunula, Hremosphaera viridis, Anabaena Flos-aquae v. minor,
Synedra Acus, S. pulchella, Vanheurckia rhomboides and its var. saxonica,
Navicula Tabellaria, N. mesolepta and its var. Termes, N. viridis, N. major,
Tabellaria floceulosa, Eunotia lunaris, Dinobryon Sertularia, &e.

A tuft of Microspora abbreviata was examined from Clare Island for its
associates ; the three first enumerated were the most abundant; all are
placed in the order of their relative abundance in the gathering :—Cosmariwm
rectangulare, Chlorobotrys regularts, Staurastrum aciculiferwm, Netrium Digitus,
Oocystis solitaria, Vanheurckia rhomboides v. saxonica, Ulothria variabilis,
dogoninm (sterile), Huastrum binale, Micrasterias truncata, Euastrwm
bidentatum, Tetmemorus laevis, Gymnozyga moniliformis, Stawrastrum
margaritaceum, &e.

Associated with a submerged species of Hypnum on Clare Island
were :—EHremosphaera viridis, Chlorobotrys regularis, Euastrwm bidentatum,
and Vanheurckia rhomboides var. saxonica, the four together showing
dominance; scattered among these occurred, but in much less proportion,
Tolypothrix tenuis, Ulothrix variabilis, Binuclearia tatrana, Microspora
pachyderma, Gloeocystis gigas, Oocystis solitaria, Micrasterias truncata,
Euastrum binale with varieties, Netrium Digitus, Tetmemorus granulatus,
T. laevis, Cosmarium rectangulare, C. tinctum, C. Cucurbita, Spondylosium
pulchellum, Staurastrum cuspidatum, S. punctulatum, S. muticum vy. minor,
Penium didymocarpon, Mesotaenium endlicherianum, Arthrodesmus Incus
v. minor, Navieula viridis, N. mesolepta, Tabellaria floceulosa, Merismopediwm
glaucum, Chroocoecus macrococcus, C. turgidus, Oscillatoria Agurdhii, Dinobryon
protuberans, &e.

An association consisting of minute algae mostly, from a ditch near the
chapel, Clare Island, was thus constituted :—Desmidium Swartzii and
Micrasterias denticulata as the main features, the former species more
abundant; then the following, all in small proportion, the first three being a
little more abundant than the rest :—Pleurotaenium truncatum, Closterium
costatum, C. rostratum, C. pronum, C. Archeriarum, Euastrum oblonguin, Peniwm
Navicula, Spirotaenia condensata, Cosmarium subcostatum, C. ochthodes, C.
Meneghinii, C. formosulum, C.~ Botrytis, Mougeotia viridis, Stawroneis
Phoentcenteron, S. anceps, Navicula gibba, N. cryptocephala, Surirella robusta;

Clare Island Survey—Lresh-water Algae. 16 49

S. biseriatw, anda very small quantity of a barren Oedogonium (Hydra vulgaris
was also present).

A large patch of Cladophora glomerata from the cliffs of Croaghmore had
an association of diatoms upon and among it; the epiphytic Cocconcis Pedioulus
was the truly dominant one, and almost hid some parts of the Cladophora
from view. The other species occurred in varying proportions, and I have
written down the chief of them in the approximate order of their frequency :—
Cocconema gastroides, C. cymbiforme, C. Navicula, C. Brebissonii, Epithemia Sorex,
FE. zebra and its variety proboscidea, H. Hyndmanni (small forms), Hunotia
Arcus v. minor, Synedra Acus, Gomphonema gracile v. dichotomum, Achnanthes
extlis, Cocconema ventricosum, Diatoma elongatum, Navicula gracilis, N. viridis
(small forms), Witeschia Sigma v. rigida, Synedra Ulna, Gyrosigma Spencervi
y. nodifera, Stawroneis anceps, &e.

Near Dugort, Achill Island, associated in a pool along with Batracho-
spermum vagum were Huastrum bidentatum and Spondylosium pulchellum in
fair quantity ; next in point of numbers came Desmidiwm cylindricum and
Ophiocytium cochleare, then in less quantity Oocystis solitaria, Chlorobotrys
regularis, Mougeotia (sterile), Oedogoniwm (sterile), Vanheurckia rhomboides
v. crassinervia; after these, and quite scattered, were Peniwm Digitus, P.
Navicula, Tetmemorus granulatus, Closterium Lunula, C. juncidum, C. acutum
var Linea, Staurastrum margaritaceum, S. tetracerum, S. paradoxwm, Cosmarium
pygmaeum, C. subtumidun, C. pyramidatum, Huastrum ansatum, FE. binale,
Micrasterias truncata, Hyalotheca dissiliens (with zygospores), Hremosphaera
viridis, Merismopedium glaueum, Tetrapedia reinschiana, Chroococcus minutus,
Tabellaria flocculosa, Nitzschia Palea, N. subtilis, Navicula Brebissonii, N.
viridis, N. nobilis, Vanheurckia rhomboides, &e.

An association near the summit of Croaghaun, Achill Island, 2,192 feet
elevation, consisted of the following in a very mixed manner, no species
approaching either dominance or subdominance :—JJ/ougeotia (sterile),
Ocdogonium (sterile), Batrachospermum vagum, Binuclearia tatrana, Microspora
abbreviata, Oocystis solitaria, Scenedesmus obliquus, Chlorobotrys vegularis,
Arthrodesmus octocornis, Staurastrum paradoxum, S. tetracerum, Closterium
intermedium, Cosmarium tatricum, C. Cucurbita, C. Phaseolus y. elevatum,
Euastrum binale, L. dentieulatum, Navicula viridis, N. Brebissonii, Vanheurckia
rhomboides v. saxonica, Hunotia lunaris, &e.

Associated in a scattered manner with Bulbochaete insignis in Lough
Gall, Achill Island, were:—Hapalosiphon hibernicus, Lyngbya Rivulariarum,
2 sterile species of Spirogyra, 1 of Zygnema, 2 delicate species of Oedogonium,
(one was not more than 3°34 in diameter, and might be either tnconspicwwm or
excisum; the thickest specimens of the other were 5u broad, the size of

R,L.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI. G ! 16

16 50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

pusillumi, Caelosphaerium kuetzingianum, Aphanotheca microscopica, Dactylotheca
Braunii, Staurastrum paradoxum, 8. denticulatum, Huastrum binale v. hians,
Scenedesmus quadricauda, Pediastrum glanduliferum, &e.

A large tuft of a sterile Vaucheria from near Westport was examined to
ascertain what was the association of other algae amongst it. It turned out
to be mostly a Diatom association; I enumerate some—the chief of the
species present, in the order of their prevalence :—Tabellaria flocculosa,
Fragilaria capucina, Synedra Ulna, Amphora ovalis, Navicula viridis, N. nobilis,
N. viridula, Eunotia praerupta, E. pectinalis, Coceonema gastroides, Surirella
ovalis, S. biseriata, Gomphonema montanum v. commutatum, Nitzschia Palea,
Meridion circulare, Stauroneis anceps, Navicula limosa, N. bicapitata, N.
appendiculata, N. pusilla, &c. A few chlorophyllaceous algae were also
present in small quantity :—Ulothrie aequalis, Ankistrodesmus falcatus,
Selenastrum gracile, Staurastrum orbiculare, S. punctulatum, Cosmarium
Botrytis and Closterium Cynthia.

MARINE DIATOMS.

The following contractions for localities have been used :—

AS = Achill Sound. CNE = Clare Island, N.E. shore,
BB = Bellacragher Bay. ineludes a number of different
C=Shores of Clare Island (no gatherings.
definitely indicated place K = Kinnacorra, Clare Island.
thereon). M = Mulvanny.

CB = Clew Bay.
Class BACILLARIACEAE (Diaromacras).
Div. I. RAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Cymbelleae.
Amphora angularis Greg.—CB.
*marina V. H. (non W. Sm.)—AS.
salina W. Sm.—CB, C; CNE, 28-4Iu long; L, mouth of Bunowen
River, 38» long.
*Proteus Greg.—AS.
*veneta Kiitz—CB, ONE.
Tribe Naviculeae.
Gyrosigma angulatum (Quek.) O.IK.—CB, 150 x 31-6n.
affine (Grun.) O.K.—AS, a narrow form 173 x 28-5y.

Clare Island Survey— Fresh-water Algae. 16 51

Gyrosigma balticum (W. Sm.) O.K.—CB, 260 x 284; CNE.
var. ATLANTICUM var. nov.—G. cellulis minoribus brevioribus-
que constante sed formae ejusdem ut in forma typica. CB.
distortum (W. Sm.) O.K.—CB, 92 x 16:6.
formosum (W. Sm.) O.K.—CB, 425 x 31.
Hippocampus (Hass.)—CB.
*rigidum (W. Sm.) O.K.—CB.
strigilis (W. Sm.) O.K.—CB, 540 x 40u.
Orthotropis lepidoptera (Greg.) Cleve.—CNE, 108 long.
maxima Greg.—AS, 103 x 16:6, valve-view.
Plagiotropis elegans (W. Sm.) Grun.—C, up to 270n long.
Schizonema Grevillei Ag.—C.
Navicula abrupta Greg.—M, 50 x 22».
*advena Ad. Schm.—AS.
var. parca Ad. Schm.—AS; CNH, 37 x 12n.
aspera Ehrenb.—CB, 66x 14», a small form, also 1051454; CNE,
100 x 19, 104-16p, 104 x 21, also short forms 56 x 14, 96 x 22,,
140 23°54; AS, 65 x 21 girdle-face; K.
Bombus Ehrenb.—AS, 63 x 27°5u, isthmus 17°54; CNE, 50 x 20», isthmus
12°54; also 50-52 x 18n, 55 x 24.
*palnearis Grun. var. MAJOR, var. nov.-—Var. cellulis duplo longioribus et
latioribus quam forma typica, 70 x 224. CNE.
cancellata Donk.—CB, 68 x 16°54; CNE, 70 x 20°8p.
eincta (Ehrenb.) Kiitz.—C, 37-39 x 7-5-8» (in a somewhat brackish place).
Crabro Ehrenb.—C, 96 x 31-6, isthmus 22°dp.
digitoradiata Greg.—O, 50x 10; L, mouth of Bunowen River, 69x 12:5.
var. Cyprinus (W. Sm.) V.H.—AS, 72 x 19”; CNE, 65 x 14:2n.
didyma Ehrenb.—AS, 50 x 292; C, 29 x 12°54, common, a small form ;
CNE, 34-39 x 15-16p, 12°5-13y at isthmus.
*forcipata Grev.—CB, 35x 15u; AS, 37x18; CNE, 31x 12u.
formosa Greg.—CNHE, 148, long.
fusca Greg. var. hyperborea (Grun.) V.H.—AS, 70 « 32°5y.
var. delicatula Ad. Schm.—C, 47x 23-5, a small form; CNE.
AT x 21.
granulata Bréb—CB, 58x 30y, slightly retuse at sides, others 88 x 47,
neither retuse nor almost flat at sides.
humerosa Bréb.— AS, 50 x 25p.
interrupta Kiitz.—CB, 53-65 long, rather small forms ; CNE, 57x19,
12-5u at isthmus, a narrower form 60 x 17, 12°2 at isthmus.
Liber W. Sm.—CNE, large forms up to 170 x 23, also 92 x 18u.
G2

16 52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula Lyra Ehrenb.—CB, 124u long; AS, 115u long; C.
f. MINOR, forma nova.—F. cellulis typicis in forma, sed multe
minoribus, 64 x 28°24. Cn.
musca Greg.—C, 46x 16°54; AS, 46 x 19y, isthmus 15°2u.
var. PARVA, var. nov.— Var. cellulis multe parvioribus. CB,
33 x 14:24; AS, 35 x 13°8u, isthmus 9-1p.
mutica Kiitz.—C, very variable; M.
palpebralis Breb.— AS; L, at mouth of Bunowen river, 6 x <0, valye-view.
Smithii Bréb.—C, a small form 54x25; AS, also small forms; CNE.
var. MINOR, var. nov.—Var. cellulis semper minoribus,46 x 26.
C.
trevelyana Donk.—K, 131 x 36u girdle-view.
var. MINOR, var. novy.—Var. cellulis brevioribus et relative
latioribus in visa cinctuare. AS, 60u long, 20u at widest
part of girdle-face; a relatively shorter form.
**vacillans Ad. Schm.—CNE, 25 x 10, constriction slight.
*Berkeleya Dillwynii (Ag.) V.H.—CNE, 38 = 6.
Scoliopleura latestriata (Bréb.) Grun.—AS, 100 x 20u.

Tribe Gomphonemeae.

Rhoicosphenia curvata (Kiitz.) Grun. var. marina (W. Sm.) V. H.—C, L.

Tribe Achnantheae.

Achnanthes subsessilis Elrenb—C, CB; M, 36 x 12, valve-view.

brevipes Ag.—C; M, 56 x 12°5y, a small form; L, 58 x 15'8u; CNE,
36-63, long.

“delicatula Kiitz.—C ; M, 18-22 x 10, valve-view.

longipes Ag.—C, CB.

parvula Kiitz—AS, 13°3 x 8:3y, some specimens occurred up to 21p
long; C.

Tribe Cocconeideae.

**Cocconeis danica Flug.—CB.

*dirupta Greg.—CB, 31 x 24-24; CNE, 29 x 23u, 25 x 21p, 18 x 13n,
28 x 21p; K.

molesta Kiitz—C, 17» long; CNE, 18-20 long, also up to 28 x 20p, a
large form.

pinnata Greg.—C, CB.

Scutellum Ehrenb—C, AS: BB, extremely abundant; CNE, K.

f. parva V.H.—AS; CNE, from 10 to 6p up to 25 x 184; M, K.

Clure Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 53

Diy. II. PSkUDORAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Synedreae.

Synedra affinis Kiitz.—C, CB, CNE.
var. parva Kiitz.—CNE, 31-55, long, frequent.
var. fasciculata Kiitz.—M, 57 x 5p valve-view.
investiens W. Sm.—CB, C; up to 40 x 6p valve-view, girdle-view 5p;
CNE, 30 long, 38 broad, girdle-view, frequent.
barbatula Ktitz.— AS, 33 x 8y.
Gallionii Ehrenb.—C, 176 x 10» valve-view; AS, up to 216p long ;
CNE, 116 x 9:1p, 156 x 104; K, up to 225h long.
__ hitzschioides Grun.—C.
**Asterionella japonica Cleve. —CB.

Tribe Fragilarieae.

**Cymatosira lorenziana Grun.—CB; ONE, 34, long.
*belgica Grun.—CB, 32u long.
*Campylosira cymbelliformis (A. Schm.) Grun.—CNE, 29-37, long.

Tribe Raphoneideae.

*Raphoneis Surirella Grun.—C; CB, 36-37 x17.

Tribe Licmophoreae.

Licmophora flabellata (Carm.) Ag.—C,; AS, very abundant, sizes measured
were 97-180 long, 18u broad girdle-view, 7u valve-view.

Tribe Tabellarieae.

**Grammatophora angulosa Ehrenb.—C, AS, K.
marina (Lyngb.) Kiitz.—C, AS; CNE, 44u long; K.
serpentina (Ralfs) Ehrenb.—C, 44-66 long; CB, AS; CNE, 72°5-90,
long, also 47-641 long x 9°5-10u broad.
var. pusilla (Grev.) V.H.— AS.
Rhabdonema adriaticum Kiitz.—C, 71-93, long, valve-view 18°5-194; AS,
85u long; CNE, 63-68, long.
arcuatum (Ag.) Kiitz.—C, 40u long; AS; CNE, 33-54, long.
minutum Kiitz.—C, 15-27 broad (only 10 sometimes) ; CNE, up to 33u
broad; M; AS, 26u broad; K.
**Striatella unipunctata Ag.—CB, AS.
*delicatula (IXiitz.) Grun.—CNE, 10-13 long.

16 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Tribe Surirelleae.

Surirella fastuosa Ehrenb.—CNH, 81 x 50y, 85 x 56u; K.
var. lata (W. Sm.) V. H.—CB, 82°5 x 34u; C, 76 x 384; CNE,
73 x 36u, 68 x 41p, 77 x 40p.

Tribe Nitzschieae.

Hantzschia virgata (Roper) Grun.—L, at mouth of Bunowen River, 110 x 13u,
valve-view.
Nitzschia angularis W. Sm. var. affinis Grun.—C, 71 x 9u.
apiculata (Greg.) Grun.—CB; CNE, 33:5 x 6-6n.
bilobata W. Sm. var. minor Grun.—CNE, as small as 30 x 13y, girdle-
face.
*commutata Grun.—CB, 86 x 12°54; CNE, 48 long.
fasciculata Grun.—L, 76y long.
*communis Rabenh., var. abbreviata Grun.—C.
constricta (Greg.) Grun.—CNE, 45 x l4u, width of constriction 11°8y,
other gatherings 41°7 x 14:24, width of constriction 12-5, 48 x 15°2y,
at constriction 15p. ‘
**lorenziana Grun.—CB.
yar. ineurva Grun.—CB.
plana W. Sm.—CNE, 135 x 17.
punctata (W. Sm.) Grun.—AS, 24 x l4u; CNE, 30 x 155; not at all
subrostrate, obtuse. Also from brackish water near D.
spectabilis (Ehrenb.) Ralfs.—CB, up to 420n long.
Tryblionella Hantzsch. var. levidensis (W. Sm.) V. H.—CB.
var. littoralis Grun.—CNE, 35 long, 25 broad.
*vitraea Norm. var. recta (Hantzsch) V. H.—CB.

Division III]. CRYPTORAPHIDIEAE.
Tribe Chaetocereae.
Sub-tribe Rhizosolenieae.
Guinardia flaccida (Castr.) Perag.—CB.
Rhizosolenia alata Brightw. var. gracillima (Cl.) V. H.—M.
“imbricata Brightw. var. Shrubsolii (Cl.) V. H—CB.
setigera Bright.—M.
styliformis Bright.— M.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 55

Sub-tribe Euchaetocereae.

Chaetoceros decipiens Cl.—CB.
didymus (Ehrenb.) Cl.—CB.
*paradoxum Cl.—CB.
*teres Cleve.—CB.
*Wighamii Brightw.—M; CB, 16-20 broad.
Tribe Melosireae.
Skeletonema costatum (Grey.) Cl —CB, 10y broad.
Melosira Borreri Grev.— AS; CB 41 broad.
f. MINOR f. nov.—Lat. 116. CB.
nummuloides (Bory) Ag.—C, 33 broad.
var. hyperborea Grun.—C, 12-15 broad.
suleata (Ehrenb.) Kititz.— AS, 24u broad ; OB,23 broad, also smaller fornis
f. minor Richmond.—CNE.
*Druridgea geminata Donk.—C.
*Hyalodiscus subtilis Bail.—CB, 17-18 broad; C, 21u broad; AS, 234 broad.
stelliger Bail.—CNE, 42-66 broad, another gathering 36 broad.
Cyclotella striata (Kititz.) Grun.—C; CB,41u broad; AS; CNE, sometimes
not more than 20-22 broad.

Tribe Biddulphieae.
Biddulphia antediluviana (Ehrenb.) V. H.—C, breadth of valve-view 42u:
CB; CNE, breadth of valve-view 43-52u.
*laevis Ehrenb. f. minor V. H.—C, OB, AS.
aurita (Lyngb.) Bréb.—CB, 24-254 long; AS, 25-264 long; CNE;
C, 38u long.
pulchella Gray.—CB, 87-90u long, breadth at middle 58n.
Smithii (Ralfs) V. H.—O, 42u broad; ONE.
*Triceratium elegans Grev. f. pusilla V. H.—CB, 14°5y lat.
_ Tribe Eupodisceae.
Auliscus sculptus (W. Sm.) Ralfs.—CB, 52°5 x 48u, valve-view.
Tribe Heliopelteae.
Actinoptychus undulatus Ehrenb.—CB, 46-70 broad; AS; CNE, 50-941
broad.
*splendens (Shadb.) Ralfs.—AS.
Tribe Coscinodisceae.
Coscinodiscus perforatus Ehrenb.—C, 74-80u broad.
excentricus Khrenb.—ONE.
Actinocyclus subtilis (Greg.) Ralfs, -CNE, 46-73, broad,

16 56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

List oF soME oF THE Books 4ND P4PERS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION
oF THIS PaprR.!
Apams, John:
A synopsis of Irish algae. Proc. R. Irish Academy, vol. xxvii, Sect. B,
No. 2. Dublin, 1908.
Awpersson, O. Fr. :
Sweriges Chlorophyllophyceer. Bidrag till Kannedomen, &e. I. Chlorophyceer
fran Roslagen. Bihang till K. Sy. Vet. Akad. Handl. xvi, no. 5, 1890.
ArcHer, W.:
In Pritchard’s Infusoria. London, 1861.
Various papers in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1857-1885.
Several papers in Proc. Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., 1863 and 1864.
Bamey, N. M.:
Contribution to the Queensland Flora. Brisbane, 1898.
Baxter Wyynz, E.:
A treatise on the Diatomaceae, Yan Heurck. Translated, 1896.
Bernarp, Ch. :
Protococeacées et Desmidiées d’eau douce recoltées 4 Java. Batavia, 1908.
Aleues unicellulaires d’eau douce recoliées dans le domaine Malais.
Buitenzorg, 1909.
Bissett, J. P.:
Desmidieae of Lake Windermere. Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1884.
Boree, C.:
Siisswasseralgen Siid-Patagonien. Bih. till K. Sw. Vet. Akad. Handl. xxvi.
Afd ITT, no. 10, 1901.
Algen aus Argentine und Bolivia, &e. Stockholm, 1906.
Siisswasser-Chlorophyceen von Feuerland und Isla Desolacion, &e. Upsala,
1906.
Beitrage, Algenflora von Schweden, &e. Stockholm, 1906.
Nordamerikanische Siisswasseralgen, &c. Stockholm, 1909.
Die Siisswasser-Algenflora Spitzbergens, &e. 1911.
Algologische Notizen, Botaniska Notiser, Lund. 1911.
Bézcesen, F.:
Desmidieae ..... Brasiliae ceniralis. Kjébenhavn, 1890.
Freshwater Algae of the Fardes. Copenhagen, 1901.
Boreesen, F., and C. H. Ostexrep: -
Phytoplankton of Lakes in the Faerdes. 1903.

? A detailed bibliugraphy relating to Irish Algae alone will be found in Adams: A Synopsis of
Trish Algae. Praz, R.T, Acad., xxvii, Sect. B, No.2. 1908.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 57

BRuNTHALER, JOS. :
Der Einfluss ausserer Faktoren auf Gloeothece rupestris, &e. 1909,
Cuopat, R.:
Beitriige zur Kryptocamenflora der Schweitz, &c. Bern, 1902,
Polymorphisme des Aleues. Genéve, 1909.
Curve, P. T., und A. Grunow:
Zur Kenntniss der arctischen Diatomeen. 1880.

Comkre, J.:

Les Desmidiées de France. Paris, 1901.
Coorg, M. C.:

British Desmids. London, 1886 and 1887.
De Bary:

Untersuchungen tiber die Familie der Conjugaten. Leipzig, 1858.
Der Tont, G. B.:
Sylloge Algarum, &. Patavii, 1889.
Donan, A. S.:
British Diatomaceae. London, 1870 and 1871.
Franautt, Ch. :
Sur quelques formes de Nostoc. Bulletin de la Société botanique de France
1883.
Note sur les Nostocacées Heterocystées de la Flore belge. Bulletin de la
Société royale de botanique de Belgique, tome xxvil, 2° partie.
Fort, Achille:
Sylloge Myxophycearum. Patavii, 1907.
Grunow, A.:
Stisswasser-Diatomaceen und Desmidiaceen von der Insel Banka, &c.
Leipzig, 1865.
Hassan, A. H.:
British Freshwater Algae. London, 1845.
Hien, Karl E. :
Monographie und Iconographie der Oedogoniaceen. Helsingfors, 1900.
Studien ueber Oedogoniaceen. Helsingfors, 1906.
Hourrretpr-Kaas, Hartvig :
Planktonundersogelser. Christiania, 1906.
Krroaner, O.:
Schizophyceae (aus Engler u. Prantl: Natur. Pflanzenfaiilien). Leipzig}
1898.
Kurzine, F. T.:
Tabulae phycologicae. Nordhausen, 1846.
Species Algarum. Leipzig, 1849.
Marquanp, E. D.:
The Desmids and Diatoms of W. Cornwall, &e. Penzance, 1882-1884.

Mrs, F. W., and R. H. Pump:
Diatomaceae of the Hull District. ‘Trans. Hull Sc. Field Nat. Club, 1901
H 16

K.I.A. PROC., VOL. XXXI,

16 58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Motte, Otto:
Bacillarien aus Sid-Patagonien, 1909.
Moeray, James:
Distribution of the Pelagic Organisms in Scottish Lakes. Proc. Roy. Phys.
Soc. Hdinburgh, 1905.
Norpstepr, O.:
Freshwater Algae, New Zealand and Australia. Kl. Sw. Vet. Akad. S.,
Handl., xxii, no. 8, 1888.
Index Desmidiacearum, &c. Lund, 1896.
Supplementum Index Desmidiacearum, &c. Lund, 1908.
OstENFELD, C. H.:
Studies on Phytoplankton, i, Botanisk Tidsskrift, xxv, Heft 2, 1903.
Studies on Phytoplankton, ii and iii. Kjébenhayn, 1904.
Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Algenflora Kossogol-broxens in der nordwestlichen
Mongolei, &e. Hedwigia, 1906.
Phytoplanktonof the Aral Sea and its affluents, &e. St. Petersburg, 1908.
Phytoplankton aus dem Victoria Nyanza. Engler’s Botan. Jahrb., 1908.
OsTENFELD, C. H., and C. Wesensurc-Lounp :
Fortnightly exploration of the Plankton of Icelandic lakes. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edinb., 1906.
Puayratr, G. J.:
“ Desmids found in New South Wales. Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales.
Sydney, 1907.
Raszennorst, Ludovico:
Flora Europaea Algarum, &c. Lipsiae, 1864-1868.
Raters, J.:
The British Desmidieae. London, 1848.
Roy, J., and J. P. Bisserr :
On Scottish Desmidieae. Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist., 1893-1894.
Rovers, H.:
Zum Polymorphismus der Cyanophyceen. Jahresbericht des Naturwissen-
schaftlichen Vereins in Elberfeld, 11 Heft, 1906.
Scuroper, B.:
Beitrage zur Kentniss des Phytoplanktons warmer Meere. Breslau, 1906.
Neue und seltene Bacillariaceen aus dem Plaukton der Adria. Berlin, 1908.
Phytoplankton von Westindien, 1909.
Adriatisches Phytoplankton. Wien, 1911.
Scuréper, Bruno, und O. Zacwarias:
Uber die Flora &c. Trachenburg in Schlesien, 1897.
Santa, W.:
Synopsis of the British Diatomaceae. London, 1853-1856.
TrpEn, Josephine :
Minnesota Algae, vol. i. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1910.

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algae. 16 459

Turner, W. B.: :
Freshwater Algae of E. India. Stockholm, 1892 and 1893.
Tanner-FuLtemann, M.,
Contribution a l’étude des lacs alpins, &. Genéye, 1907.
West, W.:
The Desmids of Maine.—I-II. Journ. Bot., 1888, 1891.
Additions to the Algae of W. Yorkshire. The Naturalist, 1889.
List of Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc., 1889.
The Freshwater Algae of N. Yorkshire. Journ. Bot., 1889.
A Contribution to the Freshwater Algae of N. Wales. Journ. Roy. Mier.
Soc., 1890.
A Contribution to the Freshwater Algae of W.Iveland. Journ. Linn. Soc.,
Bot., 1892.
Nonnullae algae aquae dulcis lusitanicae. La Notarisia, vii, 1892.
Algae of the English Lake District. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc., 1894.
On some Fresh-water Algae from the West Indies. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot.,
vol. xxx, 1894.
West, W., and G. S. West:
A Contribution to our knowledge of the Freshwater Algae of Madagascar.
Trans. Linn. Soce., Bot., 1895.
Some recently published Desmidieae. Journ. Bot., 1895.
On some New and Interesting Freshwater Algae. Journ. Roy. Mier.
Soc., 1896.
Welwitsch’s African Freshwater Algae. Journ. Bot., 1897.
Desmids from Singapore. Journ. Linn. Soe., Bot., 1897.
A Contribution to the Freshwater Algae of the South of England. Journ.
Roy. Mier. Soc., 1897. e
On some Desmids of the United States. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., 1898.
Observations on the Conjugatae. Ann. Bot., xii, 1898.
Notes on Freshwater Algae. Journ. Bot., 1898, 1900, 1903.
A further contribution to the Freshwater Algae of the West Indies. Journ.
Linn. Soc., Bot., xxxiy, 1899.
In Jobs. Schmidt’s Flora of Koh Chang. Freshwater Chlorophyceae,
Botanisk Tidsskrift, xxiv. Copenhagen, 1901.
Alga-flora of Yorkshire. Bot. Trans. Yorks. Nat. Union, vy, 1901 and 1902.
A Contribution to the Freshwater Algae of the N. of Ireland. Trans. Roy.
Ir. Acad., xxxii, sect. B, part 1, 1902.
A Contribution to the Freshwater Algae of Ceylon. Trans. Linn. Soe., Bot.,
1902.
Scottish Freshwater Plankton. No.1. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., 1903.
Freshwater Algae from the Orkneys and Shetlands. Trans. Botan. Soc.

Edinburgh, xxiii, 1905.
H2

16 60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

West, W., and G. S. West—continued. :
A further Contribution to the Freshwater Plankton of the Scottish Lochs.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xli, 1905. ae -
Algae from Central Africa. Journ. Bot., 1896.
A comparative study of the Plankton of some Irish Lakes. ‘Trans. Roy. Irish
Acad., xxxiii, sect. B, part 11, 1906. ;
The British Freshwater Phytoplankton, &¢. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vol. 1xxxi,
1909.
The Phytoplankton of the English Lake District. The Naturalist, 1909.
West, G.S.:
The Alga-flora of Cambridgeshire. Journ. Bot., 1899.
On Variation in the Desmidieae. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., 1899.
A Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae. Cambridge Uniy. Press, 1904.
West Indian Freshwater Algae. Journ. Bot., 1904.
Desmids from Victoria. Journ. Bot., 1905.
Report on the Freshwater Algae, &c., of the Third Tanganyika Expedition.
Journ. Linn. Soe., Bot., 1907.
The Algae of the Yan Yean Reservoir. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., 1909.
Algological Notes. Journ. Bot., 1911.
Wute, N.:
Conjugatae und Chlorophyceae (aus Engler u. Prantl Natur. Pflanzenfamilien).
Leipzig, 1909.
Algologische Untersuchungen, &c. Trondhjem, 1906.
Algologische Notizen. Christiania, 1910.
Wittrock, Veit, et Otto Norpstepr :
Algae aquae dulcis exsiccatae, &c. Various dates.
Wotozynska, J.: e
Zycie Glonow w. Gornym Biegu Prutu, Krakow, 1910.
Uber die variabilitat des Phytoplanktons, &e., 1910.
Watuenweser, Wilhelm:
Untersuchungen iiber die Algen-gattung Haematococcus. June and December,
1907.
Van Heurcg, H.:
Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique. Anvyers, 1880 and 1881.
Wott, F.:
Desmids of the United States, &e. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1884.
Freshwater Algae of the United States, &c. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1887.
Diatomaceae of North America. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1890.

Fig.

Il.

bo

Clare Island Survey—Fresh-water Algue. 16 61

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Huastrum oblongum Ralfs, after division, one semicell not completely
developed. x 250. Mulranny.

Reinschiella curvata sp. nov. x 250. Clare Island.

Zygnema leivspermum De Bary. ~ 300. Dugort. To show that the
individual cells become physiologically sexual when conjugating.

Oedogonium sp. x 300. Collected in April; every other cell was often
firmly encrusted—sometimes many cells successively—with what
looked like an oxide of iron; and im some cases there seemed-to be the
remains of two successive coatings.—Clare Island.

Closterium angustatum Kiitz., var. asperwm var.nov.. x 232. Westport.
Closterium Toxon West, var. validum var. nov. x 300. Clare Island.
Lyngbya cliarensis sp.nov. x 300. Clare Island.

Tetmemorus Brebissonii (Menegh.) Ralfs, abnormal. x 300. Clare
Island.

: Tetmemorus, abnormal. x 250. Dugort.
. Zygospore of Tetmemorus laevis (Kiitz.) Ralfs. x 300. Dugort.

. Huastrum, abnormal division. x 300. Clare Island.

do. do., x 300. Dugort.

. Closteriwm eboracense Turn., var. achillense var. nov. x 100. Sraheens

Lough.

. Micarasterias denticulata Bréb. x 250. ‘I'’o show variability of the

polar lobes. Clare !sland.

16 62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Fig.
15:

16.

Piate Tf.

Closterium Iunula (Mill.) Nitzsch. To show apices. x 228. Dugort.

Closterium eboracense Turn. var. achillense var. nov. To show apices.
x 420. Sraheens Lough.

17 &18. Mierasterias denticulata Bréb., after division, the new semicells not

completely developed; one with abnormality of the polar lobe. x 250.
Clare Island.

. Cosmarium Ralfsii Bréb., var. rotundatum var. nov. x 250. Westport.

do. do. var. montanum Racib. x 300. Dugort.

21. Eunotia lunaris (Ebrenb.) Grun. var. emarginatovelida var. nov. x 500.

Dugort.

. Navicula peregrina Kiitz., var. producta var. nov. x 300. Clare Island.
. To illustvate the same as Fig 3. x 300. Dugort.

. Zygnema sp. with a distinct mucous investment, as in Hyalotheca dissiliens.

x 300. Clare Island.

Proc. R.I.Acap., VoL. XXXI. Part 16, PLATE I.

——————

——
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CLARE ISLAND SURVEY.—WEST; FRESH-WATER ALGAE,

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50/- paid in advance, on receipt of which the reports issued up to the present

will be forwarded, and future parts sent as soon as Ceiel Each part
will also be sold separately.

The reports when complete will include descriptions of some 50 species of

animals and plants new to science; also records of about 200 species new to am

the British Isles, and at least 1,000 species new to Ireland.

The list printed on pages 3 and 4 of this wrapper shows the scope of the
work, the present state of publication, and the prices of the parts oie
80 far,

Communications relative to this publication to be addressed to the
publishers or to
THE SECRETARY,

Roya Irish ACADEMY,
Dawson STREET,
DUBLIN.

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

SCHEME OF PUBLICATION

[The parts already published are marked with an asterisk. The whole will form

Vol. XXXT of the Proceedings of the Academy. |

Generat Desorption, anv Narrative. R. Ll. Praeger.’

History anp Aronaconocy. T. J. Westropp. 78 pp. 10 plates. 4s.
Pracs-Namms anp Fammy Names, John MacNeill. 42 pp. Is.
Gartio Prant anp Anmman Names, N. Colgan. 80 pp. 6d.

-Acricotrore. Prof. James Wilson. 46 pp. 1s.

Cuntanotoey. W. J. Lyons. 22 pp. 2 plates. 6d.

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Pear Deposits. F. J. Lewis.

Trex-Growrs, A. 0. Forbes.

_ Paanggocamia AnD Prermoprayra. R. Lil, Praeger. 112 pp. 6 plates. 4s.
Musor. Rev. Canon Lett.

Huvstonny)) Revs Canon Lett 2° PP 8
Funer. Carleton Rea. Sir H.C. Hawley. 26 pp. 1 plate. Is.

Lrowenzs, Annie Lorrain Smith. 14 pp. 6d.

| Augaz—Mariz. A.D. Cotton. 178 pp. 11 plates. 5s.

6 Atcaz—Fresu-warer. William West. 62 pp. 2 plates. 2s.
| Maman. G. BE. H. Barrett-Hamilton. 14 pp.

- Reprma ann Ampuiwia. RB. F, Scharff. 4 pp. fa,
Pisozs, G.P. Farran. 6 pp.

' Aves. R.J. Ussher. 54 pp. 5 plates. 2s. 6d.

Tounrcata AND Hemtonorpa, G. P. Farran. R. Southern.
Moxiusca—Marmr. N. Colgan. 36 pp. 1s.

- Motiusca—Lanp anv Frusu-water. A. W. Stelfox. 64 pp. 2 plates. 2s.

Hymenoprera. Claude Morley. 18 pp. 64d.

| Dirrera. P. H. Grimshaw. 84 pp. 6d.

Lepmorrera. W.F.de V. Kane, 10 pp. 6d.
Nevroprera. J.N. Halbert. 4 pp.

- Cornoprera—Tergustrun. W.F. Johnson, J. N. Halbert. 24 oa 5

Conzorrera—Aguatio. F. Balfour Browne. 20 pp. 6d.
Hemiptera. J, N. Halbert. 10 pp. } 6a
Orroprera, Prof. G. H. Carpenter. 4 pp) ~

[For continuation see page 4.

Kee

Keri

Tomei ae

36 G1 =Sonizoropa anp Oumaoza. W. M. Tattersall

ASS

ae

SF

PART %
% $2 Aprervcora. Prof. G. H. Carpenter. 12 pp. a teu
# 38 Cxoropa axp Dienopopa. Rev. W. B. Johnson. 6
% 34 Pyonoconma. Prof. G. H. Carpenter. a pp.
% 35 Aranema. D. RB. Pack Beresford. 8 pp. Ve
5 Puarancina. D. BR. Pack Berestord, 1B: pp. ;

$9 it Ornex patie "i N. Halbert.
*% 40 Decaropa. G. P. Farran. 8 pp.

10 pp.”

%% 42 Amputeopa. W. M. Tattersall, 24 pp. 6d.
% 43 Isoropa—Manmwe. W.M. Tattersall. 6 pp. ite 6d.
* 4 Isoropa—Tumnastrs. N. Foster. 4) Be .

ipcvuencies Wetce ieee D. ‘f Seoutfield. 1
47 Ponyonazta anp Ancutannetina. R. Southern. -
% 48 Oricoonazrs. R. Southern, 14 pp. Po
%*% 49 Gxrnyrea, R. Southern. 6 pp. ae aes a
%* 50 Hmupmea. RK. Southern. 6 pp. 6). ates
% 51 Roriera (excluding Borzroma).. C. FP. Batceelee, 10 pp. 6d
% 52 Rozmeera Boettoms. James Murray. 20 PP. yd. pias 6a.
% 88 Ponyzoa, A.R. Nichols. 14 pp. 6d.
54% Nematnenma and CnazrooNnataa. © R Boutin
Nemertivza. R. Southern. 20 pp. 1 plate, ‘6d.
Praryaetama. R, Southern. 18 pp. 6d. a mietitn:
Eouwopermata. A. R. Nichols. 10 pp. 6d, sit
Cortenterats. Miss J. Stephens. 10 pp. } ;
Porwersa—Marme. Miss J. cea 42 Pp. a cate,

G. 0. Sherrar

ana
Sans &

#7

Go

FLAGELLATA.
Cura.
Myorrozos. Miss Lister. 20 pp. 6d. Pree ceay
Forammvirers, Edward Heron-Allen: Arthur aie
18 plates. 5s. 6d.
Buizopopa snp Hetiozoa. G. H. Wailes, Masai Pena 6 PP. Be
6 plates. 8s. Ny Coe
Norges on Marie Puangron. G. P. Farran. a
Summary on Maze Disrawurioy. RB. Southern.
Sumtuary on Treerusreut Disrrisution. R. Ll. Praeger,

* KKKKKKEK KKH
Bice co ee

a
ao =

Fuly, 1914

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
VoLuME XXXI

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

Parr 7

GEOLOGY

BY

EPPA LLISSY

DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., Lrp.
LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
1914
Price One Shilling and Sixpence

[For scheme of publication of this series see inside of wrapper]

or more. The whole series ey be vont

i

work, the present state of publication, ae the ries f ihe part
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publishers or to : ; :

y

oa * ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY

ae Gener cb Dean: AND: DNtau Canes R. bi. Papeed ;
ISTO. ORY AND. ‘Anonarouocy. 'T. J. Westropp. 78 pp. 10 plates. 4s.
* Praoe-Names ax Fanny Names. John Mac Neill. 42 pp. ae
EL NT AND “Avni ‘Naies. N. Colgan, 30 pp. ea

g. Prof. James Wilson. 46 pp. Is. . Y
ocx. W. J, Lyons. 22 pp. 2 plates. 6d. ar
ocy. T. Hallissy. 22 PP. 6 oe Coloured map. 1s. 6d.

EPOSITS. EF J. ‘Lewis. : i ¥ ha
True- Growrn. A. ©. Forbes. 82 pp. Letniants 1s.

Mosor. ‘Bev, Canon Lett. “46 6d.

Hevanone.. Rev. Canon Lett.§ PP
01 Carleton Rea, Six H.C. Haviley. 26 pp. 1 plate. 1s. ’

ae asc Lorrain Smith. re pp. 64. :

“William West. 62 pp. | 2 plates:
nh 3. E. ‘H. Barrett-Hamilton. 14 pp.
: 18 ene Aupatera. R. F. Scharff. 4 pp. ) (6d..
Dyers 19 homens aes Parran, “bpp. }
820 Ave ais mA Ussher. 64 yn 5 plates. 2s. 6d.
bea 5 Sian ‘AND Heaiononpa. G, P. Farran,’ R. Southern.
ae tat * 22. -Morz.vsca—Manme. N. Colgan: 86 pp. 1s.
#23. | Moxtusca—Lanp anp Fresa-warer, A, W. Stelfox. 64 pp. 2 plates. 2s.
362% ~“Hymenoprers. Claude Morley. 18 pp. 6d.
+ 25. Diprera, PH. Grimshaw, 84 pp. 6d.
% 26 Lermworrena, W. F. de V. Kane, 10 pp. 6d.
ee, hat Ses Nevroprena, IN. Halbert. 4 pp. F
* 23” " Corgoprera—TarnestRux, W. FP. Johnson. J. N. Halbert. 24 “tt
% 29 Conzoprerd—Aguario. F, Balfour Browne. 20 pp. 6d.
30 Heanerera. JN, Halbert. 10 pp. | 6a
3% 81 Ogruoprera, Prof. G. H. Carpenter. 4 pp). ~
; [For continuation see page 4.

2s.)

Mt PHanerogana AND Preeornyra, R. Ll. Praeger. 2 pp: 6 plates, 4g. ; .

acienrcelt: Prof, G. H. aspen, 2

E

Aranema. D. R. Pack Bane
PHACANGIDS, D. B. Pack Beresford.

i Acaninipa: Bt asd clas! aN. 1. Halt
ii Ormer Acarna. J.N. Halbert.

Decaropa. G. P. Farran. 8 pp. 3
BomroBonA a and Ousmacza. Ww.

iycecbodiis abana 6. Pp. anti
Exromostsaca—Fazsawater, D, J. Se
ARCHIANNELIDA AND PoLYouAET. +! |
Ontcocnazta. R. Southern. 1b pp.
Gernyres. BR. Southern. Gpp.
Hmupmea, R. Southern. 6 pp.

Rorwera Bpeitoma. James ek te
Poryzoa. A.B. Nichols. 14pp. 6d.
Neuarezama AND CuartooxarHa. Fon ee

PLaTYHELMIA. B Southern. ma ¢ 6a.
EoumopeRMaTa. A. R. Nichols.

eens J.8, Dunkerly. 20 pp. 2 plates 1s
Mycrrozoa. Miss Lister. 20 pp. 6a. y
Fonawmirexa. Edward Heron-Allen, Arthur

18 plates. 5s. 6d. Naty
Rawopopa axp Hetiozoa. G. H. Wailes. ugine

6 plates. 8s. :
Norges on Mage Puaneton. G, P. Farran. iN
Sumaazy on Mazrve Disraworion. R. Southern,

RRR ERK RE RK KER ERR HO RRR
g COR BSRESCESENRSEE SEEPS CS evesaueses

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-- PROCEEDINGS

O¥ THE

“ROYAL TRISH ACADEMY
VOLUME XXXI

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY
| Parr 9

TREE GROWTH

BY

A. C. FORBES

PAO Beene O DiGi SPR PaG tT Sip & C Oss, Erp,
sLONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
ror
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>

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\

THE Skcnerany,

work, the present state of publication, and the prioes . ae

4 dl plates. oo
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aN i Fomine
Pienewlos ‘A, W. Stelfox, 64 pe. Alaa
ite Motley. 18 pp. 6d. ANN er ce ey Rw spares ate
84 pp. 6d. GC NY h
f. de Ve Bede “10 pp. WHER Eg hits La
bly Halbert, 4 pp. ASR ore » | oh rae EN
onmopters Tannese, W. F. Johnson. J, N. ‘Halbert, a4 ‘pp.
Conmorrera Aguani. FB. Balfour. ot 20 pp, 6d... Foie Lee
Heauprana. Vee .N. “Halbert, 10 pp. eae

} 6a. meaty i hcwxty

Hi enenA Prof, G. A. ‘Carpenter, 4 pp:
ei Meay pee rub Oe are ties fe tl continuation see page 4.

ee $2 Aprenyeorar
“se 88 “Curopops AND make DA.
Sk Ba) -Browoaonba, nee G. “at
a 95° Apawmipa.
* 36. Hie

: Isoropa—Manine. E
Tsorona—Tenkesmniat, Rose

~Rowrera BpetLowa, - James
a 58 Pouraoa. A. R. Nichols,”

ise BS Nuacerrmea,
% 56 Praryaenama.” R Southern.
+ 87 Honmopermara. bs R. Nichols,
Copeanennaga. |

FLaGeLaga.
3% 62 Craata,
% 63 Myosrozoa, . Miss Lister. 20 pp. Git i
%% 64 Forammumra. Wdiard Heron: Aten ‘
18 plates.” ba. Cd. i eb See
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haa 6 plates. Bs.) *” Ge ee era
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py eek 87 Summary on Mania Distamuriox. BR. Souther
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s Noventer, 1914 i Sa 10
Pr Pe oe PROCEEDINGS

Roya ‘IRISH ACADEMY
Vows XXXI

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

"Pant 10

_PHANEROGAMIA AND PTERIDOPHYTA

BY

___R, Lioyp PRAEGER

“DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO, Lrp.
LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
IgII
Price Four Shillings

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coal ove
i}

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14

a a a

22

bo mb
S&S mo

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SSoa

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‘Merzorozoey.

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Hisrory AND. hia aedey
Praon’ Mine T. J. Westone

Wid. Lyons. i
Guotoay. Prof. G.A. J. Cole.
Prat Deposits. F. J. Lewis.
Txex-GuowmH, A.C. POPDES

Musor. | Rev. Canon Lett. .
Heranioaz, Rey. Canon Lett. D. MeArdle,
Foner. Sir H. 0. Hawley. Oarleton Rea
Lnowenzs, Annie Lorrain Smith. | 1 D
Atear—Maning. A. D. Cotton.
Atess—Faesawarer. William West. Ma
Mauuarra. G. B. H. Barrett-Hamilto

Aves. RB. J. Ussher. Prof. C. J. Patten.
Repra AND AMPHrBiA. | R. F. Scharff.
Pisozs AND Oyonostomata, G. P. Farran,
Toumioara 4nd Hemtonorpa. G. P. Farran
Motiusca—Marme. N. Colgan. 86 pp.

Motrusca—Lanp ann Frusuwarer. A. W.
Hymenoprera. Claude Morley.
Direvena. P.H. Grimshaw.
Lermorrmrs. W.F.deV. Kane,
Nevuroprers. J. N. Halbert. Pacha

ConzorrarA—Agquario, F. Balfous Browne. i f
Hemprera, J. N. Halbert. .
OnrHorrers, Prof. G. H. Cairpenter.

“paRr \ aa! x
+ 82. ‘eas Prof, G. H, cabnantas!

88. Cutoropa anp Drenoropa Rey. W. F. Johnson.

“Pyonoconmpa, Prof, G. H. Carpenter.

| Aranema. D. RB, Pack Berosford.

aN OE PHALANGIDA. D. R. Pack Beresford.

Ce aeOaT: -ARoTIscoma, | “James Murray. 16 pp., 8 Plates
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89 ii One. Acarmnipa.. JN, ‘Halbert. |

kOe BOAPODA. W. Rankin, G,P. Farran,

iM | Aventpopa. _ WwW. M. Tattersall. %
Reet yi Isoropa—TennestRia. N. H. ‘Foster.
steer bi ‘Isoropa—Marive. W. M. Tattersall.

oe ‘4% Somzorona anp Cumacea. W. M. Tattersall.
"48. Ewromosrracs—Fansuwamnn, 'D. J. Scourfield. |
renee: 1%, EwromostRaca—Manme. G. P. Parran,
"87 Pouvorsnra aNv- -AROHIANNELIDA, R. Southern,
&8 Orzcocnanra. ‘Re Southern. Sie
‘ - Gepuyrna, R. Southern.
| Higupmvea, oy Southern.

5 ‘Rormena (excluding Bostrora). 0. F. Rousselot. 10 pp. 6d.

52 ‘Rormera Boxtiowa. James Murray. 20 BP 1 plate. 6d.

8 Potyzoa. ALR. Nichols.

| Nemaraenana : AND CuantoanarHa, RB Southern. a. 0. Sherrard.

/ Neweronvea. iB. ‘Southern. RR ny

6 Prarvaenuta. RB Southern.

87 ‘EHonmopeamara, ALR. Nichols.

88 Coxtunrerava, Miss J. Stephens.

89. Ponrrera—Manine. Miss J. Stephens.

; - -Pormrera—FRusnwarer. Miss J, Stephens.

al Ue Iyrusonra.. J. 8. Dunkerly.

| Feacennata, ‘J. 8. Dunkerly.

Ma Mycrrozoa.. ‘Carleton Rea. Re

) Poramumena, BHdward Heron-Allen. Arthur Harland.

3 Ruraoropa anp Hxtrozoa. G. H. Wailes. Eugéne Penard. 64 pp.

a1 6 plates. 8s.

66 eins on Maxine Praneron. G. P. Farran.

67 Summary on Marne Disramurion. RB. Southern.

68. Suxmmey on Terresrriat Distaisution. R. Li, Praeger.

18,

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"

F i? wee

i i 4 mnt Pci voe Ay are yaa
Wee saae id Skit wu eece ” Senperacel:

{
ih

scheme of publication of this series 800 inside of wrapper] . i,

‘ ty UR fae y ’ \ Mi ne
Hi f } ’ a

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

TuIs survey of the Fauna, Flora, Geology, Meteorology, &e., of Clare Island kk
and the adjominge mainland in the West of Ireland was carried out by over aad
one hundred specialists during the years 1909, 1910, and 1911. It was Ae
undertaken in order to furnish a study of a typical area of the west coast of : i
Treland, a region which provides some of the most interesting faunistic and i
floristic problems in Europe; and also as a contribution towards the study. of a

island faunas and floras—a subject of wide and absorbing interest.

The report when finished will provide the most complete survey of the A f
Fauna and Flora of a definite area which has ever been made, In addition to
systematic zoology and botany, special attention has been given to questions .
of geographical distribution, dispersal, and ecology, and to the influence of 3 ny
human operations upon the Fauna and Flora. The complete report is” o
estimated to run to about 1600 pages with 100 plates, and will cost 60/- :
or more, The whole series may be subscribed for at the reduced price of — |

50/— paid in advance, on receipt of which the reports issued up to the present: rae

will be forwarded, and future parts sent as soon as published. Hach part {

will also be sold separately. i es ks

The reports when complete will include descriptions of some 50 species of

animals and plants new to science; also records of about 200 species new to

the British Isles, and at least 1,000 species new to Ireland,

The list printed on pages 3 and 4 of this wrapper shows the scope of the
work, the present state of publication, and the prices of the parts published
so far.

Communications relative to this publication to be addressed to the
publishers or to
THE SECRETARY,

Royat Trish ACADEMY,
DAwson STREET,

DUBLIN.

_ ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
CLARE ISLAND SURIVEY
SCHEME OF PUBLICATION

[The parte aay published are marked with an asterisk. The whole will form

psig

£2 ee eee

Ss ec

oe

ges

vet XXXI of the Proceedings of the Academy. |

Gunerat, ig aE anp Narrative, RB. Ll. Praeger.

History anp Anonarotocy. T.J. Westropp. 78 pp. 10 plates. 4s.

‘Prack Names, i J. Westropp.
Garrio Pranr anp Ayman Names, N. Colgan. 30 pp. 6d.

Acxiounruae. ‘Prof. James Wilson. 46 pp. 1s.
Merroronoey. W. J. Lyons.

- Groroey. J. BR. Kilroe. T. Hallissy.

_ Prar Devosrts. F. J. Lewis,

iy 'TRne- Grown. A. C. Forbes.

Di PHANEROGAMIA anp Prermopayra. R. Ll. Praeger. 112 pp. 6 plates. 4s.

Musor. Rey. Canon Lett. 18 6a
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| Pune. Carleton Rea. Sir H. C. Hawley.

44% Lronenes, Annie Lorrain Smith. 14 pp. 6d.

Auean—Marig. A. D. Cotton.

46 Axcaz—FResuwarer. William West.

1 Mawaania. G.E. H. Barrett-Hamilton.

ves. R.J. Ussher. Prof. C. J. Patten. N. H. Foster.
Rept anp Aven. R. F. Scharff.
Pisors anp Cyotostomata. G. P. Farran.
Tounroata AND Hemionorpa. G. P. Farran. R. Southern.

_ Moxrpsca—Marme. N. Colgan. 36 pp. 1s.

Moriusca—Lanp axp Fresuwater. A. W. Stelfox.
Hymenoprera. Claude Morley. 18 pp. 6d.

Dierera. P. H. Grimshaw.

Lepmoprera. W.F. de V. Kane, 10 pp. 6d.

Nevroprera. J. N. Halbert,

CotzopteRA—TrrrestRaL, Rey. W. F. Johnson. J. N. Halbert,
Corzorrera—Aguatic. Ff. Balfour Browne. 20 pp. 6d.
Hemerera. J. N. Halbert.
Ortnoprera, Prof. G. H. Carpenter.
[For continuation see page 4,

PART
32
33
3h

* 35
* 36
* 37
%* 38

#% 39i Acarnmma: i—Hypracanma. J.N. Halbert. 44 pp. 3 sueese 2s, 6d.
39 ii Ormer Acarmmas. J. N, Halbert.

40
a1
a2
a8
aq
55
46
47
48
49
50

* %

Aprera. Prof. G. H. Carpenter,

Cumoropa anp Drenopopa. Rey. W. #. Johnson:
Pyonoconma. Prof. G. H. Carpenter.
Ananema. D.R. Pack Beresford. 8 pp. 6d.
Pratanema. D.R. Pack Beresford. 2 pp.
Arotiscoma. dames Murray. 16 pp., 8 aut ae
Pseuposcorpiones. H. Wallis Kew. 2 pp

Decaropa. G. P, Farran. , i
Ampnpopa. W. M. Tattersall. ethane Wes pts
Isopopa—Terresreut. N. H. Foster. eee
Isopopa—Marxe. W. M. Tattersall.
Sonrzopopa anp Cumacza. W. M. Tattersall.
Entomostaaca—F resawater, D. J. Scourfield.
Enromostraca—Manring, G. P. Farran.
PoLyoHaETA AND ARCHIANNELIDA. RR. Southern.
Oxicoonsrta. KR. Southern.

Gepnyres, R. Southern. Wiese! «2:
Hivpmea. RB. Southern. a AER eds 3 aba
Romrera (excluding Bortroma). ©.F, Rousselet. 10pp. 6d. js

Rorrers Borttoma. James Murray. 20 pp. 1 plate. Ls HAN Cah,
Potyzos. A. RB. Nichols. path nach
Newark dub Onherodaienks) dagsongiene: G.O. Sherrard.
Nemertivea. &. Southern. wip
PratyHetmia. RK. Southern.
Eosryopermata. A. R. Nichols.
CorLenTERATA. Miss J. Stephens,
Porrrers—Marine. Miss J. Stephens. ep
Porrers—Fresuwater. Miss J. Stephens. 18 pp. 1 plate. 6d,
Inrusorm. J. 8. Dunkerly,
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Mycerozoa. Miss Lister. Oat AY ee pias
Forammirera. Edward Heron-Allen. Arthur Harland. Da Ba
Ruizopopa and Hetiozoa. G. H. Wailes. Hugéne Penard.. i i pp. aa

6 plates. 8s. ny 4
Notes on Marne Puaneron. G. P, Farran. Bits ‘
Summary on Mariwe Disterevrion. R. Southern. ‘a
Summary on Terreste1at Disreution. R. Lil. Praeger.

PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
Votume XXXI

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

Part 13

FUNGI

BY

CARLETON REA AND H.C. HAWLEY

DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., Lrp,
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1gi2
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erat |

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OLARE. ISLAND SURVEY

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6

7

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Bote 44 -Mouson Rev. Canon Lett. ) 18 pp. 64.
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48) Avgar—Manmn. ’ A. D. Cotton.
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49 “Aves. RB. J. Ussher. Prof, 0. J. Patton. N. H. Foster,
90° Pisces And Cyonostomata. G. P: Farran.
24 Tunjoara’anp Hemicuorpa, G, P. Farran, BR. Southerh,
>) % 22° Mornysca—-Marmp, N. Colgan. 86 pp,’ 1s.
23 Monuusca—Lanp And Fresuwarer. A, W. Stelfox.
424 Hywenoprera. Claude Morley. 18 pp. 6d.
25. Dieters. P. A. Grimshaw,
26. Luemorruna. W. PF. de V. Kane, 10 pp. | 6d.
27 Neuroprpra. J. N: Halbert.
28 Conzorrerssa—Tsrrusrarmas. | Rey. W. F. Johnson, J. N. Halbert.
% 29. Conmorrera—Aguario. FB, Balfour Browne, 20 pp. 6d.
80° Hemprera. J. N. Halbert.
31. Oxtuoprers, Prof. G. H, Carpenter.
(For continuation sée page 4.

OK

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ak
S28 RSgeSsselaesegesestessenses

Decapopa._ GB eae ran.
AMPHIPOD. - aha ee

Poironadea' AND Ancmicninst.108
Oxicocnarta. R- Southern.
Gepsyres. R. Southern. »
Hizupings, RB. Geleae dt

A.B. Nichols.
Cortenrerata. Miss J. Stephens. :
Portrera—Manixe. Miss J. Stephens. ©
Porwrera—Faesuwarer. Miss J. Ste

Invusonia. J. §. Dunkerly. Asan re
Fracettata. J.'8.Dunkerly, = : .
Mycetozoa, Miss Lister. 20 pp. ee
Forammirera. Edward eee

GES, FIGGIS. & CO., Lm,
LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE = 1

DUBLIN: HOD

Tgir

cheme of publication of this series see inside of wrapper} | x se

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42

Glia heat t
Goes AND Anonssioxoor,

- Garnso’ Praxr™ “AND Maa ae
AcriovLTURE.
-Merzoronocy. W._ J. Lyons
- GroLoey.
‘Pear Derosizs.
‘Taes-Growrn.

‘Heearioae. Rev. Canon Lett.

~ Lrowenzs, savas ees Seiten
/Aveas—Mane, sor A Cotton, |

AVES.

Piscozs anp Oyonostomata.

“Prof, James Wilson.

Prof. G. A, J. Cole.

BP. J. Lewis.
‘A. C. Forbes. —
PHANEROGAMTA axp Prermopayr
Muscr. Rey. Canon Lett. © D. bi

Marr, G. EB. ‘L Barrett -Hamilto
R. J. Ussher. Prof. G. J. Patte
Reprinta AND Aurniu. RB. F. Scharff.
G. P. Farran.
Tunroata snp Hemicuorps.. G. P. Farran.
Morzuscoa—Manine. N. Colgan. © ad pp.

Hymenoprsra. Claude Morley.
Dieters. P..H. Grimshaw. |
Tepioprers. |W, F. de V. Kane,
Neunoprera. J. N. Halbert. ,
Cotuoprera—TrRRestRi.. Rey. W. F. pees
Corzoprura—Aguatic. BE, Balfour Browne. ~
Hesrrena. J. N. Halbert.
Orruoprers, Prof. G. H. Carpenter,

82 Arrera. Prof. G. H. Carpenter.
83. Cuioropa and Dietoropa Rey. W. FP. Johnson.
‘ 84% Pyonoconmpa. Prof, G. H, Carpenter.
85 Aranuipa. D. R. Pack Beresford.
33. Pyacanowa, D. R. Pack Beresford,
$7 Arctiscompa. James. Murray, 16 pp., 8 plates
88 Psnuposconpionrs, H. Wallis Kew. 2 pp.
891i Acarnupa: i—Hypracarma. J.N. Halbert. 44 pp. 3 plates, 29, 6d.
89 ii Oruer Acanmupa. J. N. Halbert,
40 'Decaropa. W. Rankin, G. P. Farran.
.44. Ampntropa. W. M. Tattersall,
‘4&2 Isopops—Tnreustrian. N. H, Foster.
‘&3 Isopopa—Marine. W. M.. Tattersall.
%R& Sonmzorops any Cumdcea. W.-M. Tattersall.
45 Exvomostraca—Hresuwartor, D: J. Scourfield,
46 Hnromostraca—Maniwe. G. P, Parran.
AT Ponyowanta anp Arcuiannenipa. R, Southern,
48 Oxicocuanra., RK. Southern,
‘49 Guruyres. R, Southern.
50 Higvpinea, RB. Southern.
54. Rotrrrra (excluding Boztroipa), C. FP. Rousselet.
#% 52 Roswera Bosunoma.’ James Murray.. 20 pp. 1 plate, 6d.
§3 Poryzoa, A. RB. Nichols.
54 NewArnenmia ano Cuanrognarad, RK, Southern, G, 0. Sherrard.
55 Neunrtinza. R, Southern.
56 Prarysetaa, R, Southern,
57 .Houmwoppruata. A. BR. Nichols,
» §8 Cortenterata, Miss J. Stephens,
59 Pontrera—Manine, Miss J. Stephens.
60 Porwera—Fresuwates. Miss J. Stephens.
64. Inrusonis, J. 8, Dunkerly.
62 Fuacerzara, J. 8, Dunkerly,
63. Myoztozoa, Carleton Rea. .
6% Forammmpra, Edward Heron-Allen. Arthur Harland,
65. Rarzorops and Hetiozoa. Eugéne Penard. G. H. Wailes,
66 Norns. on Maxiwe Puanrton, © G. P. Farran,
67 Summary on Manne Disramurion. R. Southern.
68 Summary on Terpnstran Disrrisution, R, Ll, Pracger.

Igy

ok

Nivender, r9r2 cn ‘ | Hi ion Me lly A eee
PROCEEDINGS
Roya Irish ACADEMY
| VotumMe XXXI

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY
Se | | Part 15
MARINE ALGAE

BY

: A: DD: COTTON

DUBLIN: HODGES, PIGGIS,:& CO,, Lrn.

LONDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE
1912
Price. Five Shillings

[For soheme of publication of this series see inside of wrapper]

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY. a
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

Tus survey of the Fauna Flora, Geology, Metegulcey, &e,, foe Clare on io

and the adjoining mainland in the West of Ireland was carried out b
one hundred specialists during the years 1909, 1910, and 1911. ae |
undertaken in order to furnish a study of a typical area of the west cou of
Jreland, a region which provides some of the most interesting faunistic a
floristic problems in Europe; and also as a contribution towards the ae of

island faunas and floras—a subject of wide and absorbing interest.

The report when finished will provide the most crac Se oft

Fauna and Flota of a definite area which has ever been made, In addition to
systematic zoology and botany, special attention has been given to questions
of geographical distribution, dispersal, and ecology, and to the influence of
human operations upon the Fauna and Flora, The complete repor is
estimated to run to about 1600 pages with 100 plates, and will cost: 60 :
or more. The whole series may be subscribed for at the reduced price o

50/- paid in advance, on receipt of which the reports issued up to the Est ‘
will be forwarded, and future parts sent as soon as published. Each hee
will also be sold separately, Ba

The reports when complete will include descriptions of some 50 species of ¥
animals and plants new to science; also records of about 200 species new to
the British Isles, and at least 1,000 species new to Ireland.

The list printed on pages 3 and 4 of this wrapper shows the scope of the bite
work, the present state of publication, and the prices of the parts published oe
80 far. he

Communications relative to this publication to be addressed to the
publishers or to Se
THE SECRETARY

Royau Irish ACADEMY,
Dawson STREEP,
DUBLIN,

ROYAL TRISH ACADEMY

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY
SCHEME OF PUBLICATION

“(he parts aay published are eae with an asterisk. The whole will form
Vol. cea of the Dena! of the vane ]
PART ' ]
hy ae Gpnenat Dascarp710y, AND Rete R, Gl. Praeger.
* 2 ‘History « AND “Ancaazouosy. -T. J. Westropp. 78 pp. 10 Bees 4s,
3 Piace Nanms. John MacNeill. T. J: Westropp.
* x -Gaxnio, Pranr. anp Anmiat Names, N. Colgan, 80 pp. 6d.
* 5 Aericonrone. Prof. James. Wilson. a6 pp- is.
a8 - Merrorotoey. W. J. Lyons.
4 Guotoey. JR, Kilroe.. Jie Hallissy.
8 Prat ‘Deposirs. cB J Lewis. ©
9 ‘Trer- -GrowrH, A.C. F orbes.
3% 10. Puanerogans AND Prermopayta, R. Ll. Praeger. 112 pp. 6 plates. 4s.
jae a ‘Moser. Rey. Canon Lett. “418 6a.
rere “Heranioas, Rev. Canon Lett. PP: ah
43 Foxer, Carleton Rea. Sir H.C. Hawley. 26 pp. 1 plate. 1s.
1h ‘Licuenzs, Annie Lorrain Smith: 14 pp. 64d.
ad 45° ‘Atcae—Manwve. A.D: Cotton. 178 pp. 11 plates. 5s.
% 16 “Avoas—Prese- -waTer. William West. 62 pp. 2 plates. 2s.
MALIA. a. ‘E. H. Barrett-Hamilton. «14 pp.
6d

| Repo anp Amprmma. RB. F. Scharff. 4 t vp.
ata 1 - G. P. Farran. 6 pp.
‘ 20 Aves RD Ji Ussher. 64 pp. 5 plates. Qs. 6d.
ites ‘Toxicava anp Hemicnorva. G.P, Farran. R. Southern.
* a3 - Morzusca—Manme. N. Colgan, 86 pp. 1s.
* 23 ‘Montusca—Lanp AND Fresu- water. A, W. Stelfox. 64 pp. 2 plates. 2s.
¥ 2a Hywenoprena. ‘Claude Morley. 18 pp. 6d.
ma Drerera. PH. Grimshaw.
#26. ‘Lepmoprera, W. F. de VY. Kane, 10 pp.. 6d.
aT Nuvrorrera, J.N, Halbert. 4 pp.
28) Cormoprera—Tereestran, W.F. Johnson. J. N. Halbert. 24 pp, | ae
% 29 Corxorrera—Aguatic, F. Balfour Browne. 20 pp. 6d.
30 Howervra. J.N. Halbert. 10 pp. } 6d
31 Onruoprena, Prof, G, H. Carpenter. 4 pp: =

[For continuation see page 4.

oo 86
7% 87
% 38—
* 39% Acantrpa: i—Hypraoanma. J. N.

$9 ii Orumn Acanterpa.

* 40

A

42
% 43
* 44
45
% 46

a7

48
49
50
* 64
% 52
a 53
By
55
56
57
58
* 59
* 60
64
62
* 63
64
2% 68

66
67
68

-Tsorpopa—Marinz. W. M. Tattersall.

AprERA, Prof. ts a. ‘oceans
Crtrorona AND. Dieuoropa. Rey.

Pollet: 0. R. Pack Beresf
AnorisoorpA. | James Murray. ‘a
Paxuposcorriongs. Be Wallis Kew

a oN, Halbert
Ducavopa. Ge. P. Farran. 8 pp.
Scurzopops AND Cumacra. W.\M. Ta
Aupnieopa, W. M. Tattersall.

Isopopa—Terrustaa.. N, H. Foster.
Exrouosrmsch—Manise, Ge cd: Bees

Ouaens R. Souther. —
Geenyrea, R, Southern.»
Hinvowea, Bey Bouthem.

Ponyzoa, A. R. Nichols. 14 pp. ; 6d
Newaraeuura AND OHAETOSNATHA.
Nemerrmza. BR. Sonthern. |
Pratyuenina. BR. Southern.
Eoutwopermara. A. R. Nichols.
Coxtmnrenars. | Miss J; Stephens, 10 pp. J
Portwera—Manine.. Miss J. ‘Stephens.

Invusona. J. 8. Dunkerly, —
Tusgutnata. J. 8. Dankerly. |
Mycrtozoa. Miss Lister. 20 pp. fot ;

Poramnirera. Hdward Heron- Allens:

6 plates. 8s.
Nores on Manive Pranuton, G. P. pee val
Summary on Marre Disrawurwn. RB. Southern. ms
Sumuany on Tesrestaian Disrereurion. >R. Lil. Pr

AERITIGAN MiSinuM
the ‘
hi ,

| Duby t91a {sp NiaunAl wigan ce
| PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
VoLUME DX NT

CLARE ISLAND SURVEY
ye Parr 16 |
_ PRESH-WATER ALGAE

WILLIAM WEST

DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO.) Lop.
* LONDON): WILLIAMS & NORGATE
19gr2
Price Two Shillings

[For scheme of publication of this series see inside of wrapper]

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY |
CLARE ISLAND SURVEY

Tis survey of the Fauna. Flora, Geology, Meteorology, &c., of Clare Island. as)

and the adjoining mainland in the West of Ireland was carried out by over —
one hundred specialists during the years 1909, 1910, and 1911. It was

undertaken in order to furnish a study of a typical area of the west coast of Le
Ireland, a region which provides some of the most interesting faunistic and we |

floristic problems in Europe; and also as a contribution towards the study of : ne a |

island faunas and floras—a subject of wide and absorbing interest.

The report when finished will provide the most complete survey of the :

Fauna and Flora of a definite area which has ever been made. In addition to — : ra

systematic zoology and botany, special attention has been given to questions
of geographical distribution, dispersal, and ecology, and to the influence of
human operations upon the Fauna and Flora. The complete report is
estimated to run to about 1600 pages with 100 plates, and will cost 60/—
or more. The whole series may be subscribed for at the reduced price of

50/-— paid in advance, on receipt of which the reports issued up to the present

will be forwarded, and future parts sent as soon as published. Hach part
will also be sold separately.

The reports when complete will include descriptions of some 50 species of
animals and plants new to science; also records of about 200 species new fo
the British Isles, and at least 1,000 species new to Ireland. "aa

The list printed on pages 3 and 4 of this wrapper shows the scope of the
work, the present state of publication, and the prices of the parts published ~
80 far. .

Communications relative to this publication to be addressed to the
publishers or to
THE SECRETARY,

Royat IrRisHh ACADEMY,
DAWSON STREET,
DUBLIN.

"ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY

CLARE. ISLAND SURVEY
"SCHEME or PUBLICATION

| [he pts stad published are eased with an aie: The whole will fail
Presi / Vol. XExI of the Ereecdines of the Academy. |

tes 4 if Gavneae: Pena anp Narrative. R. Lh Praeger.
* 2 ‘History ‘AND ‘Anouanotooy. T. J. Westropp. 78 pp. 10 plates. 4s.
Praog Namms. John Mac Neill. T. J. Westropp.
Ganti0 Prant anp ANIMAL Names. N. Colgan. 80 pp. 6d.
-§ AgricunTURE Prof. Jameg Wilson. 46 pp. 1s.
6 Mergoroxosy. W. J. ‘Lyons. %
41 Gwotosy. J. R Kilroe. T. Hallissy.
ue | Pear ‘Deposirs. FE. J. Lewis.
9 ‘Taze-Growra. “A. ©. Forbes. .
o- Puanerogama anp Prermorxyra. & Li. ee 112 pp. 6 plates. 4s.
110 Moscr. ' Rev, Canon Lett. Pet re
panioar. Rey. Canon Lett. BP. : |
‘Foner. | Carleton Rea. Sir H. C. Hawley. 26 pp. 1 plate, 1s.
JHENES Annie Lorrain Buutlty 14 pp. 6d.
“48 At es D. Cotton.
16 I. ates wien: William West. 62 pp. 2plates. Qs.
7 Manat G. B. H. Barrett-Hamilton.
: Awraen. R. F. Scharff.
ty ans AND - Crorostouara. G. P. Farran.
10 Aves. R. J. Ussher. 2
4 eee AND | Hemctorpa, G. P, Farran. R. Southern.
; ‘Mornvsca—Marmne. N. Colgan. 86 pp. 1s.
5 Moutvsca—Lanp anp FResn-water, A. W. Stelfox. 64 pp. 2 plates. 2s.
| -Hyaenoprena. Claude. Morley. 18 pp. 6d.
§ Dimer. P. Be: Grimshaw.
S Lmpwoprera. W.F.deV. Kane, 10 pp. 6d.
if Conzoprena—TERResTRIAL. Rey. W. F. Johnson. J. N. Halbert.
Conzoprera—Aquatio. F. Balfour Browne. 20 pp. 6d.
Nzvroprera. J. N. Halbert.
| Hesmprera. J. N. Halbert.
OrnruopreRa, Prof. G. H. Carpenter.

[For continuation see page 4.

40

*

39 i Acarmipa: i—Hypracanina. | J. N. Halbert. Mt pp. 8 plates. 2s 6d. ,
89 ii Ormer Acarmipa. J.N. Halbert. Ae ee ety

HEE Prof. G.H. Carpenter. Sats rare ui une ue
Cumoropa and Drenoropa. Rev. W. F. keene Ce han ag
Pyonoconma. Prot. G. H. Carpenter.
Anaxnuma. D.R. Pack Beresford. 8 pp. gi 6a:
Puaranera. D. RB. Pack Beresford. 2 pp.
Axroriscompa. James Murray. 16. pp., 3 plates)
Psruposcorriones. H. Wallis Kew. 2 pp..

4d 8.

Decaropa. G. P. Fatran. 8 pp. bd
Scurzopopa any Cumaora. W. M. Tattersall. 10 Pp.)
Ampnreopsa. W. M. Tattersall.
Tsoropa—Manme. W. M. Tattersall. 6 pp- is 6a.
Isoropa—Terrusrauan. N. H. Foster. 4 pp.)
Enromostracs——Marine, G. P. Farran. "
Enromostraca—FEresuwarer. D. J. Scourfield.: ie nest
Poryonazra anp Arcutannenipa. RB. Southern, AU aad
Oxicocuanra, RK. Southern.
Gxuruyres. RK. Southern.
Himupinna. RK. Southern. Ae ere
Rorera (excluding Boexzoma). ©. F, Rousselet. 10 pp. 6d.
Rormera Boexnoma. James Murray. 20 pp. 1 plate, 6d.
Poryzoa. A. R. Nichols.
Nemarnenma anp Osarrocnaraa, RB. Southern, G. O. Sherrard.
Nemertinga. BR. Southern.
Prarypermia. BR. Southern. 18 pp. 6d.
Kouwoprrmata. A. R. Nichols.
CornentEerats. Miss J. Stephens.
Porrera—Marine. Miss J. Stephens,
Pormrera—Frusnwater. Miss J. Stephens. 18 pp. J plate, 6d.
Inrusoria. J. 8. Dunkerly,
Fracuirara, J. S. Dunkerly.
Mycrrozoa. Miss Lister. 20 pp. 6d.
Forammirera. Edward Heron-Allen.: Arthur Harland.
Ruzopopa ann Hetiozoa. G. H. Wailes. Hugéne Penard. 164 pp-

6 plates. 3s.
Nores on Marre Puangron. G. P. Farran.
Summary on Manme Distrisvtion. R. Southern.
Summary’on Trerrestrmr Disrrisurion. R, Lil. Praeger

A
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